Paper Name – Indian Culture and Art

Lecture No.3

Lecture Title – The Vedic Age

Script

It is certain that whatever the date of its origin, it was a joint product of
Dravidian and Aryan cultures. The Dravidians were the original Neolithic
inhabitants of India or they came to the Country like the Aryans as invaders is
uncertain but the Aryans were tall, handsome, fair- skinned nomads from the
wilds of Central Asia and had long searched for lands where they might win
easy bread for themselves and find pastures for their sheep. The Gangetic
plains in Northern India provided them with food and shelter. Nature
predominated in their day- to- day life. The land of the five rivers was their first
strong hold but gradually they spread to adjacent areas.

As a whole the Veda Sruti was compiled during a long period from 1500 B.C.
to 500 B.C. The Vedic Gods from the Greeks to the later Hindus were never
clearly anthropomorphized. It is something like when we say the ‘sound is
heard but His form is unseen.’ To understand the Vedic culture it is important
to know that there were no temples and no images that form the part of the
Vedic Worship. The ritual was performed on a cleared or leveled space or
ground which was spread with the sacred grass and served as an altar. The
fire was fed with clarified butter, milk, grain, and cow dung cakes were
offered. Rams, oxen and Horses were known to be sacrificed.

The four Vedas Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and the Atharva
Veda which are hymns, prayers and sacred formulas, offered by the priests to
the Gods on behalf of the rich lay- sacrificers, charms for witchcraft, medicine
and other homely practice manipulated by magicians and medicine men.
The Brahmanas which are expositions of the sacrifice, illustrated by legends
in the manner of the Jewish ‘Talmud’ and the Aranyakas, including the
Upanishads which contain speculations of the higher sort, philosophic,
cosmic, psycho- physical and theosophical gradually growing up with and out
of simpler beliefs. The Sutras which are the treatises containing a
considerable body of set rules for the conduct in everyday life, that is distinct
literature of customs and laws.

At the outset it is to understand that the knowledge of the Indo- Aryans is

based on the evidence of the Vedic Literature. The chief constituents are
three: The Samhitas, The
Brahmanas and the Srauta- Sutras. The Samhitas are further divided into Rig
Veda, Sama
Veda, Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda. To understand the Samhitas and its
four limbs will bring us to the threshold of understanding the roots of our
existence. Upanishads were partially the result of the popular protest against
the soulless ritualism of the Brahmanas as was also the rise of the sects like
Vaishnavas, Jainas, Buddhists, etc.
Rig Veda is neither a Historical nor a heroic poem but mainly
a Samhita meaning a collection of hymns by a number of priestly families,
recited or chanted by them with appropriate solemnity and sacrifices to the
Gods. Rig Veda is the most important as the first document of Ancient Indian
Literature. It consists of about 1000 hymns dedicated to the Gods both of the
Aryan and Dravidian origination. The Aryan Gods are mostly Nature Gods.
The elements fire, water, air and earth have been defined. The Aryans
conceived these Gods anthropomorphically and described them as wearing
clothes, bearing arms and riding in chariots. The offering of Naïve prayers too
is known. The allegorical representation of the Supreme Deity is also seen
here. Throughout theVedas the poets have the ends of the sacrifice in view,
the sacrifice where these hymns are to be sung.

Of the Gods invoked in the Vedas the following are the chief: Dyaus or Dyaus
Pitar, (sky or father sky), Surya and Savitra, Vishnu the Sun God, Usha (the
dawn), Agni (the fire), Prithvi (the earth), Soma the intoxicating vegetable
juice, Indra (the God of lightening), Varuna, Adityas, Asvins, Vayus,
Rudra, etc. As the Aryans not only borrowed their deities from the Non-
Aryans but learnt from them the way to indulge in the esoteric intimacies
of Yoga (union with God), through the practice of Bhakti (devotional worship).
The Dravidians had built their devotional cults of the phallus and the nature
spirits and mother goddess (Yakshas and Nagas), and possessed themselves
of an elaborate pantheons that was adopted by the Aryans. They had evolved
the philosophy of Karma (deeds), that good and bad actions in the past life
govern the nature of birth and rebirth in Samsara (the Universe.)

The Aryans were proficient in carpentry, building houses and racing chariots
of wood. They were well known for metal works, in making vessels
of ayas (copper) for domestic and ritualistic use, and using gold jewelry,
sewing, tanning and they made pottery. This included the symbolic,
representative and abstract language and thought as seen percolating
through the art of the Vedic Period. During the transition from the Rig Veda to
the Upanishads through the Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas a gradual
reconciliation between the Aryans and the Dravidian cultures was going on.
The Soul of nature was declared in the Brahmanas to be one with the soul of
the man, both being the essence of the higher reality, the One Being. So the
elements of the rite were identified with the elements of the Universe, the
Priest allying himself with nature in all her moods, by making the syllables of
the mantras represent the seasons, the sacrificial hearth signifying the organs
of the human body and the number of oblations denoting the months.

Sama Veda: ‘Sama’ means melody and Sama Samhita is the collection of the
melodies.

Yajur Veda is a collection of short magic spells used by certain Priests at the
sacrifices.
Atharva Veda contains the popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble
folk, as yet only partly subjugated by Brahmanism.
In the Upanishads the Aryans made their first constructive attempt to
formulate a philosophy of life. They accepted the Dravidian doctrine
of Karma (deeds) as governing the nature of birth and re- birth in
the Samsara (the Universe), and declared Moksha (release from the circle of
life and death) to be the goal of life.
The Ancient Upanishads are: Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya,
Aitareya, Kaushitaki, kena; Verse Upanishads: Isa, Katha, Mundaka and
Svetasvatara;
Later prose: Prasna and Maittrayani. The essence of what is written in them
can be understood by the following example from Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad:’ lead me from the unreal to the real, lead me form the darkness to
the light, lead me from death to immortality.’
Upon reflection from the queries in the mind ‘On what he is, who and what is
man?’ The answer thereby is ‘The sensational self which feels, the energetic
self which acts, the mental self which thinks and the transcendental self which
enjoys intuition. The Higher Self, Atman, God, is Universal. ‘The Soul which is
not this and that, nor aught else, is intangible, for it cannot be laid hold of. It is
unseen, transcendent, inapprehensible, uninferable, unthinkable,
indescribable, the sole essence of the consciousness of the Self, the
completion of the World, the ever peaceful, all blissful, the one unit, indeed is
the Atman.’

The Taittiriya Upanishad highlights the mystery of the Brahman through the
example of a dialogue between the father and the son. The father says: ‘That
from which beings are born, that in which when born they live, and that into
which they enter at death, that is Brahman.’ At the end it is comprehended
that the Brahman or reality is not realized through thought but through
intuition. The essence of Atman (Self) and the Brahman (Reality) when
actually realized is called Ananda (the state of pure bliss.) It is the unity with
God where the Atman (self) becomes Brahman (Reality) and vice versa. It is
Omniscient, Omnipresent, Omnipotent, Everlasting, Timeless, Changeless,
Invisible, Incomprehensible, Supreme Spirit, immanent inAtman (man)
and Brahman (Nature.)

Subject Matter: The Samhitas, The Brahmanas and the Srauta- Sutras.

The Samhitas-

Rig Veda:

It is considered the Sakala recension consisting of 1,017 hymns, divided

further into Vatakhiyawith 11 hymns and Bashkala with 36 hymns. They had
minor roles to play in the rituals. Heroic and lyrical elements played an
important role. The hymnology was dry and stereo type. The Rig
Vedic chanting had been preserved by the Priest and his family. The hymns
were utilized for sacrificial purposes. This formed a part of the elaborate ritual.
Magico- Religious attitude of the
mind was adopted. Mimamsa Philosophy was practiced. Gods were retained
in the name and the ritual came to occupy the place of the Gods. Rk
Samhita and the mantras were recited. There are a total of 10 Mandalas that
were arranged though not arbitrarily. 191 hymns each were contained in
each of the 10 mandalas. 2nd to 7th Mandalas were composed by a family.
8th
Mandala is called Pragatha Mandala. 9th Mandala is the most elaborate and
10th seems to be the latest addition. There are many controversial views on
the inclusion of the 10th Mandala.
What is important to be understood is that the arrangement is to be
determined by 3 considerations: The Deity, The Metre and The Verses each
hymn contains. For example Jagati coming first and Gayatri coming last.
Sama Veda:

Sama Veda is a collection of melodies. It is similar to musical notes in music.

The texts are drawn from Rk Samhita. 1,603 verses are seen in totality but 99
not found in Rk Samhita. The literary and historical value of the Sama Veda is
practically nil but ritual wise it is imperative. The same Samana can be
chanted on different verses and vice versa. In the language of the ritual texts,
the verse on which the samana is chanted is called a ‘Yoni’ or source. Sama
Veda i.e.Archika, is a collection of 585 Yonis.
The importance of it lies in appreciating that the Purvarchika, Aranyaka
Samhita and
Uttararchika represent the text part of the Sama Veda. The Gramageyagana,
the Aranyagayagana, the Uhagana and Uhyagana together constitute the
song part. In actual chant no verse can retain its original form and thus it is
difficult to say which verse is to be chanted in which given melody. There
comes the need to indicate modifications.
Yajur Veda:

It is a ritual Veda. It is considered a guide for Adhvargu priests. There is no

recitation of Mantras and chanting the melodies. There are six complete
recensions. The White Yajur Veda has two
(Madhyandina and Kanva); The Black Yajur Veda has four (Taittiriya,
Kathaka, Maitra- yam and
Kapishthala.)

According to Vajasanehi- Samhita the White Yajur Veda represents the

original tradition. The Black is a later variation. But the influence of the Rig
Vedic tradition cannot be ruled out. The first 18 Adhyayas occur in Taittiriya
Samhita; last 22 Adhyayas occur in Taittiriya Brahman; 19 to
21 Adhyayas give the mantras of the Santramani i.e. a sacrifice performed to
expiate the sin of excessive indulgence in Soma. 22 to 25 Adhyayas talk of
the horse sacrifice. 26- 40 Adhyayaswere called Khila in the subsidiary
literature.
Atharva Veda:
It was to be merged within the Srauta literature to be called Vaitana Sutra. It
never accorded full recognition in the ritual of the Soma cult. It is like the
prayer book of the simple folk, haunted by ghosts and exploited by Brahmins.
Two recensions were known Saunayika and Paippalada recensions. Each
consists of 20 kandas.They have been quoted by Patanjali (Panini). It is a
kind of manual for the Priest calledBrahmanachehhamsin who had a definite
though minor role to play at Soma sacrifice.
The Brahmanas:

They are the ritual texts of the pronounced types. They kind of mystify
the Brahamanicalsacrifices. The duties of the Hotri Priests are speculated
elaborately. Aitareya and Kaushitaki (or
Sankhaya yana) are the Brahmanas of the Rig Veda. Jaiminiya and Tandya
maha are theBrahmanas of the Sama Veda. Satapatha Brahman of the Yajur
Veda where numerous stories are included.
The Srauta- Sutras:

A fine line of demarcation is drawn between Brahmana, Aranyaka and Srauta-

Sutra is seen. Speculative spirit had developed in the Brahmanas. Ritual
ceremonies in Aranyakas andUpanishads were conducted. They were called
the grihya- sutras. They were prophetic forming a contrast
to Brahmanas. They were extensive and intelligible and had a scientific spirit.
Conclusion:

In the Sutras, Brahmanical orthodoxy fought and lost its last battle against
these forces of religious liberalism before merging itself in the synthetic
National Religion in India i.e. Hinduism. We understand the nature and extent
of these texts: literary and linguistic. They help in tracing the roots of how the
Vedic Culture had polished the concepts of ritualistic, ceremonial celebration
in entirety. Logically it is indefinable because in the Supreme Soul all
descriptions cease. Subject, object ends and causes all fade away into the
mystery of the Divine ecstasy. All we say is Neti! Neti! meaning (It is not this,
It is not that.) The mystic saint describes it as ‘That art thou.’ There is no
difference left between what is within and what is without.