DC Machines

The electrical machines deal with the energy transfer either from mechanical to
electrical form or from electrical to mechanical form, this process is called
electromechanical energy conversion.

An electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is

called an electric generator while an electrical machine which converts electrical
energy into the mechanical energy is called an electric motor.

A Dc generator is built utilizing the basic principle that emf is induced in a conductor
when it cuts magnetic lines of force.

A DC motor works on the basic principle that a current carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field experiences a force.

DC GENERATOR

Working principle: DC generator

All the generators work on the principle of dynamically induced emf. The change in
flux associated with the conductor can exist only when there exists a relative motion
between the conductor and the flux. The relative motion can be achieved by rotating
the conductor w.r.t flux or by rotating flux w.r.t conductor. So, a voltage gets
generated in a conductor as long as there exists a relative motion between conductor
and the flux. Such an induced emf which is due to physical movement of coil or
conductor w.r.t flux or movement of flux w.r.t coil or conductor is called dynamically
induced emf.
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced emf is produced in it
according to Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction.
This emf causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.

So, a generating action requires the following basic components to exist.

1. The conductor or a coil
2. Flux
3. Relative motion between the conductor and the flux.

In a practical generator, the conductors are rotated to cut the magnetic flux, keeping
flux stationary. To have a large voltage as output, a number of conductors are
connected together in a specific manner to form a winding. The winding is called
armature winding of a dc machine and the part on which this winding is kept is called
armature of the dc machine.
The magnetic field is produced by a current carrying winding which is called field
winding.

The conductors placed on the armature are rotated with the help of some external
device. Such an external device is called a prime mover.
The commonly used prime movers are diesel engines, steam engines, steam
turbines, water turbines etc.

The purpose of the prime mover is to rotate the electrical conductor as required by
Faraday’s laws

The direction of induced emf can be obtained by using Flemings right hand rule.
The magnitude of induced emf = e = BLV sin = Em sin.

Nature of induced emf

The nature of the induced emf for a conductor rotating in the magnetic field is
alternating. As conductor rotates in a magnetic field, the voltage component at
various positions is different.

Hence the basic nature of induced emf in the armature winding in case of dc
generator is alternating. To get dc output which is unidirectional, it is necessary to
rectify the alternating induced emf. A device which is used in dc generator to convert
alternating induced emf to unidirectional dc emf is called commutator.

Construction of DC machines :

A D. C. machine consists of two main parts

1. Stationary part: It is designed mainly for producing a magnetic flux.

2. Rotating part: It is called the armature, where mechanical energy is

converted into electrical (electrical generate) or conversely electrical energy
into mechanical (electric into)
 Parts of a Dc Generator:
1) Yoke
2) Magnetic Poles
a) Pole core
b) Pole Shoe
3) Field Winding
4) Armature Core
5) Armature winding
6) Commutator
7) Brushes and Bearings

The stationary parts and rotating parts are separated from each other by an air gap.
The stationary part of a D. C. machine consists of main poles, designed to create the
magnetic flux, commutating poles interposed between the main poles and designed
to ensure spark less operation of the brushes at the commutator and a frame / yoke.
The armature is a cylindrical body rotating in the space between the poles and
comprising a slotted armature core, a winding inserted in the armature core slots, a
commutator and brush
Yoke:
1. It saves the purpose of outermost cover of the dc machine so that the
insulating materials get protected from harmful atmospheric elements like
moisture, dust and various gases like SO2, acidic fumes etc.
2. It provides mechanical support to the poles.
3. It forms a part of the magnetic circuit. It provides a path of low reluctance for
magnetic flux.

Choice of material : To provide low reluctance path, it must be made up of some

magnetic material. It is prepared by using cast iron because it is the cheapest. For
large machines rolled steel or cast steel, is used which provides high permeability
i.e., low reluctance and gives good mechanical strength.

Poles: Each pole is divided into two parts

a) pole core b) pole shoe

Functions: 1. Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to

produce the flux.
2. It directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core to the
next pole.
3. Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux,
which is necessary to produce larger induced emf.
To achieve this, pole core has been given a particular shape.

Choice of material : It is made up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel. As
it requires a definite shape and size, laminated construction is used. The laminations
of required size and shape are stamped together to get a pole which is then bolted to
yoke.
Armature: It is further divided into two parts namely,
(1) Armature core (2) Armature winding.
Armature core is cylindrical in shape mounted on the shaft. It consists of slots on its
periphery and the air ducts to permit the air flow through armature which serves
cooling purpose.

Functions:
1. Armature core provides house for armature winding i.e., armature
conductors.
2. To provide a path of low reluctance path to the flux it is made up of magnetic
material like cast iron or cast steel.

Choice of material : As it has to provide a low reluctance path to the flux, it is

made up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel.
It is made up of laminated construction to keep eddy current loss as low as possible.
A single circular lamination used for the construction of the armature core is shown
below.

2. Armature winding: Armature winding is nothing but the inter connection of the
armature conductors, placed in the slots provided on the armature core. When the
armature is rotated, in case of generator magnetic flux gets cut by armature
conductors and emf gets induced in them.
Function:
1. Generation of emf takes place in the armature winding in case of generators.
2. To carry the current supplied in case of dc motors.
3. To do the useful work it the external circuit.

Choice of material : As armature winding carries entire current which depends on

external load, it has to be made up of conducting material, which is copper.

Field winding: The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction.

Functions: To carry current due to which pole core on which the winding is placed
behaves as an electromagnet, producing necessary flux.
As it helps in producing the magnetic field i.e. exciting the pole as electromagnet it is
called ‘Field winding’ or ‘Exciting winding’.

Choice of material : As it has to carry current it should be made up of some

conducting material like the aluminum or copper.
But field coils should take any type of shape should bend easily, so copper is the
proper choice.
Field winding is divided into various coils called as field coils. These are connected in
series with each other and wound in such a direction around pole cores such that
alternate N and S poles are formed.
Commutator: The rectification in case of dc generator is done by device called as
commutator.

Functions: 1. To facilitate the collection of current from the armature

conductors.
2. To convert internally developed alternating emf to in directional (dc)
emf
3. To produce unidirectional torque in case of motor.

Choice of material : As it collects current from armature, it is also made up of

copper segments. It is cylindrical in shape and is made up of wedge shaped
segments which are insulated from each other by thin layer of mica.
Brushes and brush gear : Brushes are stationary and rest on the surface of the
commutator. Brushes are rectangular in shape. They are housed in brush holders,
which are usually of box type. The brushes are made to press on the commutator
surface by means of a spring, whose tension can be adjusted with the help of lever.
A flexible copper conductor called pigtail is used to connect the brush to the external
circuit.

Lecture Notes Md.Asif Page 7

Functions: To collect current from commutator and make it available to the
stationary external circuit.
Choice of material: Brushes are normally made up of soft material like carbon.

Bearings: Ball-bearings are usually used as they are more reliable. For heavy duty
machines, roller bearings are preferred.

Working of DC generator
The generator is provided with a magnetic field by sending dc current through the
field coils mounted on laminated iron poles and through armature winding.

A short air gap separates the surface of the rotating armature from the stationary
pole surface. The magnetic flux coming out of one or more worth poles crossing the
air gap, passes through the armature near the gap into one or more adjacent south
poles.
The direct current leaves the generator at the positive brush, passes through the
circuit and returns to the negative brush.
The terminal voltage of a dc generator may be increased by increasing the current in
the field coil and may be reduced by decreasing the current.
Generators are generally run at practically constant speed by their prime mores.

Types of generators: Generators are usually classified according to the way in

which their fields are excited. Generators may be divided into
a) Separately excited generators: These are generators whole field magnets are
energized from an independent external source of dc current.

Ia
IL
V
Ra Eg Load

Field winding
b) Self-excited generators: These are generators whose field magnets are
energized by the current produced by the generators themselves.
Due to residual magnetism, there is always present some flux in the poles when the
armature is rotated, some emf and hence some induced current is produced which is
partly or fully passed through the field coils thereby strengthening the residual pole
flux.
The self-excited generators are again divided into three types according to the
manner in which their field coils or winding are connected to the armature.

1) Series Generator
2)Shunt Generator
3)Compound Generator
i. Long Shunt Compound Generator
ii. Short Shunt Compound Generator

Series Generator: It is a generator where the field winding is connected in series

with the armature

Ia Rse
IL

Ra Eg Load

Shunt Generator: It is a generator where the field winding is connected in series

with the armature

Ia
IL

RSh Ish Ra Eg Load

Compound Generator: It is generator which has both Series and Shunt Windings.
Compound generators are of two types.

a) Long Shunt Compound Generator

b) Short Shunt Compound Generator

Long Shunt Compound Generator:

IL
Ise Rse
RSh Ish Ia Load

Ra Eg

Short Shunt Compound Generator:

IL
Ise Rse
Load
Ia

RSh Ish Ra Eg
Types of armature winding
Armature conductors are connected in a specific manner called as armature winding
and according to the way of connecting the conductors, armature winding is divided
into two types.

Lap winding: In this case, if connection is started from conductor in slot 1 then the
connections overlap each other as winding proceeds, till starting point is reached
again.
There is overlapping of coils while proceeding. Due to such connection, the total
number of conductors get divided into ‘P’ number of parallel paths, where
P = number of poles in the machine.
Large number of parallel paths indicate high current capacity of machine hence lap
winding is pertained for high current rating generators.

Wave winding: In this type, winding always travels ahead avoiding over lapping. It
travels like a progressive wave hence called wave winding.
Both coils starting from slot 1 and slot 2 are progressing in wave fashion.
Due to this type of connection, the total number of conductors get divided into two
number of parallel paths always, irrespective of number of poles of machine.
As number of parallel paths are less, it is preferable for low current, high voltage
capacity generators.

Sl.
Lap winding Wave winding
No.

Number of parallel paths (A) = 2

1. Number of parallel paths (A) = poles (P)
(always)

Number of brush sets required is equal Number of brush sets required is

2.
to number of poles always equal to two

Preferable for high current, low voltage Preferable for high current, low
3.
capacity generators current capacity generators

Normally used for generators of capacity Preferred for generator of capacity

4.
more than 500 A less than 500 A.
EMF equation of a generator
Let P = number of poles
 = flux/pole in webers
Z = total number of armature conductors.
= number of slots x number of conductors/slot
N = armature rotation in revolutions (speed for armature) per minute (rpm)
A = No. of parallel paths into which the ‘z’ no. of conductors are divided.
E = emf induced in any parallel path
Eg = emf generated in any one parallel path in the armature.
Average emf generated/conductor = d/dt volt
Flux current/conductor in one revolution
d =  x p
In one revolution, the conductor will cut total flux produced by all poles =  x p
No. of revolutions/second = N/60
Therefore, Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second
According to Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction, emf generated/conductor
= d/dt= x p x N / 60 volts
This is emf induced in one conductor.
For a simplex wave-wound generator
No. of parallel paths = 2
No. of conductors in (series)in one path = Z/2
EMF generated/path = PN/60 x Z/2 = ZPN/120 volt

For a simple lap-wound generator

Number of parallel paths = P
Number of conductors in one path = Z/P
EMF generated/path = PN/60 (Z/P) = ZN/60
A = 2 for simplex – wave winding
A =P for simplex lap-winding

Characteristics of dc generators
The dc generators have the following characteristics in general
1. Magnetization characteristics
2. Load characteristics
Magnetization characteristics
It is also known as no-load saturation characteristics or open-circuit characteristics
(OCC)
This characteristics is the graph of the no-load generated emf Eo and the field
current If, at a given speed.
As it is plotted without load with open output terminals it is also called no load
characteristics or open circuit characteristics.
No-load curve for self-excited generator
The O.C.C. or no-load curves for self-excited generators whether shunt or series-
connected are obtained in a same way.
The field winding of the generator (wheeler shunt or series world) is disconnected
from the machine and connected to an external source of direct current.
The field or exciting current If is varied the statically its value is read on the
armature A.
The machine is driven at constant speed by the prime moves and the generated emf
on on-load is measured by the voltmeter connected across the armature.
If is increased by suitable steps starching from zero and the corresponding values of
Eo are measured on plotting the relation between If and Eo a curve of the forms
shown in obtained.

Due to residual magnetism in the poles some emf is generated even when If = 0
hence the curve starts from point A.
Eo vs If  magnetization characteristics.

Critical resistance for shunt generator

Critical resistance is that value of resistance in the field circuit, which enables the
machine just to start building up.
Now, connect the field windings back to the armature and run the machine as a
shunt generator.
Due to residual magnetism, some initial emf and hence current, would be generated.
This current while passing through the field coils will strengthen the magnetisation at
the poles.
This will increase the pole flux which will further increases the generated emf.
Increased emf means more current which further increases the flux and so on.
The value of the resistance represented by the tangent to the curve is known as
critical resistance Rc for a given speed.

Thus, induced emf increases directly as If increases. But after certain time, If core
gets saturated flux f also remains constant through If increases.
Induced emf also varies with speed, we will get a family of parallel characteristics for
lower speeds, generated voltage is less so characteristics for lower speeds are below
the characteristics for higher

Losses in a Dc Generator:

Variable losses : The armature current varies with load . The copper losses that
occur in the armature also vary w.r.t to load Ar Cu loss = Ia2 Ra

Magnetic losses :
Hysteresis : The property of a magnetic material to retain a part of the magnetism
achieved by it, one removal of the driving force is called hysteresis.
The power required to overcome this hysteresis effect is called hysteresis loss. It is
denoted by Wn.
Wh  f
Bm1.6
Wh = η Bm1.6 f V
Where, η=Steinmetz Constant
B=Flux Density
F=Frequency
V=Volume Of the core
Eddy current losses : When the iron part (rotor) rotates in the stationary field,
there is an induced emf in the iron part also apart from the emf induced in the
copper windings. This emf is called eddy emf. The iron part provides a closed path
for the eddy emf to circulate a current. This current is called eddy current.
The power required to be generated by the machine to over come the effect of eddy
current is called eddy current loss. It is denoted by we.
We  Bm2 f2t2.

Mechanical losses :
1. Friction losses : The rotation of the armature inside the bearings causes
friction to be developed. In order to over come this, the prime more has to
supply more power.
2. Windage losses : An extra mounting on the shaft of the armature such as fan
to provide air for cooling purposes causes an extra burden on the prime
mover. The extra power required to drive the fan is termed as windage loss.
(constant)
Stray losses :
The magnetic and mechanical looks are collectively known as stray losses.
These are also known as rotational losses
Constant and standing losses: The field current loss is constant. Hence, stray loses
and shut current loses are content these loses are together known as standing or
constant loses Wc.
Hence, for shunt and compound generators.
Total loss = armature cu loss + wc
= Ia2 Ra + wc
(I + Igh)2 Ra + Wc
An current loss, Ia2 Ra is known as variable loss because it varies with the current.
Total loss = variable loss + constant loss wc.

Efficiency of a DC Generator:
Shunt Generator:
Output Power= Input Power- Losses
Input Power=VI
Losses=Armature Copper Losses(I a2Ra)+Constant Losses(Wc)
Efficiency=Output/Input=Input-Losses/Input
η= VI-( Ia 2Ra+ Wc)/ VI
In a Shunt Generator I=Ia+Ish
Here Ish is neglible
So I=Ia

So, η= VIa-( Ia2Ra+ Wc)/ VIa

=1-(IaRa/V)-Wc/VIa (1)
Condition for maximum efficiency:
For maximum efficiency differentiate equation (1) and equate to zero
d(η)/dIa=d(1-(IaRa/V)-Wc/VIa)/dIa=0
=0-Ra/V+Wc/VIa2=0
Ra/V= Wc/VIa2
Wc= Ia2 Ra

1) Mechanical efficiency =
B total walts gented in arnature
m  
A mechanical power sup plied
E g Ia
output of during enzime

2. Electrical efficiency
C watts available in local circut
c  vI
 =
B total watts generated E g Ia

3. Overall efficiency
C watts available in local circut
c   = c  m  e
A mechanical power sup plied
 DC Motor

A dc motor is similar in construction to a dc generator. As a matter of fact a dc

generator will run as a motor when its field & armature windings are connected to a
source of direct current.

The basic construction is same whether it is generator or a motor.

Working principle : The principle of operation of a dc motor can be stated as when

a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field; it experiences a
mechanical force. In a practical dc motor, the field winding produces the required
magnetic held while armature conductor plays the role of current carrying conductor
and hence the armature conductors experience a force.

As conductors are placed in the slots which are on the periphery, the individual force
experienced by the conductive acts as a twisting or turning force on the armature
which is called a torque.

The torque is the product of force and the radius at which this force acts, so overall
armature experiences a torque and starts rotating.

Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic field isproduced
by a permanent magnet but in practical dc motor it is produced by the field winding
when it carries a current.

Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a

particular direction.

Consider that it carries a current away from a current. Any current carryingconductor
produces its own magnetic field around it, hence this conductor also produces its
own flux, around. The direction of this flux can be determined by right hand thumb
rule. For direction of current considered the direction of flux around a conductor is
clock-wise. Now, there are two fluxes present
1. Flux produced by permanent magnet called main flux
2. Flux produced by the current carrying conductor

From the figure shown below, it is clear that on one side of the conductor, both the
fluxes are in the same direction in this case, on the left of the conductor there
gathering of the flux lines as two fluxes help each other. A too against this, on the
right of the conductor, the two fluxes are in opposite direction and hence try to
cancel each other. Due to this, the density of the flux lines in this area gets
weakened.

So, on the left, there exists high flux density area while on the right of the conductor
then exists low flux density area as shown.

The flux distribution around the conductor arts like a stretched ribbed bond under
tension. The exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux
density area towards low flux density area, i.e. from left to right from the case
considered as shown above.

In the practical dc motor, the permanent magnet is replaced by the field winding
which produces the required flux winding which produces the required flux called
main flux and all the armature conductors, would on the periphery of the armature
gram, get subjected to the mechanical force.

Due to this, overall armature experiences a twisting force called torque and armature
of the motor status rotating.

Direction of rotation of motor

The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor in a motor is given by F =
BIL newtons.
The direction of the main field can be revoked y changing the direction of current
passing through the field winding, which is possible by interchanging the polarities of
supply which is given to the field winding.
The direction of current through armature can be reversed by changing supply
polarities of dc supplying current to the armature.
It directions of bot the currents are changed then the direction of rotation of the
motor remains undamaged.

In a dc motor both the field and armature are connected to a source of direct
current. The current through the armature winding establish its own magnetic flux
the interaction both the main field and the armature current produces the torque,
there by sensing the motor to rotate, once the motor starts rotating, already existing
magnetic flux their wire be an induced emf in the armature conductors due to
generator action. This emf acts in a direction apposite to supplied voltage. Therefore
it is called Black emf.
Significance of Back emf
In the generating action, when a conductor cuts the lines of flux, emf gets induced in
the conductor in a motor, after a motoring action, armature starts rotating and
armature conductors cut the main flux.

After a motoring action, there exists a generating action there is induced emf in the
rotating armature conductors according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. This induced emf in the armature always acts in the opposite direction of
the supply voltage. This is according to the lenz’s law which states that the direction
of the induced emf is always so as to oppose the case producing it.

In a dc motor, electrical input i.e., the supply voltage is the cause and hence this
induced emf opposes the supply voltage.

The emf tries to set a current throughout the armature which is in the opposite
direction to that which supply voltage is forcing through the conductor so, as this
emf always opposes the supply voltage, it is called back emf and devoted as Eb.

Through it is denoted as Eb, basically it gets generated by the generating action

 ZNP
which we have seen earlier So, E b 
60 A

Voltage equation of a Motor

The voltage v applied across the motor armature has to (1) over core the back emf
Eb and
(1) supply the armature ohmic drop Ia Ra
v = Eb + Ia Ra
This is known as voltage equation of a motor
Multiplying both sides by Ia, we get
Via =Eb Ia + Ea2 Ra
VIa = electrical input to the armature
EbIa = electrical equivalent of mechanical Power developed in the armature

Ia 2 Ra = un loss in the armature

Hence, out of the armature input, some in wasted in I2 R loss and the rot is
convened into mechanical power within the armature.
Motor efficiency is given by the ratio of power developed by the armature to its input
i.e. Eb Ia / vIa = Eb/v.
Higher the value of Eb as compared to v, higher the motor efficiency.

Conduction for maximum powers

The gross mechanical developed by a motor = pm = vIa – I a2 Ra
dPm
v  2Ia Ra Ia Ra = v/2
dIa
As v = Eb + Ia Ra and Ia Ra = v/2 Eb = v/2
Thus, gross mechanical power developed by a motor is maximum when back emf is
equal to half the applied voltage. This conduction’s however at realized in practice,
because in that case current will be much beyond the normal current of the motor.

More ova, half the input would be wasted in the form of heat and taking other losses
into consideration the motor efficiency will be well below 50 %.

1. A 220v – dc machine has an armature resistance of 0.5 . If the full road

armature current is 20A, find the induced emf when the machine acts (1) generator
(2) motor.

The dc motor is assumed to be shunt connected in cash case, short current in

considered negligible because its value is not given.

(a) As generator Eg = v + Ia Ra = 220 + 0.5 x 20 = 230 v

(b) As motor Eb = v – Ia Ra = 220 – 0.5 x 20 =210 v

2. A 440 v, shunt motor has armature resistance of 0.8 a and field resistance of
200 . Determine the back emf when giving an output at 7.46 kw at 85% efficiency.
7.46 x103
Motor input power = w
0.85
7460
Motor input current =  19.95 A
0.85 x 440
3. A 25kw, 250 w dc such generator has armature and field resistance of 0.06 
and 100  respectively. Determine the total armature power developed when
working (1) as generator delivering 25 kw output and (2) as a motor taking
25 kw input.
Voltage equation of dc motor
For a generator, generated emf has to supply armature resistance drop and
remaining part is available across the loss as a terminal voltage. But in case of dc
motor, supply voltage v has to over come back emf Eb which is opposing v and also
various drops are armature resistance drop Ia Ra, brush drop etc. In fact the
electrical work done in overcoming the back emf gets converted into the mechanical
energy, developed in the armature.

Hence, the voltage equation of a dc motor is

V = Eb + Ia Ra + brush drops
Or v = Eb + Ia Ra neglecting brush drops

The back emf is always less than supply voltage (E b < v) but Ra is very small hence
under normal running conditions, the different between back emf and supply voltage
is very small. The net voltage across the armature is the difference between the
supply voltage and back emf which decals the armature current. Hence from the
voltage equation we can write Ia = v – Eb / Ra.

1. A 220 v dc motor has an armature resistance of 0.75 it is drawing on

armature current of 30 A, during a certain load, calculate the induced emf in
the motor under this condition.

V = 200 v, Ia = 30A, Ra = 0.75

For a motor, v = Eb + Ia Ra
Eb = 197.5 v
This is the induced mef called back emf in a motor.

2. A 4-pole dc motor has lap connected armature winding. The number of

armature conductors is 250. When connected to 230 v dc supply it draws an
armature current It 4 cm calculate the back emf and the speed with which
motor is running. Assume armature is 0.6
P = 4 A = P = 4 as lap connected
 = 30 m wb = 30 Ho-3 V = 230v, z = 250 Ia = 40 A
From voltage equation V = Eb + Ia Ra
230 = Eb + 40 x 0.6
Eb =  Pnz / 60A
206 = (30 x 10-3 x 4 x N x 250) / (60 x 4)
N = 1648 rpm.
Torque: The turning or twisting movement of a body is called Torque.
(Or)
It is defined as the product of force and perpendicular distance Ť=F*R
F

In case of DC motor torque is produced by the armature and shaft called as

armature torque(Ta ) and shaft torque(Tsh).

Let, N be the speed of the armature in RPM

R be the radius of the armature

Power=Work Done/Time

Work Done=Force X Distance

The distance travelled in rotating the armature for one time =2∏R

If N rotations are made in 60 sec

Then time taken for one rotation is=60/N

So, Power=(F * 2∏R)/( 60/N)

=(F*R)(2∏N)/60
P = Ťω

Here P=EbIa
But Eb=ØZNP/60A
(ØZNP/60A)Ia= Ťω
= Ťa(2∏N)/60
Ťa=0.159ØZ IaP/A
Similarly, Shaft torque Tsh=output/ω
Tsh =output/((2∏N)/60)
Tsh =9.55(output)/N
DC Motor characteristics
1. Torque and armature current (Ta/Ia characteristics)
It is also known as electrical characteristics.

2. Speed and armature current i.e., (N/Ta characteristics). It is also known as

mechanical characteristics.
While discussing motor characteristics, the following two relations should always be
kept in mind.
Ta   I a & N  Eb/.

Characteristics of series motors

1. Ta/Ia Characteristics.
For series motor   Ia
Ta   I a

 Ia2
Thus, torque in case of series motor is proportional to the square of the armature
current

Ta
Ta

Tsh

Ia
As the load increases, armature current increases and torque produced increases
proportional to the square of the armature current upto a certain limit.

Hence Ta/Ia curve is a parabola.

After saturation,  is almost independent Ia, hence Ta  Ia only.
So, the characteristic be comes a straight line.
The shaft torque Tsh is less than the armature torque due to stray losses. It is shown
dotted in the figure.
 On heavy loads, a series motor events a torque proportional to the square of
armature current.
Hence, where large starting torque is required for accelerating heavy masses quickly
as in hasps and electric trains etc. series motors are used.

2. N/Ia characteristic N  (Eb/)  [v – Ia (Ra + Rse)/Ia]

The values Ra and Rse are so shall as   Ia in case of series motor that the effect of
change in Ia on speed avoid the effect of change in V – Ia Ra – IaRse on speed change
in Eb for various load currents is small and hence may be neglected.

Ia

With increased Ia,  also increases Hence, speed varies inversely as armature
current. When load is heavy, Ia is large. Hence speed is low (this increases Eb and
allows more armature current to flow). But when load current and hence Ia falls to a
small value speed becomes dangerously high.

Hence, a series motor should never be started without some mechanical load on it
otherwise it may develop exclusive speed and get damaged due to centrifugal by loss
so produced. Series motor is a variable speed motor.

N/Ta characteristic:
T  Ia2
N  1/Ia
Ia  Ta
1
N 
 Ta
T  1/N2
Thus for small T, speed is large while fi large T speed is small.
 N

Ta

As Ia increases, torque increases and speed decreases so as torque increases, speed

decreases are the nature of this curve, which is similar to speed current curve.

Characteristics of shunt Motors

1. Ta/ia characteristics:
T   Ia
For a constant value of Rsh and supply voltage, V, Ish is also constant and hence
flux is also constant.
T  Ia
The equator represents a st line passing through the origin. Torque increases linearly
with armature current.
It is seen earlier that armature current is decided by the load. So as load increases,
armature current increases, increasing the torque developed linearly.

T Ta
Tsh

Ia
Now, if shaft torque is plotted against armature current, it is known that shaft torque
is less than the armature torque and the difference between the two is lasts torque
TL.
Since a heavy starting load will need a heavy starting current, shunt motor should
never be started on large load.
2. N/Ia characteristic:
If  is assumed constant, N  Eb.
As Eb is also practically constant, speed is constant
But strictly speaking, both Eb x  decreases with increasing load. However, Eb
decreases slightly more than  so that on the whole, there is some decreases in
speed.

Ia

The drop varies from 5 to 15% of full-load speed, being dependent on saturation,
armature reaction and brush portion Hence, the actual speed curve is slightly
dropping as shown by the dotted line.

But, for all practical purposes, shunt motor is taken as a constant speed motor.
Because, there is no appreciable change in the speed of a shunt motor from no-load
to full-load, it may be connected to loads which are totally and student thrown off
without any term of excessive speed resulting.

Since a heavy starting load will need a heavy starting current, shunt motor should
never be started on heavy load.

Due to the constancy of their speed, shunt motors are suitable for during shafting,
machine tools, latter wood-working machines and for all other purposes where an
approximately constant speed is required.
3. N/Ta characteristics
These can be deduced from the above two characteristics this graph is similar to
speed-armature current characteristics as torque is proportional to the armature
current. This curve shows that the speed almost remains constant through torque
changes from no load to full load conditions.

Ta

Compound Motors :
Compound motor characteristics basically depends on the fact whether the motor is
correlatively compound or differential compound. All the characteristics of the
compound motor are the combination of the shunt and series characteristics.

Cummulative – compound motors

These are capable of developing large amount of torque at low speeds just like a
series motor. However it is hot having a disadvantage of series motor even at light
or no load.

Due to shunt windings, speed will not become excessively high but due to series
windings, it will be able to take heavy seeds.

Differential compound: Here the two fluxes oppose each other, the resultant flux
decreases as load increases, thus the machine runs at a higher speed with increase
in the load. This property is dangerous as
The following resulted were obtained from a static torque tests on a series motor:
Current (A) : 20 30 40 50
128.8 230.5 349.8 469.2
Deduce the speed/torque curve for the machine when supplied at a constant voltage
of 460 v.
Resistance of armature and field winding is 0.5 u. Ignore fron and friction losses.
When input current is 20A, we have
Motor input = 460 x 20 = 9, 200 W
Field and armature cu loss = 202 x 0.5 = 200w
Ignoring iron and friction losses, output = 9,200 – 200
= 9000 w

Tsh x 2 N = output in watts

128.8 x 2 x N = 9,000
N = 9000/(2 x 128.8) = 11.12 rps = 6.667 rpm

Current (A) 20 30 40 50
Input (W) 9200 13800 18400 23000
I R loss(w)
2
200 450 800 1250
Output (w) 9000 13350 17600 21850
Speed (rpm) 667 551 480 445
Torque (N-m) 128.8 230.5 349.8 469.2

On fall road, the motor may try to run with dangerously high speed. So, differential
compound motor is generally not used in practice.

The exact shape of these characteristics depend on the relative contribution of series
and shunt field windings. If the shunt field winding is more dominant, then the
characteristics take the shape of the shunt motor characteristics.
While, it the series field winding is more dominant then the characteristic take the
shape of series characteristic.

Type of Motor Characteristics Applications

Shunt Approximately constant For during constant speed some
speed. Adjustable speed centrifugal pumps machine tools
medium starting torque (yp blows and fans reciprocating
to 1.5 F. L. torque) pumps
Series Variable speed adjustable For traction work i.e. electric
varying speed high starting locometires repaid transit system
torque trolley cars etc. Crimes and
hoists convejors.
Cumulative Variable speed adjustable For intermittent high torque load
compound varying speed high starting for shears and punches elevators
torque converge clearly planer
2. A 500 v dc shunt motor takes a current of 5 A on no-load the resistance of
the armature and field circuits are 0.22  and 250  respectively. Find (a) the
efficiency when loaded and taking a current of 100A.

b) The percentage change of speed state precisely the assumptions made.

No-load condition
Ish = 500/250 = 2A
Iao = 5 – 2 = 3A
Ebo = 500 – (3 x 0.22) = 4.99.34 v
Ar.cu.loss = 32 x 0.22 = 2110 W
Total losses = 2110 + 2498 = 4608
Motor input = 500 x 100 = 50000 W
Motor output = 50000 – 4608
= 45392 W
 = 45392/50000 = 0.908  90.8%
N/No = Eb/Ebo = 478.44/499.34 or
(N-No)/No = -20.9/499.34 = -0.0418 or – 4.18%

4. The armature winding of a 4-pole, 250-v, dc shunt motor is lap connected

there are 120 slots, each slot containing 8 conductors. The flux per pole is 20
m wb and the current taken by the motor is 25 A. The resistance of armature
and field circuit are 0.1 and 125  respectively.
5. If the rotational loose amount to 810w, find the developed torque and useful
torque of the machine.

Ia = 25-2 = 23 A
Eb = 250-(23 x 0.1) = 247.7 v
Eb = fzn/60 (p/A) 247.7 = (2 x 10-3 x 960 x N)/60 = (4/4)

A a = 9.55 (Eb Ia)/N N = 773 rpm

= 9.55 x (247.7 x 23)/773 = 70.4 N-m
b) Ar cu loss = 232 x 0.1 = 53 w
shunt cu loss = 250 x 2 = 500 w
Rotational loses = 810 w
Total motor losses = 1363 w
Motor input = 250 x 25 = 6250 w
Motor output = 6.250 – 1363 = 4.887 w
Tsh = 9.55 x 4.887/773 = 60.4 N-m
Speed control of DC motors:
The speed can be controlled by varying
1. flux/pole,  (flux control)
2. resistance Ra of armature circuit (Rhesistac control)
Speed control of shunt motors
1. Variation of flux or flux control method
N  1/.
By decreasing the flux, the speed can be increased and vice versa. Hence the name
flux or field control method. The flux of a dc motor can be changed by changing Ish
with the help of a shunt field rheostat.

1. A 250-v dc shunt motor has armature resistance of 0.25  on load it takes an

armature current of 50A and runs at 750 rpm. If the flux of motor is reduced by 10%
without changing the load torque, find the new speed of the motor.

N2/N1 = Eb2/Eb1 x 1/2 Ta   Ia

Hence Ta1  1 Ia1
Ta2  2 Ia2

Since Ta1 = Ta2  Ta1 = 2 I4.

2 = 0.91
50 1 = 0.91 Ia2
ia2 = 55.6 A

Eb1 = 250 – (50 x 0.25)

= 231.1 v
N2/750 = 231.1/237.5 x 1/0.91
N2 = 81 rpn

2. A 220 v shunt motor has an armature resistance of By how much must he

main flux be reduced to raise the speed by 50% if the developed torque is
constant.
N2/N1 = Eb2/Eb1 x 1/2
Since torque remains constant, hence 1 Ia1 = 2 Ia2
Ia2 = Ia1 1/2 = 40x
Whe x = 1/2
Eb1 = 220 – (40 x 0.5)
= 200 v
Eb2 = 220-(40X x 0.5)
 = 220-20x
N2/N1 = 3/2 (given)
3/2 = [(220-20x)/200 ] x X
x2-11x + 15 = 0

1/2 = 1.6 2/1 = 1/1.6

(1 - 2)/ 1 = 1.6-1/1.6 = 3/8
percentage change in flux = 3/8 x 10 = 37.5%

2) Armature or rheostatic control method:

This method is used when speeds below the no-load speed are required
As the supply voltage is normally constant, the voltage across the armature is varied
by arresting a variable rheostat or resistance in series with the armature circuit as
shown. As controller resistance is increased p.d. across the armature is decreased,
thereby decreasing the armature speed for a load of constant torque, speed is
approximate proportional to the p.d. across the armature.

From the speed/armature current characteristic it is such that greater the resistance
in the armature circuit greater is the full in speed.

Let Ia1 = armature current in the first case

Ia2 = armature current in the second case
N1, N2 = corresponding specially; v = supply voltage
Then N1  v – Ia1 Ra
V  Eb1
Let some controller resistance of value R be added t the armature circuit resistance
to that its value becomes (R + Ra) = Rt
Then N2  V – Ia2 Rt
N2/N1 = Eb2/ Eb1
N/No = (V – Ia Rt) / (V – Iao Ra)
Neglecting Iao Ra w.r.t. v, we get
N = No (1 – IaRt/v)
For a given resistance Rt the speed is a linear function of amature current Ia.
The load current for which the speed would be zero is found y putting N = 0 in the
above relation
O = No (1 – iaRt/v)
Ia = v/Rt
This is the maximum current x is known as stalling current.
Losses In a DC motor: Losses in a Dc Motor are similar to that of a Dc Generator