Oseanologi dan Limnologi di Indonesia 2022 7(1): 43-51

OSEANOLOGI DAN LIMNOLOGI DI INDONESIA

Online ISSN: 2477-328X
Akreditasi RISTEKDIKTI No. 200/M/KPT/2020
http://oldi.lipi.go.id

Vertical mixing in the deep region of the Sunda Strait, Indonesia

Adi Purwandana

Research Center for Oceanography - National Research and Innovation Agency (RCO-BRIN),
(RCO
Jakarta, Indonesia
Jl. Pasir Putih I Ancol Timur, Jakarta 14430

*e-mail: [email protected]

Submitted 14 December 2021.

1. Reviewed 17 December 2021. Accepted 10 February 2022.
DOI: 10.14203/oldi.2022.v7i1.397

Abstract

The characteristics of mixing properties in the Sunda Strait waters were revealed using indirect
method, employing the archived CTD datasets of the RCO RCO-BRIN. The mixing properties represented by
turbulent kinetic energy dissipation (TKE) rate and vertical eddy diffusivity were inferred using an improved
Thorpe Method from gravitationally unstable density profiles measured by CTD in July 2001. This study is
aimed to reveal the rate of water mass mixing quantitatively. Vertically, the region was characterized by
three distinctive regimes of TKE dissipation rate rate, i.e. 8.2×10-8 W/kg in the near-surface
surface and upper
thermocline layer, 2.6×10 W/kg in the lower thermocline layer and 9.1×10-9 W/kg in the intermediate and
-7

deep layer. The spatial variability of the dissipation rate is likely related to topography roughness pattern
where enhanced dissipation rate mainly occurred in the steep topography region. No specific regime can be
clustered from the vertical diffusivity value due to its intermittent pattern, possibly due to the impact of
topography roughness and stratification variability in space and time. The maximum enhanced values
reached 3×10-4 m2/s. It was suggested that that strong shear due to interaction between sharp changing
topography, the strait throughflow and tidal currents controls the mixing rate in this region. This indirect
estimates need to be validated against microstructure measurements via a continuously pro profiling which
covers at least one tidal cycle to investigate possible temporal variability.
Keywords: vertical mixing, Thorpe Method, dissipation rate, vertical diffusivity.
diffusivity

Abstrak

Percampuran vertikal di bagian perairan dalam Selat Sunda, Indonesia. Karakteristik propert properti
pencampuran massa air di wilayah perairan dalam Selat Sunda diungkap dengan metode tak langsung dari
arsip data CTD Pusat Riset Oseanografi BRIN. Properti percampuran yang direpresentasikan oleh laju
disipasi energi kinetik turbulen dan difusivitas eddy vertikal dihitung menggunakan Metode Thorpe yang
telah diperbarui, diidentifikasi dari ketidakstabilan profil densitas secara gravitasi dari data CTD bulan Juli
2001. Studi ini bertujuan mengungkap laju percampuran massa air secara kkuantitatif
uantitatif di wilayah perairan
dalam Selat Sunda. Secara vertikal, wilayah perairan ini dicirikan oleh tiga rezim lapisan laju disipasi yang
berbeda, yakni 8,2×10-8 W/kg pada lapisan dekat permukaan dan lapisan termoklin atas, 2,6×10-7 W/kg pada
lapisan termoklin bawah dan 9,1×10-9 W/kg pada lapisan menengah dan dalam. Variabilitas spasial disipasi
tampak mengikuti pola kekasaran topografi, nilai yang tinggi umumnya terjadi pada topografi yang curam.
Tidak ada rezim difusivitas secara spesifik yang dapat ddikelompokkan
ikelompokkan karena peningkatan nilai yang tidak
beraturan, yang dapat diakibatkan oleh pengaruh kekasaran topografi dan variabilitas stratifikasi secara
spasial dan temporal. Ditemukan nilai maksimum difusivitas hingga 3×10-4 m2/s. Diduga, sesar arus yang
 Purwandana
kuat akibat interaksi antara topografi yang berubah drastis, aliran selat dan arus pasang surut mengendalikan
laju pencampuran di wilayah ini. Estimasi tidak langsung ini perlu divalidasi dengan pengukuran
mikrostruktur dengan metode profil secara kontinyu yang mencakup setidaknya satu siklus pasang surut
untuk menyelidiki kemungkinan variabilitas temporalnya.
Keywords: percampuran vertikal, Metode Thorpe, laju disipasi, difusivitas vertikal.

Introduction small scale processes. The interaction between

complex topography and tidal current can be an
Indonesian seas are characterized by two effective source of vertical mixing due to sheared
different depth regions. The western part has been currents. The presence of throughflow from the
known as the Sunda Shelf region with typical strait and upwelling event occurred during the
depth of less than 50 m, constructed post Southeast Monsoon months spanning from along
Pleistocene era around 250,000 years ago (Voris, the western coastal waters of the Sumatra and
2000). The eastern part is characterized by deep along the southern coastal waters of Java (Susanto
waters of more than 50 m depth until more than et al., 2001) are additional phenomena that
7000 m depth in the Banda Sea. Located between potentially amplify the vertical turbulent event in
two oceans, i.e. the Pacific and Indian, the the upper layer and giving benefits from
Indonesian seas are the connecting waters supplying nutrients into the upper layer,
allowing the throughflow, namely the Indonesian respectively.
throughflow (ITF) from Pacific to Indian Ocean Vertical turbulent mixing and related
due to sea level gradient (Wyrtki, 1961). events are the least observed oceanography
The topography of the Sunda Strait is phenomena in the Indonesian seas. Understanding
characterized by shallow waters in the northern the characteristics of vertical mixing is important
part, connected to the Java Sea; and deep waters to assess our ecosystems in term of their potency
in the southern part, connected to the Indian naturally as well as their vulnerability from being
Ocean. The Sunda Strait is a connecting passage exposed by anthropogenic pressures.
allowing the South China Sea water entering the The Sunda Strait is part of Fisheries
Indian Ocean via its shallow water throughflow. Management Area (Wilayah Pengelolaan
The throughflow counts only around 2.5% from Perikanan, WPP 572). This waters is featured by
the total of ITF transport or 0.25 Sv (1 Sv = 1×106 well-known interesting oceanographic
m3/s) (Xu et al., 2018). The Strait allows the phenomena, the seasonal upwelling occurred
transport of the Java Sea water and South China during Southeast Monsoon months. Yet, there is
Sea water. still limited study related to the potency from
The Sunda Strait throughflow which vertical mixing phenomena in this area. This
flows toward the Indian Ocean is driven study is a baseline research which will support the
seasonally by monsoonal winds, assessment of the potency in this waters. The
maximum/minimum during the quantification of mixing properties in this study
Northwest/Southeast Monsoon period. As part of can be used directly, for example to estimate the
the southern Java waters, the southern Sunda nutrient flux in the water column (Law et al.,
Strait is also exposed to seasonal upwelling during 2003). The study on vertical mixing is also
Southeast Monsoon period, from June to important from climatic perspective as the
November; maximum in July-August (Silubun et parameters gained from this study (TKE
al., 2015). Upwelling event will supply the upper dissipation rate and vertical eddy diffusivity) are
layer with colder-nurient rich below water hence usefull input to adjust regional climate models in
is an important natural mechanism which supports the Indonesian seas hence will help us to better
fisheries productivity. The Sunda Strait has also predict seasonal and climatic events, such as
been influenced by semidiurnal tide M2 variability rainfall periods (Koch-Larrouy et al., 2010).
from Indian Ocean (Egbert et al., 2002; Above mentioned conditions and needs
Purwandana, 2019). lead this study to use the indirect method by
Many features occurred in the Sunda optimizing an archived CTD measurements
Strait have been explored, such as seasonal datasets stored at the Laboratory of Physical
throughflow, tides and seasonal upwelling. Oceanography – Research Center for
However, no study focusing on vertical turbulence Oceanography (RCO) BRIN. Note that, RCO –
and related mixing has been conducted in this BRIN as the oldest oceanographic research
strait due to lack of interest as well as expertise on institution in the Indonesia, has a very long
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 Oseanologi dan Limnologi di Indonesia 2022 7(1): 43-51
history in collecting the CTD casts entire the Firstly introduced by Thorpe (1977), the
Indonesian seas. This study is aimed to quantify, method is started by inspecting the vertical
for the first time, the vertical turbulent mixing in distance that should be traveled by two water
the Sunda Strait deep waters. mass parcels which has gravitationally unstable
condition (light/low density under the weight/high
Methods density) to gain stable condition (light/low density
above the weight/high density). The squared root
An archived CTD Sea-Bird Electronics of this distance is defined as Thorpe length scale
(SBE) 911 datasets collected in July 2001 by RV (LT). Before defining the LT, the density overturns
Baruna Jaya VIII were analyzed to infer the should be screened carefully since they may
properties of vertical mixing, i.e. the turbulent contain spurious overturns. Some filter settings
kinetic energy dissipation rate and vertical eddy are defined, i.e. the density noise level (δρ = 5.24x
diffusivity. The variability of vertical mixing 10-4 kg m-3), T-S tightness relationship ξ = 0.7;
properties depends on the field of flow and overturn ratio Ro = 0.2. The detail of each
characteristics, which is mainly driven by the filtering parameter is explained in some studies
interaction between regular barotropic tidal (Frants et al., 2013; Galbraith et al., 1996; Gargett
currents and topography hence generating et al., 2008; Purwandana et al., 2020; Stansfield et
instability in the water column. Therefore, the al., 2001).
using of archived CTD datasets to characterize the Under stratified condition of the water
mixing properties has been a common method column, the occurrence of vertically unstable
widely used in oceanic mixing physics (see water mass parcels can vary since the high
Purwandana et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2014). There stratification tends to limit the turbulent event. In
were 12 CTD casts involved in this study, the meantime, the vertical current shear will
sampled in the deep region of the Sunda Strait enhance the turbulent event. Dillon (1982) defined
waters (Figure 1a). The CTD has a typical 24 Hz a relationship between LT and previously
sampling rate, and were previously preprocessed estimated turbulent measurements from current
using SBE Data Processing module, and only shear, the Ozmidov length scale (LO) as LO/LT =
downcast profiles were considered due to frame- 0.8. The stratification and LT from all stations are
related noise in the upcast profile. The upper 10 m presented in Figure 1c and Figure 1d,
profiles were also discarded since potentially respectively. Later, since Thorpe Method defines
disturbed by ship heaving and atmospheric the turbulent event observed from CTD which
forcing turbulence, as the focus of vertical detects only large overturning water mass parcels,
turbulence analysis is to identify the impact of the lower instability will set to zero. Therefore, a
internal tides and spatial topography. The vertical background dissipation rate should be defined as
instability related to mixing in the water column no detected overturning event from density profile
can be easily inspected from shaking features in of the CTD (due to low vertical resolution of the
the density profile (Park et al., 2014; Yang et al., measurements) does not mean no dissipation in
2014). The density profiles derived from the water column. The turbulent kinetic energy
temperature and salinity profile of the CTD cast (TKE) dissipation rate is calculated as
from all stations are presented in Figure 1a. (Purwandana et al., 2020),

0.64𝐿 𝑁 , overturn (1)

𝜀= 𝑁
max 1 × 10 W/kg, 𝜀 , no overturn
𝑁

N is the buoyancy frequency, 1×10-10 W/kg is the 3 cph are the canonical Garret and Munk
lowest resolved dissipation rate in the Indonesian dissipation rate and buoyancy frequency
seas (Bouruet-Aubertot et al., 2018; Koch- reference, respectively. Then, the vertical
Larrouy et al., 2015); ɛ0 = 7×10-10 W/kg and N0 = diffusivity is calculated as:
𝜀 (2)
𝐾 =𝛤
𝑁

Г = 0.2 is the mixing efficiency (Osborn, 1980). The CTD stations were irregularly in
The ε and Kρ from all stations are presented in space, where there were two stations located at a
Figure 1e and Figure 1f, respectively. relatively close distance, separated by less than

45
 Purwandana
o
0.05 (Figure 1a). Therefore, the spatial pattern of m (thermocline layer), 300-500
500 m (intermediate
the mixing properties are inspected in a gridded layer), and 500-1000
1000 m (deep layer), and are
horizontally maps over 0.05°. This setting averaged by the density ranges to assess their
produces
ces 11 gridded stations as shown in Figure values related to the water mass characteristics,
2a.
a. Hereinafter, the station mentioned in the text and are presented
sented in the temperature
temperature-salinity (T-S)
refers to this gridded station. Vertically, the values diagram.
are also averaged with depth intervals of 50 50-300

Figure 1 (a) Map of Sunda Strait waters with topography inferred from ETOPO. The CTD casts sampled in
July 2001 are presented in red plus signs. The measurements were conducted using the CTD SBE
911 on board of RV Baruna Jaya VIII; (b) density profiles inferred from salinity and temperature
measurements, (c) stratification represented by buoyancy frequency profiles from all CTD cast casts,
(d) Thorpe length identified from instabilities in the density profiles, (e) turbulent kinetic energy
dissipation rate (mean-bold
bold line, minima and maxima-thick
maxima thick lines), (f) vertical diffusivity (mean-
(mean
bold line, minima and maxima
maxima-thin lines).
Gambar 1 (a) Peta perairan Selat Sunda dengan topografi dari ETOPO. Penurunan CTD dilakukan pada
bulan Juli 2001, disajikan dengan tanda plus merah. Pengukuran dilakukan dengan menggunakan
CTD SBE 911 Kapal Riset Baruna Jaya VIII; (b) profil densitas yang diturunkan dari d data salinitas

46
 Oseanologi dan Limnologi di Indonesia 2022 7(1): 43-51
dan suhu, (c) stratifikasi yang direpresentasikan dengan nilai frekuensi apung, (d) skala panjang
Thorpe yang diidentifikasi dari ketidakstabilan pada profil desnitas, (e) disipasi energi kinetik
turbulen (rerata-plot
plot tebal, minimal dan maksimal-plot
plot tipis), (f) difusivitas vertikal (rerata
(rerata-plot
tebal, minimal dan maksimal
maksimal-plot tipis).

Results The deep region of the Sunda Strait is

characterized by Indian Ocean water masses, i.e.
The Sunda Strait deep waters region is the North Indian Subtropical Water (NISW),
characterized by stratified water column with two North Indian Intermediate Water (NIIW) and
typical pycnocline (~thermocline) layers, the
North Indian Deep Water (NIDW) (Figure
( 3).
upper thermocline in the upper 100 m and lower
thermocline below, down to ~300 m depth The influence of low salinity of the Java Sea
(Figure 1b). Such structures can be clearly Water (JSW) was observed in the upper layer.
indicated from the buoyancy profiles, with a Density anomaly based averaging of the
typical core value of 0.03/s in the ~25 m and ~175 dissipation rates and vertical diffusivity are shown
m for the first and the second layer of the in
thermoclines (Figure 1c).c). Instabilities represented
by Thorpe length (LT) were observed in the Table 1 in order to investigate the water
density profiles, more frequent in the upper 300 m mass characteristics in each layer of density in the
and intermittent in the lower layer (Figure
Figure 1d). strait region. Representation of these values in the
This research is a baseline study on T-S diagram is shown in Figure 3. As shown in
vertical turbulent mixing in the Sunda Strait Figure 3a, a, three different regime of dissipation
waters. Spatially, the deep waters region of the rates are identified, i.e. the upper
Sunda Strait is characterized by predominantly thermocline/density range layer of σθ < 23 kg/m3
high dissipation rate in the upper layer (50
(50-300 m, is characterized by the dissipation rate of [3.2×10-
Ø 10-7 W/kg) and decreasing trend of dissipation 9
– 1.0×10-8] W/kg; the lower thermocline/density
rate below. The lowest dissipation rates were range of σθ = 23 – 25.5 kg/m3 is characterized by
observed in the deep layer (50-300300 m, [10-10 – 10- dissipation rate of [1.0×10-8 – 3.2×10-7] W/kg; the
9
] W/kg) (Figure 2a-c). c). Note that elevated intermediate layer/density range of σθ = 25.5 –
dissipation rate observed in the 50-300 300 m depth 26.5 kg/m3 is characterizedzed by dissipation rate of
were identified at Station 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10 and [1.0×10-9 – 3.2×10-9] W/kg; and the deeper
11. These stations are located in the steep layer/density range of σθ > 26.5 kg/m3 is
topography. An elevatedevated vertical diffusivity characterized by dissipation rate of less than
[1.0×10-4 – 3.2×10-4] m2/s were also identified 1.0×10-9 W/kg.
near steep topography (50-300 300 m, Station 5, 8, 9)
(Figure 2d-f).
 Purwandana
Figure 2 Horizontal mapping of turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate (in log10 scale, W/kg) averaged at
three depth ranges: (a) 50 – 300 m (thermocline layer), (b) 300 – 500 m (intermediate layer),
layer) (c)
500 – 1000 m (deep layer); and vertical diffusivity at the same depth range (in n log10 scale, m2/s):
(d) 50 – 300 m (thermocline
thermocline layer)
layer), (e) 300 – 500 m (intermediate layer),, (f) 500 – 1000 m (deep
layer). Note that the data is presented in 0.05o grid spacing. The topography is provided by
ETOPO (the depth scale refers to Fig. 1a)
1a).
Gambar 2 Pemetaan horizontal disipasi energi kinetik turbulen (dalam skala log10, W/kg) dirata-ratakan
dirata
pada tiga rentang kedalaman: (a) 50 – 300 m (lapisan termoklin), (b) 300 – 500 m (lapisan
menengah), (c) 500 – 1000 m (lapisan dalam); and rata
rata-rata difusivitas vertikal (dalam skala log10,
m2/s) pada rentang kedalaman: 50 – 300 m (lapisan termoklin), (b) 300 – 500 m (lapisan
menengah), (c) 500 – 1000 m (lapisan dalam). Data disajikan dalam grid 0,05o. Topografi
disajikan oleh ETOPO (skala kedalaman merujuk pada Gambar 1a).

Table 1 Mean and standard deviation of the dissipation rate (ɛ, ( ρ, m2/s)
( , W/kg) and vertical eddy diffusivity (K
3
for specified density anomaly range (σθ, kg/m ).
Tabel 1 Rata-rata
rata dan simpangan baku disipasi energi kinetik turbulen (ɛ, ( , W/kg) dan difusivitas eddy
vertikal (Kρ, m2/s) pada berbagai rentang anomali densitas (σ
( θ, kg/m3).

ɛ, W/kg Kρ, m2/s

σθ (kg/m3)
mean stdev mean stdev
21.0-22.0 1.3·10-7 9.3·10-7 1.1·10-4 7.4·10-4
22.0-23.0 3.3·10-8 2.5·10-7 3.7·10-5 2.9·10-4
23.0-24.0 5.9·10-7 2.9·10-6 3.0·10-4 1.5·10-3
24.0-25.0 1.8·10-8 3.4·10-9 4.9·10-6 2.0·10-20
25.0-26.0 1.7·10-7 1.5·10-6 8.1·10-5 7.2·10-4
26.0-27.0 1.7·10-8 2.2·10-7 1.3·10-4 1.2·10-3
>27.0 8.7·10-10 1.1·10-8 2.9·10-5 2.8·10-4

Figure 3 Grid averaged T-S S diagram in 0.5 oC × 0.1 psu space involving all CTD stations with overlaid
colors: (a) turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate (in log10 scale, W/kg),, (b) vertical eddy diffusivity (in
log10 scale, m2/s).. The JSW, NISW, NIIW and NIDW denote the Java Sea Water, North Indian Subtropical
Water, North Indian Intermediate Water and North Indian Deep Water, respectively.
Gambar 3 Grid rata-rata 0,5 oC × 0,1 psu diagram suhu-salinitas (T-S) S) dari semua stasiun CTD dengan
tumpang susun warna: (a) disipasi energi kinetik turbulen (dalam skala log10, W/kg) dan (b) difusivitas
vertikal (dalam skala log10, m2/s). JSW, NISW, NIIW dan NIDW berturut-turut
berturut adalah adalah
dalah massa air Laut
Jawa, massa air Samudera Hindia lapisan pertengahan dan massa air Samudera Hindia lapisan dalam.

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 Oseanologi dan Limnologi di Indonesia 2022 7(1): 43-51
Discussion relationship hence the deeper layer is potential to
have elevated diffusivity even with a small
The water masses in the Sunda Strait have amount of TKE dissipation rate, as long as the
a typical Indian Ocean characteristics in the stratification is low. Therefore, it is common that
thermocline and deeper layer, with less influence enhancement of the diffusivity value will increase
of fresh water masses in the mixed layer from the in the elevated dissipation rate area such as above
Java Sea throughflow. Although featured by less the steep topography, as can be confirmed in
influence of Java Sea water in the mixed layer yet Figure 2d-f. Intermittency pattern showed in the
a relatively high dissipation rate and high vertical vertical diffusivity also suggests the importance of
diffusvity in this layer (σθ < 22 kg/m3) are continue measurements which covers at least one
potential to freshen the upper layer. In general, tidal cycle to look over the temporal variability of
high dissipation rates in the order of 10-8 to 10-7 stratification as well as current shear.
W/kg observed in the waters are not surprising A low salinity in the upper layer of σθ <
since the stations are located in the narrow 21 kg/m3 in the southern Sunda Strait as shown in
passage/strait. Another possible mechanism the T-S diagram in Figure 3 indicated the
occurred is the hydrolic jump that is often existence of shallow water throughflow from the
occurred down stream in the narrow passages, the Java Sea. This low salinity contributes to the
same mechanism as working in the Lifamatola ‘pseudo’ pycnocline layer formation in the upper
Passage (Tan et al., 2020). However, the values 50 m depth hence producing highly stratified
are lower compared to the maximum values layer. Three different regimes of TKE dissipation
observed in other straits, i.e. Ø [10-7 - 10-6] W/kg rate clustered in the T-S diagram as shown in
in the Halmahera Straits and Ombai Strait Figure 3a indicate the most dissipative layer is in
(Bouruet-Aubertot et al., 2018; Nagai et al., the lower thermocline layer (σθ = 23-26 kg/m3),
2021), the Lombok Strait (Purwandana et al., followed by the upper thermocline layer (σθ < 23
2021a) and Maluku-Talaud waters (Purwandana kg/m3), and the lowest dissipation rate occurred in
et al., 2021b). the intermediate and deep layer (σθ > 26 kg/m3).
As can be indicated from vertical profiles This trend, i.e. dissipative in the thermocline layer
shown in Figure 1e, an enhanced dissipation rates and near surface layer is related to high shear
occurred in the upper layer, which is likely related instability formed due to stronger current
to the active circulations, as has been suggested structures there. Less dissipative in the deeper
from observation and modeling of surface layer is occurred due to less strong current shear
currents study by Mujiasih et al. (2021) which and less stratified water column, a typical
indicated strong mainstream currents of ~0.7 m/s condition in the deep layer.
in the observation area. Spatially, a closer look to
each station as shown in Figure 2a-c, indicated Conclusions
that there is a spatial trend horizontally of the
enhanced dissipation rate in the steep topography The typical values of dissipation rate
stations (~high bottom roughness, i.e. the standard observed in this study is 1-2 order higher than the
deviation of the bathymetry over a specified cell typical deep sea dissipation rate such as in the
size); and also vertically, decreasing trend towards Banda Sea yet compared to other narrow
depth. Enhanced dissipation values were also passages, such as to those in the Halmahera Straits
observed in the intermediate layer at Station 2, and Ombai Strait, the dissipation rate in the deep
and in the deep layer at Station 4 and 6, where region of the Sunda Strait is one order lower. The
located in the non steep topography (~low bottom CTD stations involved in this study are located in
roughness). Basically, the pattern of dissipation the narrow passage/strait, the place where
rate can be variably not only in space but also in barotropic tidal currents will be converted into
time (Purwandana et al., 2021a; Purwandana et internal tide and generate local mixing. High
al., 2020). As we do not have a daily station from dissipation rates occurred in the upper 300 m
the archived datasets to investigate the temporal layer, which is a clear evidence of enhanced
variability of the dissipation rate in this area, we values related to shear instability due to possibly
put a possibility that there can be the influence of strong currents. This study highlighted the
tidal variability. importance of comprehensive project in the future
There is an intermittent pattern of eddy which involves more parameters, such as current
diffusivity vertically as can be seen in Figure 1f, measurements and microstructure profiler and
yet still can be observed a decreasing trend also involves other aspects such as
towards depth. The vertical diffusivity is sensitive biogeochemistry hence the impact of vertical
to the stratification through inversely proportional

49
 Purwandana
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