IC Engine Fuel & Lubrication Quantumk

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QUANTUM SERIES
For
B.Tech Students of Third Year
of All Engineering Colleges Affiliated to
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,
Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow
(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University)
IC ENGINE FUEL & LUBRICATION
By
Mohd Aazam Khan Hareesh Kumar
TM
QUANTUM PAGE PVT. LTD.

Ghaziabad New Delhi
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IC Engine Fuel & Lubrication (ME : Sem-5)

1st Edition : 2010-11
2nd Edition : 2011-12
3rd Edition : 2012-13
4th Edition : 2013-14
11th Edition : 2020-21 (Thoroughly Revised Edition)
Price: Rs. 70/- only
Printed Version : e-Book.

3
CONTENTS
KME–054 : IC ENGINE FUEL & LUBRICATION
UNIT-1 : INTRODUCTION TO IC ENGINES (1–1 F to 1–37 F)

Introduction to I.C Engines: Engine classification and basic
terminology, Two and four stroke engines, SI and CI engines, Valve
timing diagram, Valve mechanism- Push rod type, Overhead type
(SOHC, DOHC). Thermodynamic analysis of Air standard cycles:
Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual cycle, Comparison of Otto, Diesel &
Dual cycles Fuel air cycle, factors affecting the fuel air cycle, Actual
cycle. Testing and Performance: Performance parameters, Basic
measurements, Blow by measurement, Testing of SI & CI engines.
UNIT-2 : COMBUSTION (2–1 F to 2–21 F)
Combustion : Stages of Combustion in SI & CI engine, Factors affecting
combustion, Flame speed, Ignition Delay, Abnormal combustion and
its control. Combustion chamber: Squish, Swirl & tumble, Combustion
chamber design for SI & CI engine & factors affecting it.
UNIT-3 : CARBURETION & FUEL INJECTION (3–1 F to 3–28 F)
Carburetion, Mixture requirements, Carburetors and fuel injection
system in SI Engine, MPFI, Scavenging in 2 Stroke engines. Fuel
injection in CI engines, Requirements, Types of injection systems,
Fuel pumps, Fuel injectors, Injection timings. Turbocharging &
its types - Variable Geometry Turbocharger, Wa ste Ga te
Turbocharger, Effect of turbocharging on power & emission.
UNIT-4 : ENGINE EMISSION & CONTROL (4–1 F to 4–23 F)
Engine Emission and Control: Pollutant-Sources and types-Effect
on environment & human health-formation of NOx-Hydrocarbon
Emission Mechanism-Carbon Monoxide Formation-Particulate
emissions-Methods of controlling Emissions-Catalytic converters &
Particulate Traps-Selective Catalytic Reduction(SCR)-Diesel
Oxidation Catalyst (DOC). Fuels: Fuels for SI and CI engine,
Important qualities of SI and CI engine fuels, Rating of SI engine and
CI engine fuels, Dopes, Additives, Gaseous fuels, LPG, CNG, Biogas,
Producer gas, Alternative fuels for IC engines.
UNIT-5 : ENGINE COOLING & LUBRICATION (5–1 F to 5–31 F)
Engine Cooling and Lubrication: Different cooling systems,
Radiators and cooling fans, Engine friction, Lubrication principle,
Type of lubrication, Lubrication oils, Crankcase ventilation. Ignition
System in SI Engine: Ignition system requirements, Magneto and
battery ignition systems, ignition timing and spark plug, Electronic
ignition. Recent trends in IC engine: Lean burn engine, Stratified
charge spark ignition engine, Homogeneous charge spark ignition
engine, GDI
SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1 F to SQ-17 F)
SOLVED PAPERS (2015-16 TO 2019-20) (SP-1 F to SP-16 F)

MECHANICALENGINEERING

Semester–V:DepartmentalElective–I:Specialization–ThermalEngineering
SubjectCode:KME054 ICEngine,FuelandLubrication LTP:300 Credits:3

Bloom
CO CourseOutcome
Taxonomy
CO1 Explaintheworkingprinciple,performanceparametersandtestingofICEngine. K2
UnderstandthecombustionphenomenainSIandCIenginesandfactors
CO2 K2
influencingcombustionchamberdesign.
UnderstandtheessentialsystemsofICengineandlatesttrendsanddevelopments
CO3 K2
inICEngines.
Understandtheeffectofengineemissionsonenvironmentandhumanhealthand
CO4 K2
methodsofreducingit.
CO5 ApplytheconceptsofthermodynamicstoairstandardcycleinICEngines K3
CO6 AnalyzetheeffectofvariousoperatingparametersonICengineperformance. K4

UnitͲI (9Hours)
IntroductiontoI.CEngines:Engineclassificationandbasicterminology,Twoandfourstrokeengines,SI
andCIengines,Valvetimingdiagram,ValvemechanismͲPushrodtype,Overheadtype(SOHC,DOHC).
ThermodynamicanalysisofAirstandardcycles:Ottocycle,Dieselcycle,Dualcycle,ComparisonofOtto,
DieselandDualcyclesFuelaircycle,factorsaffectingthefuelaircycle,Actualcycle.
Testing and Performance: Performance parameters, Basic measurements, Blow by measurement,
TestingofSIandCIengines.

Unit–II (7Hours)
Combustion:StagesofCombustioninSI&CIengine,Factorsaffectingcombustion,Flamespeed,Ignition
Delay,Abnormalcombustionanditscontrol.
Combustionchamber:Squish,Swirl&tumble,CombustionchamberdesignforSI&CIengine&factors
affectingit.

Unit–III (8Hours)
Carburetion,Mixturerequirements,CarburetorsandfuelinjectionsysteminSIEngine,MPFI,Scavenging
in2Strokeengines.

Fuel injection in CI engines, Requirements, Types of injection systems, Fuel pumps, Fuel injectors,
Injectiontimings.

Turbocharging & its typesͲ Variable Geometry Turbocharger, Waste Gate Turbocharger, Effect of
turbochargingonpower&emission.

UnitͲIV (9Hours)
EngineEmissionandControl:PollutantͲSourcesandtypes–EffectonenvironmentandhumanhealthͲ
formation of NOx Ͳ Hydrocarbon Emission Mechanism Ͳ Carbon Monoxide Formation Ͳ Particulate
emissions Ͳ Methods of controlling Emissions Ͳ Catalytic converters and Particulate Traps Ͳ Selective
CatalyticReduction(SCR)ͲDieselOxidationCatalyst(DOC).

Curriculum&EvaluationSchemeV&VIsemester Page22

MECHANICALENGINEERING

Fuels:FuelsforSIandCIengine,ImportantqualitiesofSIandCIenginefuels,RatingofSIengineandCI
engine fuels, Dopes, Additives, Gaseous fuels, LPG, CNG, Biogas, Producer gas, Alternative fuels for IC
engines.

UNITͲV (9Hours)
Engine Cooling and Lubrication: Different cooling systems, Radiators and cooling fans, Engine friction,
Lubricationprinciple,Typeoflubrication,Lubricationoils,Crankcaseventilation.

Ignition System in SI Engine: Ignition system requirements, Magneto and battery ignition systems,
ignitiontimingandsparkplug,Electronicignition.

Recent trends in IC engine: Lean burn engine, Stratified charge spark ignition engine, Homogeneous
chargesparkignitionengine,GDI.

TextBooks
1. ACourseinInternationalCombustionEngines,byMathur&Sharma,DhanpatRai&Sons.
2. I.CEngine,byGaneshan,TataMcGrawHillPublishers.

ReferenceBooks
1. I.CEngineAnalysis&PracticebyE.FObert.
2. InternalCombustionEngineFundamentals,byJohnB.Heywood,TataMcgrawHillPublishers.
3. EngineEmission,byB.B.Pundir,NarosaPublication.
4. EngineeringFundamentalsofInternalCombustionEnginesbyW.W.Pulkrabek,PearsonEducation.
5. FundamentalsofInternalCombustionEnginebyGill,Smith,Ziurs,Oxford&IBHPublishingCO.
6. FundamentalsofInternalCombustionEnginesbyH.N.Gupta,PrenticeHallofIndia.

Curriculum&EvaluationSchemeV&VIsemester Page23

IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 1–1 F (ME-Sem-5)
1 Introduction to IC
Engines
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction to IC Engines : ................... 1–2F to 1–8F
Engine Classification and Basic
Terminology, Two and Four
Stroke Engines, SI and CI Engines
Part-2 : Valve Timing Diagram, Valve .............. 1–8F to 1–12F

Mechanism : Push Rod Type,
Overhead Type (SOHC, DOHC)
Part-3 : Thermodynamic Analysis of Air ......... 1–13F to 1–28F

Standard Cycles : Otto Cycle,
Diesel Cycle, Dual Cycle, Comparison
of Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycles, Fuel Air
Cycle, Factors Affecting the Fuel Air
Cycle, Actual Cycle
Part-4 : Testing and Performance : ................. 1–28F to 1–36F

Performance Parameters, Basic
Measurements, Blow by Measurement,
Testing of SI and CI Engines
Introduction to IC Engines 1–2 F (ME-Sem-5)
PART-1
Introduction to IC Engines : Engine Classification and Basic
Terminology, Two and Four Stroke Engines, SI and CI Engines.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
IC Engines : The engines in which the combustion takes place
inside the engine or within the cylinder are known as internal
combustion engines.
Types of IC Engine Based on Ignition :
1. Spark Ignition (SI) engine.
2. Compression Ignition (CI) engine.
Two Stroke Engine : The engines in which cycle of operation
completes in two stroke of piston or one revolution of crankshaft
are known as two stroke engines.
Four Stroke Engine : The engines in which cycle of operation
completes in four stroke of piston or two revolution of crankshaft
are known as four stroke engines.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. Classify the internal combustion engine.
Answer
Internal combustion engine can be classified as follows :
i. According to Basic Engine Design :
1. Reciprocating engine, and
2. Rotary engine.
ii. According to Working Cycle :
1. Otto cycle engine, and
2. Diesel cycle engine.
iii. According to Number of Stroke :
1. Four stroke engine, and
2. Two stroke engine.
iv. According to Fuel Employed :
1. Gasoline or petrol engine,
2. Diesel engine,
3. LPG engine, and
4. CNG engine.
v. According to Fuel Supply and Mixture Preparation :
1. Carbureted type : Fuel is supplied through carburetor.
2. Injection type : Fuel injected into inlet port or inlet manifold.
vi. According to Method of Ignition :
1. Battery ignition, and
2. Magneto ignition.
vii. According to Method of Cooling :
1. Water cooled engine, and
2. Air cooled engine.
viii. According to Cylinder Arrangement :
1. Inline engine,
2. V - engine, and
3. Radial engine.
Que 1.2. Describe the basic terminology used in internal

combustion engine.
Answer
Following basic terminology are used in internal combustion engine :
i. Cylinder Bore : It is the nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder.
It is represented by D or d.
ii. Piston Area : It is the area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder
bore.
iii. Stroke : It is the distance through which a working piston moves
between two successive reversals of its direction of motion. It is
represented by L.
iv. Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) : It is the dead centre when the piston is
nearest to the crankshaft or lowest position of the piston towards the
crank end side of cylinder.
v. Top Dead Centre (TDC) : It is the dead centre when the piston is
farthest from the crankshaft or top most position of the piston towards
cover end side of cylinder.
vi. Displacement Volume (or Piston Swept Volume) :
1. This is the volume swept by the piston moving from one dead centre to
other.
2. It is calculated as the product of piston area and stroke.
vs = Piston area (A) × Stroke (L)
vii. Clearance Volume : The volume contained in the cylinder above the
top of the piston when the piston is at top dead centre is called clearance
volume.
viii. Cylinder Volume :
1. The sum of swept volume and clearance volume is known as cylinder
volume, v = vs + vc
ix. Compression Ratio :
1. This is defined as the ratio of the volume at the beginning of compression
to the volume at the end of compression.
vc  vs v
r= 1 s
vc vc
Bore
D
Cylinder head
Suction valve Exhaust valve
Intake or suction Exhaust manifold
manifold
Top dead centre Clearance volume, v c

(TDC)
Cylinder
Piston
Stroke volume, vs volume, v
Gudgeon or
wrist pin
Bottom dead
centre, (BDC)
Cylinder
Connecting rod
Crankcase Crank pin
Crankshaft Crank
Fig. 1.2.1. Parts and terminology of IC engine.
Que 1.3. Differentiate between four stroke and two stroke

engines.
Answer
S. No. Four Stroke Engine Two Stroke Engine

1. Cycle is completed in four Cycle is completed in two stroke
stro ke o f piston o r two of the piston or one revolution of
revolution of the crankshaft. crankshaft.
2. Turning moment is not so More uniform turning moment
uniform and hence heavier and hence lighter flywheel is
flywheel is needed. needed.
3. Due to one power stroke in Due to one power stroke in one
two revolutio ns, po we r revolution, power produced for
produced for same size of same size of engine is more.
engine is small.
two revolutions, lesser cooling revolution, greater cooling and
is required. lubrication required.
5. It contains valves. It contains ports.
6. Greater volumetric efficiency. Less volumetric efficiency.
7. Higher thermal efficiency. Lower thermal efficiency.
Que 1.4. Explain the working of two stroke engine with a suitable
sketch.
Answer
1. In two stroke engine, working is completed in two stroke of the piston
or in one revolution of the crank.
2. In a two stroke engine, suction is achieved by air compressed in crankcase
or blower. The induction of compressed air in the cylinder removes the
product of combustion. Thus no separate piston motions are required
for suction and exhaust.
3. The air or charge is suck through the spring loaded inlet valve during
the upward motion of piston in compression stroke.
4. After compression, ignition and expansion takes place in usual way.
During expansion stroke, the air in the crankcase is compressed.
5. Near the end of the expansion stroke the piston uncovers the exhaust
ports. The cylinder pressure drop to atmospheric temperature as the
combustion product leaves the cylinder.
6. Further downward motion of the piston uncovers the transfer ports,
thus allowing the slightly compressed air in the crankcase to enter the
cylinder space.
Spark plug
Deflector
Outlet port
Transfer
port
Inlet valve
Crank case
Fig. 1.4.1. Two stroke engine.
Que 1.5. Explain with suitable sketch, the working of four stroke
spark ignition engine.
Answer
Working of four stroke spark ignition engine is as follows :
i. Suction Stroke :
1. Suction stroke (Fig. 1.5.1) starts when the piston is at top dead centre
position and about to move toward bottom dead centre.
2. During this stroke, inlet valve is open and outlet valve is closed.
3. Due to the suction created by downward motion of the piston, charge
consists of mixture of air and fuel drawn into the cylinder.
4. At the end of suction stroke, both the inlet and outlet valves are closed.
ii. Compression Stroke :
1. The fresh charge taken into the cylinder during the suction stroke is
compressed during the return stroke of the piston.
2. In this stroke, both the inlet and outlet valves remain closed.
3. Just before the end of the compression stroke, mixture of air and fuel is
ignited with the help of spark plug.
4. Burning takes place when the piston is almost at top dead centre.
5. During the burning process, chemical energy of the charge is converted
into sensible energy and producing a temperature rise of about 2000 °C
and pressure is also increased.
iii. Expansion or Working Stroke :
1. Due to high pressure, burnt gases forces the piston towards the bottom
dead centre so power is obtained during this stroke.
2. Both pressure and temperature decreases during this stroke.
3. In this stroke, both the valves remain closed.
iv. Exhaust stroke :
1. In this stroke, inlet valve is closed and outlet valve is open.
2. Piston moving from bottom dead centre to top dead centre and burnt
gases sweeps out from the cylinder.
3. This stroke is shown in Fig. 1.5.1.
Spark plug
(SP) SP SP SP
Air fuel Exhaust
mixture gases
IV EV
Inlet valve Gas
(IV)
Exhaust
valve Engine
(EV) cylinder
Connecting
rod (CR)
Crank
(C) Suction Compression Working Exhaust
stroke stroke stroke stroke
Fig. 1.5.1. Four stroke spark ignition engine.
Que 1.6. Explain the working of a four stroke compression

ignition (CI) engine with the suitable sketch.
Answer
The working operation for the four stroke CI engine is as follows :
i. Suction Stroke :
1. Only air is inducted during the suction stroke.
2. During this stroke inlet valve is open while outlet valve is closed.
ii. Compression Stroke :
1. Both the valves are closed during compression stroke.
2. Air drawn during the suction stroke is compressed to high temperature
and pressure.
iii. Expansion or Working Stroke :
1. During the beginning of this stroke, fuel is injected.
2. The rate of injection is such that the combustion maintains the pressure
constant.
3. After the injection of fuel, the products of combustion expand.
4. Both the valves are closed during this stroke.
iv. Exhaust Stroke :
1. In this stroke, the exhaust valve is open and inlet valve remains closed.
2. Burnt gases escape from the cylinder by upward motion of the piston.
Fuel injector (FI)
Air-fuel Exhaust
mixture gases
Gas
Inlet valve
(IV)
Exhaust
valve (EV) CR
Suction Compression Working Exhaust

stroke stroke stroke stroke
Fig. 1.6.1. Four stroke compression ignition engine.
Que 1.7. Compare the SI and CI engine.
Answer
S. No. Description SI engine CI engine

1. Basic cycle Otto cycle Diesel cycle
2. Fuel used Gasoline (petrol) Diesel
3. Ignition Spark plug is used. Self ignition due to high
pressure and temperature
caused of compression of
air.
4. Compression 6 to 10 14 to 22
ratio
5. Weight Lighter Heavier
6. Speed High speed Low speed
7. Efficiency Lower efficiency. Higher efficiency.
PART-2
Valve Timing Diagram, Valve Mechanism : Push Rod Type,
Overhead Type (SOHC, DOHC).
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Valve Timing Diagram : It is the diagrammatic representation of
opening and closing of inlet and outlet valves.
SOHC : When a single camshaft governs both intake and exhaust
valves, the setup is commonly known as single overhead camshaft
(SOHC).
DOHC : When there are two camshafts, one to push the inlet valve
and the other to push the ones which let the gases escape from the
cylinder after combustion, the setup is called dual overhead camshaft
(DOHC).
Questions-Answers
Que 1.8. Draw the valve timing diagram for four stroke CI engine
and port timing diagram for two stroke CI engine.
Answer
A. Valve Timing Diagram for Four Stroke CI Engine :
TDC
EVC
FVO 15°
FVC
IVO 15°
25° 25°
Compression
Suction
Expansion
Exhaust
30° 45°
IVC
EVO
BDC
Fig. 1.8.1.
B. Port Timing Diagram for Two Stroke CI Engine :
TDC Fuel Supply
10° 15°
Compression FIS FIC
Expansion
Scavenging
45° 45° Process
60° 60°
EPC EPO
TPC TPO
Exhaust
BDC
Fig. 1.8.2.
Que 1.9. Discuss the valve timing diagram for 4 stroke SI engine.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
1. Fig. 1.9.1 shows the theoretical valve timing diagram for four stroke SI
engine. In which energy stroke is shown by the angle of 180° of
crankshaft rotation.
TDC
EVC
Ignition
IVO
Compression
Expansion
Exhaust
Suction
IVC
EVO
BDC
Fig. 1.9.1. Theoretical valve timing diagram (four stroke SI engine).
2. But it is difficult to open and close the valve so instantaneously.

3. Due to this reason actual valve timing diagram is different from the
theoretical valve timing diagram. Actual valve timing diagram is shown
in Fig. 1.9.2.
TDC
EVC
IVO
10°
Compression
20°
Expansion
Exhaust
Suction
35°
35° 35°
IVC
EVO
BDC
Fig. 1.9.2. Actual valve timing diagram
(four stroke SI engine).
4. The inlet valve is opened 10° to 30° in advance of the TDC position to
enable the fresh charge to enter the cylinder and to escape the burnt
gases into atmosphere.
5. Suction of the charge continue upto 30° to 40° after the BDC at this
point inlet valve is closed and compression process starts.
6. The spark plug produces the spark 30° to 40° before TDC, so fuel gets
more time to burn. The pressure becomes maximum at 10° past the
TDC.
7. The exhaust valve is open at 30° to 60° before BDC and burnt gases
driven out of the cylinder during upward motion of the piston.
8. After that exhaust valve closes at 10° past the TDC.
Que 1.10. Explain in brief about on overhead type valve

mechanism.
Answer
1. In this valve mechanism, a push rod and a rocker arm, to push the
valve against the spring pressure are required.
2. The rocker arm rotates about the rocker arm shaft under the force
exerted by the push rod.
3. The clearance in this valve mechanism is kept between the rocker arm
and the valve stem. This can be adjusted by the screw adjuster also.
4. A suitable gear train or chain is provided to convert the drive from
crankshaft to camshaft.
5. In high speed engines, the frequency of vibration of the valve spring
coincides with the normal operating frequency of the valve hence
leads to resonance and increasing the surging effect.
Rocker Arm
Valve spring retainer
+
Push rod Spring collet
Valve spring
Cam follower
Cam
Valve guide
Camshaft
Valve stem
Valve head
Valve seat insert
Fig. 1.10.1.
Que 1.11. What do you mean by pushrod type valve mechanism ?
Answer
1. In a piston engine configuration where the valves are overhead but the
camshaft is not, informally called push rod engine or I-head engine, the
camshaft is placed within the cylinder block (usually beside and slightly
above the crankshaft in a straight engine or directly above the
crankshaft), and uses push rods or rods to actuate rocker arms above
the cylinder head to actuate the valves.
2. Lifters or tappets are located in the engine block between the camshaft
and push rods.
3. Components of push rod mechanism are :
i. Push rod,
ii. Rocker arm,
iii. Valve, and
iv. Cam.
PART-3
Thermodynamic Analysis of Air Standard Cycles : Otto Cycle,
Diesel Cycle, Dual Cycle, Comparison of Otto, Diesel and
Dual Cycles, Fuel Air Cycle, Factors Affecting the Fuel Air
Cycle, Actual Cycle.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Air Standard Cycle : These are defined as the cycles using a
perfect gas as the working medium. These are also known as ideal
cycle.
Fuel Air Cycle : The theoretical cycle based on the actual properties
of the cylindrical gases is called fuel air cycle.
Actual Cycle : The cycle obtained by subtracting all the losses from
fuel air cycle is known as actual cycle.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.12. Derive an expression for air standard efficiency of Otto

cycle in terms of compression ratio.
Answer
1. It is a constant volume cycle which is mainly used in petrol engine.
2. p-v and T-s diagrams are shown in Fig. 1.12.1(a) and (b) respectively.
3. This cycle consists of four processes :
p T v = Constant
3 3
Qin
Qin
2 4 2 4
Qout
Qout
1 1
v = Constant
v s
(a) p -v diagram. (b) T-s diagram.
Fig. 1.12.1.
i. Process (1-2) :
1. It is isentropic compression.
2. Ratio of v1 and v2 is known as compression ratio and it is denoted
by r,
v1
r=
v2
Where, v1 = Volume at start of compression, and
v2 = Volume at end of compression.
3. Now, p1v1 = p2v2

v 
p2 = p1  1  = p1r
 v2 
ii. Process (2-3) : It is heat addition process. Heat is added during this
process at constant volume.
Qin = Cv(T3 – T2)
iii. Process (3-4) : It is isentropic expansion.
p3v3 = p4v4

v 
p4 = p3  3 
 v4 
p3  v4 v1 
=     r
r  v3 v2 
iv. Process (4-1) : It is heat rejection process. Heat is rejected during this
process at constant volume.
Qout = Cv(T4 – T1)
4 Work done (W) = Heat added – Heat rejected
= Cv(T3 – T2) – Cv(T4 – T1)
Work done
5. Thermal efficiency,  =
Heat input
Cv (T3  T2 )  Cv (T4  T1 )
=
Cv (T3  T2 )
(T3  T2 )  (T4  T1 )
=
(T3  T2 )
T4  T1
= 1 ...(1.12.1)
T3  T2
6. Since, process 1-2 and 3-4 are adiabatic, so
 1
T2 v 
=  1
T1  v2 
= (r)– 1
 T2 = T1 (r)– 1
 1
T3 v 
And, =  4
T4  v3 
= (r)– 1
 T3 = T4 (r)– 1
7. Putting these values in eq. (1.12.1), we have
T4  T1
= 1–
T4 (r )   1  T1 (r)   1
T4  T1
= 1
(T4  T1 )r  1
1
= 1 
r  1
Que 1.13. Derive an expression for mean effective pressure for
Otto cycle.
Answer
1. The net work output for an Otto cycle can be expressed as,
p3v3  p4 v4 p2v2  p1v1
W= 
 1  1
p2 p
2. We know that, = 3 = r
p1 p4
p3 p
 = 4 =  (say)
p2 p1
Also, v1 = rv2 and v4 = rv3
p1v1  p3v3 p4 v4 p2v2 

 W=     1
  1  p1v1 p1v1 p1v1 
p1v1  r  r  pv  1
=    1 = 1 1 (r    r   1  1)
 1  r r   1
p1v1
= [( – 1) (r – 1 – 1)]
 1
3. Swept volume = v1 – v2 = v2(r – 1)
4. The mean effective pressure of the cycle is given by
Work output
pm =
Swept volume
1
p1v1[(  1) (r (   1)  1)]
  1 p r[(  1) (r   1  1)]
pm = = 1
v2 (r  1) (   1) (r  1)
Que 1.14. Show that for max work/kg of air in Otto cycle for a
given upper and lower temperature of T3 & T1, the temperature at
the end of compression T2 and at the end of expansion T4 are equal
and are given by T2 = T4 = (T1 T3)1/2. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
1. The work done per kg of fluid in the cycle is given by,
 T 
W = Cv T3  T1 (r ) 1  31  T1 
 ( r ) 
2. Differentiating W with respect to r and equating to zero,
dW  (   1)T3 
= Cv   T1 (   1) (r)   2  
dr  r
T
– ( – 1) T1(r) – 2 + ( – 1) 3 = 0
r
T
( – 1) T1(r) – 2 = ( – 1) 3
r
T
(r)2 – 2 = 3
T1
1/2 (  1)
T 
r =  3 ...(1.14.1)
 T1 
3. Since, T2 = T1 (r) –1
Substituting the value of r from eq. (1.14.1) in the above equation, we
get
(   1)
 T 1/2 (   1)  T 
1/2
T2 = T1  3    T1  3   T1T3
 
 T1    T1 
4. Similarly, T4 = T3/(r)–1
T3 T3
T4 = (   1)
 1/2
 T3T1
 T  1/2 (   1)   T3 
 3    T 
 T1   1
 T2 = T4  (T1T3 )1/2
Que 1.15. Sketch the Diesel cycle on p-v and T-s diagram and show
in the relevant diagram, the heat supplied and work done in various
processes. Also derive the efficiency expression.
Answer
1. It is a constant pressure cycle which is mainly used in diesel engine.
p Q1 T
3
2 3
Constant
Reversible pressure
adiabatic
 Qin
pv = C
4
2
4 Qout
Q2 1 Constant
1 volume
v s
(a) p-v diagram. (b) T-s diagram.
Fig. 1.15.1.
2. p-v and T-s diagram of diesel cycle are shown in Fig. 1.15.1(a) and (b)
respectively. This cycle consists of following processes :
i. Process (1-2) : It is isentropic compression process.
p1v1 = p2v2
ii. Process (2-3) : It is constant pressure process and heat is added at
constant pressure.
Qin = Cp(T3 – T2)
iii. Process (3-4) : It is isentropic expansion process.
p3v3 = p4v4
iv. Process (4-1) : It is constant volume process and heat is rejected at
constant volume.
3. Work done during the cycle,
W = Heat added – Heat rejected
= Cp(T3 – T2) – Cv(T4 – T1)
Work done
Heat input
C p (T3  T2 )  Cv (T4  T1 ) Cv (T4  T1 )
= = 1
C p (T3  T2 ) C p (T3  T2 )
T 
T1  4  1
 T1   Cp 
= 1 ...(1.15.1)
 T3   C   
T2   1 v
 T2 
5. For reversible isentropic compression and expansion processes,
 1
T1 v 
=  2 ...(1.15.2)
T2  v1 
 1
T4 v 
=  3 ...(1.15.3)
T3  v4 
6. For constant pressure heat addition,
T3 v
= 3 =  (cut-off ratio) ...(1.15.4)
T2 v2
7. From eq. (1.15.2) and eq. (1.15.3), we get
 1
 v3 
T4 T3  v4 
=  
T1 T2  v2 
 v 
1
8. For constant volume process,

v4 = v1
 1 
T4 v v  v 
 = 3  3  3 ...(1.15.5)
T1 v2  v2   v2 
9. Substituting these values in eq. (1.15.1), we get
  v3   
  v  – 1
1 
 2  
 = 1  1
v   v3 
  1  v – 1 
 v2   2 
1    1 
= 1 
 r  1    1 
Que 1.16. Derive an expression for mean effective pressure for
diesel cycle. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
1. The net work output for a diesel cycle is given by,
p3v3 – p4 v4 p2v2 – p1v1
W = p2 (v3 – v2 )  –
 –1  –1
p3v2 – p4 rv2 p2v2 – p1 rv2
= p2v2 ( – 1)  –
 –1  –1
 v3 v1 
 v   and v  r, v4  v1 , vr  rv2 
 2 2 
 p ( – 1) ( – 1)  p3 – p4 r – ( p2 – p1 r) 
= v2  2 
  –1 
  p4   p 
 p2 ( – 1) (  – 1)  p3   – p r – p2  1 – 1 r  
   p2  
= v2  3
  –1 
p2v2[(  1)(  1)     r 1    (1  r 1   )]
=
 –1
 p  v      
 4   3       r   
p  v   r 
 3 4 
p1v1 r   1 [(  1)(   1)     r 1    (1  r1   )]
=
 1
 p  v  v 
 2   1  or p2  p1 r  and 1  r or v2  v1 r  1 
p  v  v
 1 2 2 
p1v1r (  –1) [  ( – 1) – r (1–  ) ( – 1)]
=
 –1
 r – 1
2. Swept volume = v1 
 r 
3. The expression for mean effective pressure can be obtained as,
p1v1r (  –1)[  ( – 1) – ( – 1)]
pm =
 r – 1
(  – 1)v1 
 r 
p1 r  [  ( – 1) – r (1   ) ( – 1)]
=
( – 1) (r – 1)
Que 1.17. Derive an expression for the efficiency of dual cycle
with p-v and T-s diagram. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

OR
Derive the efficiency of dual cycle. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
1. Dual cycle is most suitable for high speed engine. Some part of heat
addition takes place at constant volume (2-3) and rest of the part takes
place at constant pressure (3-4) as shown in Fig. 1.17.1(a).
2. Heat rejection takes place in process (5-1) at constant volume.
3. This cycle is called dual cycle because it has the features of both Otto
cycle and diesel cycle.
3 QS 4 Constant volume
Constant pressure
QS 4
3
T
p 2 5
se 2
5
I
nt e
m
ro QR ol u
pic v
pro 1 t a nt
ce ss 1 C on s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 1.17.1. Dual cycle.
4. For dual cycle,
Total heat supplied = Heat supplied at constant volume (2-3) + Heat
supplied at constant pressure (3-4)
= Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp(T4 – T3)
Heat rejection = Heat rejected at constant volume in process
(5-1)
= Cv(T5 – T1)
5. Thermal efficiency,
Total heat supplied  Heat rejected
=
Total heat supplied
Cv (T3  T2 )  C p (T4  T3 )  Cv (T5  T1 )
=
Cv (T3  T2 )  C p (T4  T3 )
= 1
(T5  T1 )  C p 
    ...(1.17.1)
(T3  T2 )   (T4  T3 )  Cv 
 1
v 
6. We know that, T2 = T1  1   T1 r  1
 v2 
(r = Compression ratio = v1/v2)
p3
T3 = T2  T1 r  1 ( = Pressure ratio = p3/p2)
p2
v4
T4 = T3 = T1 r  1  ( = Cut-off ratio = v4/v3)
v3
 1  1
v  v 
Also, T5 = T4  4   T1 r  1   4 
 v5   v5 
v4 v vv vv
 = 4  4 3  4 2 ( v5 = v1 and v2 = v3)
v5 v1 v3v1 v3 v1
v4 
 =
v5 r
7. Substituting all these values in eq. (1.17.1), we get
 1
v 
T1 r   1  4   T1
 v5 
 = 1
(T1 r   1  T1 r   1 )   (T1 r   1  T1 r   1)
1     1 
= 1   1  
r  (  1)    (  1) 
Que 1.18. Prove that mean effective pressure = (th × p)/(r–1)(–1).
Answer
[Note : The given proof can be proved for Otto, diesel and dual
cycle. We are proving it only for Otto cycle.]
1. The p-v and T-s diagram for Otto cycle are shown in Fig. 1.18.1.
2. The mean effective pressure (pm) is given by,
 P1v1  1 
   1 (r  1) (  1) 
pm =  
(v1  v2 )
p1v1 p1v1
[(r  1  1) (  1)] [(r  1  1) (  1)]
 1  1
= =
v  1
v1  1 v1  1  
r  r
p T v = Constant
3 3
Qin
Qin
2 4 2 4
Qout
Qout
1 1
v = Constant
v s
(a) Otto cycle on p-v diagram. ( b) Otto cycle on T- s diagram.
Fig. 1.18.1.
p1r [(r 1  1) (  1)]

=
(   1) ( r  1)
p1 r r 1 th (  1)  1 
=  th  1   1 
(   1) (r  1) r
p 
th p1 r   3 1
 p2   p3 p4 
=
(  1) ( r  1)     
 p2 p1 
 p  p2 
th p2  3
 p2    p2 
=  r  p 
(  1) ( r  1) 1
th p
pm =
(   1) (r  1)
Que 1.19. Compare the Otto, diesel and dual cycle.

OR
Compare Otto, diesel and dual cycles for the
i. Same compression ratio and heat input.
ii. Same maximum pressure and temperature.
OR
Compare the Otto and diesel cycle for same maximum pressure and
heat input and same compression ratio and heat rejection.
Answer
Comparison between these cycles is done on the basis of following point :
i. Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition :
1. For the same compression ratio and heat addition Otto, diesel and dual
cycle are represented in Fig. 1.19.1 on the p-v and T-s diagram as :
Otto cycle : 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1
Diesel cycle : 1 – 2 – 3 – 4– 1
Dual cycle : 1 – 2 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1
2. Now from the T-s diagram, it is clear that,
Area 5-2-3-6 = Area 5-2-3-6 = Area 5-2-2-3-6.
3. This represents the heat input. So every cycle has same heat input for
same compression ratio which is represented by 1  2.
4. So, Otto cycle has highest efficiency. Diesel cycle has least efficiency
while dual cycle has efficiency between diesel and Otto cycles.
 Otto > Dual > Diesel
3 Constant pressure 3
3 2 3
2 3
2
p 2 3 T
4 4
4 4 4
4
1 1
Constant volume
Isentropic process
v 5 s 6 6 6
(a) (b )
Fig. 1.19.1. Same compression ratio and heat input.
ii. Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection :
1. In Fig. 1.19.2, Otto and diesel cycle are shown. Efficiency of both the
cycle is given as,
Q
Otto = 1  R
QS
QR
Diesel = 1 
QS
2. QS is heat supplied in Otto cycle and equal to the area under the curve
2  3 on T-s diagram.
3. QS is heat supplied in diesel cycle and equal to the area under the curve
2  3 on T-s diagram.
4. From T-s diagram, it is clear that,
QS > QS
(Heat supplied)Otto cyle > (Heat supplied) Diesel cycle
3
3
3'
2 3'
p T
2 4
4
1 1 e
olum
Isentropic process tant v
Con s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 1.19.2. Same compression ratio and heat rejection.
5. So, efficiency of Otto cycle is greater than that of diesel cycle and we can
conclude that,
Otto > Dual > Diesel
iii. Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection :
2 3
Constant 3
pressure
2
nt
p T 2 st a
Is e 2 C on m e
nt r u
opi 4 vol
cp 4
ro c
ess 1 1
Constant volume
v 5 s 6
( a) (b )
Fig. 1.19.3. Same peak pressure, temperature and heat rejection.
1. In Fig. 1.19.3, Otto and diesel cycle are shown on p-v and T-s diagram
as :
Otto cycle : 1-2-3-4
Diesel cycle : 1-2-3-4
2. Efficiency of Otto and diesel cycle is given as,
QR
Otto = 1 
Qs
QR
Diesel = 1 
Qs
3. From the T-s diagram, it is clear that
QS > QS
(Heat supplied)Diesel > (Heat supplied)Otto
4. So, diesel cycle efficiency is greater than Otto cycle.
5. From above analysis, we can conclude that
Diesel > Dual > Otto
iv. Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input :
1. In Fig. 1.19.4, Otto and Diesel cycle are shown on p-v and T-s diagram
as :
Otto cycle : 1-2-3-4-1
Diesel cycle : 1-2-3-4-1
2. From Fig. 1.19.4(b), it is clear that
(Heat rejection)Otto > (Heat rejection)Diesel
3. So, diesel cycle will be more efficient, but one should make note that
cycle having more efficiency have more expansion. So, diesel cycle
efficiency is more and Otto cycle efficiency is least.
4. From this analysis, we can conclude that
2 3
3 3
Isentropic Constant 3
process pressure
p T 2
4
4 2
Isentropic 2 4
process 1 4
1 Constant
volume
v 5 s 6 6
( a) (b )
Fig. 1.19.4. Same maximum pressure and heat input.
Que 1.20. An amount of a perfect gas has initial condition of

volume 1 m3, pressure 1 bar and temperature 18 °C. It undergoes
ideal diesel cycle operation, the pressure after isentropic
compression being 50 bar and the volume after constant pressure
expansion being 0.1 m3. Calculate the temperature at the major
point of the cycle and evaluate the thermal efficiency of diesel cycle.
Answer
Given : T1 = 18 + 273 = 291 K, p = 1 bar, p2 = 50 bar, v1 = 1 m3,

v3 = 0.1 m3
To Find : i. Temperatures at major point of the cycle.
ii. Thermal efficiency of diesel cycle.
Data Assume :  = 1.4 for gas.
1. For the isentropic compression,
(   1) / 
T2  p2 
=  p 
T1 1
 T2 = 291 × (50/1)(1.4 – 1)/1.4

= 889.9 K
p1v1 pv
2. Now = 2 2
T1 T2
11 50  v2
=
291 889.9
 v2 = 0.0612 m3
p2v2 pv
3. Also = 3 3 , and p2 = p3
T2 T3
v3 0.1
 T3 = T2 × = 889.9 × = 1454 K
v2 0.0612
4. For the isentropic expansion,
 1
T4 v 
=  3
T3  v4 
1.4  1
 0.1 
 T4 = 1454  = 578.9 K
 1.0 
Heat supplied  Heat rejected Q
5. thermal = 1 r
Heat supplied Qs
Cv (T4  T1 ) (578.9  291)
= 1– =1–
C p (T3  T2 ) 1.4 (1454  889.9)
 Cp 
= 0.635 or 63.5 %    C 
v
Que 1.21. Explain the significance of fuel-air cycle.
Answer
1. The air standard cycle shows the general effect of only compression
ratio on engine efficiency whereas the fuel-air cycle may be calculated
for various fuel air ratios, inlet pressures and temperatures.
2. A good estimate of the power to be expected from the actual engine can
be made from fuel-air cycle analysis.
3. With the help of fuel-air cycle analysis, peak pressures and exhaust
temperatures can be very closely approximated which affect the engine
structure and design.
4. The effect of many engine variables can be understood better by fuel-air
cycle analysis.
Que 1.22. In an air-standard Otto cycle, the compression ratio is

10. The condition at the beginning of the compression process is
100 kPa and 27 °C. Heat added at constant volume is 1500 kJ/kg,
while 700 kJ/kg of heat is rejected during the other constant volume
process in the cycle. Specific gas constant for air = 0.287 kJ/kgK.
Calculate :
i. Thermal efficiency, and
ii. Mean effective pressure (in kPa) of the cycle.
Answer
Given : r = 10, p1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 27 °C = 300 K, Qs = 1500 kJ/kg,
Qr = 700 kJ/kg, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.
1 1
th = 1   1
1 1.4  1
 0.6019 = 60.19 %
(r) (10)
[  = 1.4 For air]
v1
2. Since, compression ratio, r =
v2
v1
= 10 ...(1.22.1)
v2
RT1 0.287  300
3. Also, v1 = 
p1 100
v1 = 0.861 m3/kg
4. Putting value of v1 in eq. (1.22.1), we get
v2 = 0.086 m3/kg
5. Swept volume,
vS = v1 – v2
= 0.861 – 0.086
= 0.775 m3/kg
6. Mean effective pressure,
Work done
pm =
Swept volume
Qs  Qr 1500  700
pm = 
vS 0.775
= 1032.25 kPa
Que 1.23. Discuss the factors considered for fuel-air cycle.
Answer
Following are the factor consider for fuel-air cycle :
1. The actual composition of cylinder gases. During the operation of engine
the fuel-air ratio changes due to which the relative amounts of CO2,
water vapour etc., also change.
2. Increase of specific heats of gases with temperature increase,
subsequently the value  also changes.
3. Since the fuel-air mixture does not completely combine chemically at
high temperatures (above 1600 K), therefore, at equilibrium condition
gases like CO2, H2, and O2 may be present.
4. The variation in the number of molecules in the cylinder as the
temperature and pressure change.
Que 1.24. What are the causes of deviation of actual cycles from
air standard cycle or fuel-air cycle ?
Answer
Following are the some causes that deviate actual cycles from air
standard cycle or fuel-air cycle :
1. The change in chemical composition of the working substance.
2. The variation of specific heats with temperature.
3. The change in the composition, temperature and actual amount of fresh
charge because of the residual gases.
4. The progressive combustion rather than the instantaneous combustion.
5. The heat transfer to and from the working medium.
6. The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e., loss of work on the expansion
stroke due to early opening of the exhaust valve.
7. Gas leakage, fluid friction etc., in actual engines.
PART-4
Testing and Performance : Performance Parameters, Basic
Measurements, Blow by Measurement, Testing of SI
and CI Engines.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.25. Discuss the performance parameters of an engine.
Answer
i. Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (pmi) :
1. It can be defined as theoretical constant pressure exerted (which can be
imagined) during each power stroke of the engine to produce a work
output equal to the indicated power.
Net work of cycle
pmi =
Stroke volume
ii. Indicated Power (IP) :
1. It is the power developed inside engine cylinder and for 4-stroke engine,
it is expressed as
100 pmi LANx
IP = kW
60  2
2
Where, pmi is in bar, L is in m, A is in m , x is the number of cylinder.
2. For 2-stroke engine, IP will be just double.
iii. Brake Power (BP) :
1. The brake power is the useful power available at the crankshaft or
clutch shaft.
2 NT
BP = kW
60  10 3
and BP = IP – FP
iv. Friction Power (FP) : The difference between indicated power and
brake power is called frictional power.
FP = IP – BP
v. Thermal efficiency : It is the ratio of indicated work done to energy
supplied by the fuel.
vi. Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ith) :
IP IP
1. It is expressed as :ith = 
qA mf  LCV
Where, mf = Mass of fuel used in kg/s

vii. Brake Thermal Efficiency (bth) :
1. It is expressed as
BP BP
bth =
q A mf  LCV
viii. Mechanical Efficiency (m) :
BP bth
1. It is expressed as m = 
IP ith
ix. Volumetric Efficiency (v) : It is defined as the ratio of actual volume
of the charge drawn in during the suction stroke to the swept volume of
the piston.
x. Specific Fuel Consumption :
1. It is the mass of fuel consumed per kW developed per hour.
Fuel consumped (mf )

Specific fuel consumption, sfc = kg/kWh
BP
2. Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) is determined on the basis of
brake output of the engine while indicated specific fuel consumption
(isfc) is determined on the basis of indicated output of the engine.
Que 1.26. Following data relates to 4 cylinders, 2 stroke petrol

engine. Air/Fuel ratio by weight 16:1. Calorific value of the
fuel = 45200 kJ/kg, mechanical efficiency = 82 %, air standard
efficiency = 52 %, relative efficiency = 70 %, volumetric efficiency =
78 %, stroke/bore ratio = 1.25, suction conditions = 1 bar, 25 °C,
speed = 2400 rpm, power at brakes of 72 kW. Calculate :
i. Compression ratio.
ii. Brake specific fuel consumption.
iii. Bore and stroke. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
Given : No. of cylinders = 4, Air/fuel ratio = 16 : 1, C = 45200 kJ/kg,

mech = 82 %, air = 52 %, rel = 70 %, vol = 78 %, Stroke/bore ratio = 1.25,
pre ssure = 1 bar, Tempe rature = 25 °C, Spee d = 2400 rpm,
Brake power = 72 kW
1. We know that,
1
air = 1 
r  1
1
0.52 = 1  (1.4  1) ( For air,  = 1.4)
r
r0.4 = 2.083
r = 6.26
2. Relative efficiency,
rel = th
air
th = air × rel
th = 0.52 × 0.70 = 0.364
BP
3. Brake thermal efficiency bth =
mf C
BP
 mf =
thC
72
=
0.364  45200
mf = 4.376 × 10– 3 kg/sec
= 15.75 kg/hr
mf
4. Brake specific fuel consumption, bsfc =
BP
15.75
= = 0.21875 kg/kW-hr
72
ma 16
5.  =
mf 1
ma = 16 mf = 16 × 4.376 × 10–3 kg/sec
ma = 70.016 × 10–3 kg/sec
6. Volumetric efficiency,
ma
vol =
aVs Nn
70.016  10 3
0.78 =
 2400
1.15   D2 L  4
4 60
D2L = 0.6211 × 10 –3
1.25 D3 = 0.6211 × 10–3 [ L = 1.25 D]

D= 0.0792 m = 79.2 mm
L= 1.25 D
 Stroke length, L = 1.25 × 79.2 = 99 mm
Que 1.27. A six cylinder, 4 stroke SI engine having a piston

displacement of 700 cm3 per cylinder developed 78 kW at 3200 rpm
and consumed 27 kg of petrol per hour. The calorific value of petrol
is 44 MJ/kg. Estimate
a. Volumetric efficiency of the engine if the air-fuel ratio is 12 and
intake air is at 0.9 bar, 32 °C,
b. Brake thermal efficiency, and
c. Braking torque. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
Given : n = 6, BP = 78 kW, mf = 27 kg/h, C = 44 × 103 kJ/kg, N = 3200

rpm, Piston displacement = 700 cm3
1. Intake air pressure, p = 0.9 × 102 kPa and temperature, T = 305 K

ma
Also = 12

mf
 12  27
 ma = kg/s
3600

ma = 0.09 kg/s
p 0.9  100
2. a =  [ R = 0.287]
RT 0.287  305
a = 1.028 kg/m3
 2 N 3200
3. Vactual = D L n = 700 × 10 – 6 × ×6
4 120 120

ma 0.09  106  120
4. vol. = =
aVactual 1.028  700  3200  6
vol. = 78.16 %
BP 78
5. bth = = × 3600 = 0.236 or 23.6 %

mf C 27  44  103
2NT
6. We know that, BP =
120  103
78  120  103
Brake torque, T= = 465.528 N-m
2    3200
Que 1.28. Fuel supplied to an SI engine has calorific value

42000 kJ/kg. The pressure in the cylinder at 30 % and 70 % of the
compression stroke are 1.3 bar and 2.6 bar respectively. Assuming
that compression follows the law pv 1.3 = Constant. Find the
compression ratio. If the relative efficiency of the engine compared
with the air standard efficiency is 50 %. Calculate the fuel
consumption in kg/kWh. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Given : C = 42000 kJ/kg, p1 = 1.3 bar, p2 = 2.6 bar,

Relative efficiency = 0.5
To Find : 1. Compression ratio, and
2. Fuel consumption.
1. Compression ratio,
v2 = 1
v1 = 1 + 0.7(r – 1) = 0.7r + 0.3
v2 = 1 + 0.3(r – 1) = 0.3r + 0.7
p
p2
2.6
1.3
p1
v 2 v 1
70 % 30 % v
Fig. 1.28.1.
1 1
v1  p n
=  2  =  2.6  = 1.7
1.3
v2 p
 1  1.3 
0.7 r  0.3
= 1.7
0.3r  0.7
r = 4.68
1 1
2. Air standard efficiency = 1 –   1 = 1 – = 0.46 = 46 %
r 4.680.4
Indicated thermal efficiency
3. Relative efficiency =
Air standard efficiency
ith = 0.5 × 0.46 = 0.23
IP
4. Now, ith =

Cm

Where m is in kg/s

m 1
= = 1.035 × 10 – 4 kg/kWs
IP 42000  0.23
= 1.035 × 10 – 4 × 3600 kg/kWh
So, fuel consumption = 0.373 kg/kWh
Que 1.29. What do you mean by blow-by measurement ?
Answer
1. Blow-by is the measurement of the unburnt air-fuel mixture and burned
combustible product from the combustion chamber to the crankcase
through the piston rings.
2. High blow-by is quite harmful because it increases the temperature and
contaminates the lubricating oil.
3. In Fig. 1.29.1, an arrangement for measuring the blow-by is shown.
4. It consists of two tubes A and B to carry out the blow-by collected in
piston ring groove and tube B is facilitated with a flow meter to measure
the blow-by product.
Combustion chamber
Cylinder
liner
Piston
B
Sliding
tubes
Fig. 1.29.1. Measurement of blow-by.
Que 1.30. Discuss the various method of measuring friction power.

OR
Explain Willan’s line and Morse test. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
OR
Explain the Willan’s line and Morse test in detail.
Answer
The friction power of an engine is determined by following method :
i. Willan’s Line Method :
1. In this method gross fuel consumption vs. brake power (BP) at a constant
speed is plotted.
2. At a constant speed the load is reduced in increments and the
corresponding BP and gross fuel consumption readings are taken.
3. Then a graph between fuel consumption and BP is drawn and
extrapolated back to cut the BP axis, which is in an indication of the
friction power of the engine at that speed.
Fuel consumption
Power BP
loss
Fig. 1.30.1. Willan’s line method.
ii. Morse Test :
1. Morse test is applicable to only multicylinder engine SI or CI.
2. The engine is first run at required speed and the output is measured.
Then, one cylinder is cut out by shorting the spark plug or by
disconnecting injector.
3. Under this condition all other cylinder cut out with this cylinder.
4. The output is measured by keeping the speed constant at its original
value.
5. The difference in the output is a measure of the indicated power of the
cut out cylinder. Thus, we can find the indicated power for each cylinder
added to find the total IP of the cylinder.
iii. Motoring Test :
1. In this test the engine is first run up to the desired speed by its own
power and allowed to remain under the given speed and load condition
for some time so that oil, water and engine component temperature
reach stable condition.
2. The power of engine during this period is absorbed by a dynamometer.
3. The fuel supply is then cut off and by suitable electric switching devices
the dynamometer is converted to run as a motor to drive the engine.
4. The power supply to the motor is measured which is a measure of FP of
the engine.
Que 1.31. A single cylinder and 4 stroke cycle IC engine when

tested, the following observations available : Area of indicator
diagram = 3 sq.cm, Length of indicator diagram = 4 cm, Spring
constant = 10 bar/cm, Speed of engine = 400 rpm, Brake drum diameter
= 120 cm, Dead weight on brake = 380 N, Spring balance reading
= 50 N, Fuel consumption = 2.8 kg/hr, CV = 42000 kJ/kg, Cylinder
diameter = 16 cm, Piston stroke = 20 cm. Find :
i. FP,
ii. Mechanical efficiency,
iii. bsfc, and
iv. Brake thermal efficiency. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
Given : A = 3 cm2, Spring constant = 10 bar/cm, Length of indicator
diagram = 4 cm, N = 400 rpm, W = 380 N, S = 50 N, Db = 120 cm
 f = 2.8 kg/h, CV = 42000 kJ/kg, D = 16 cm = 0.16 m,
= 1.2 m, m
1
L = 20 cm = 0.2 m, n = 1, k = for 4 stroke cycle.
2
1. Indicated mean effective pressure,

Area of indicator diagram × Spring constant
pmi =
Length of indicator diagram
3  10
= = 7.5 bar
4
2. Indicated power,
npmi LANk  10
IP =
6
1
1  7.5  0.2  ( / 4)  0.162  400   10
= 2
6
= 10.05 kW.
3. Brake power,
(W  S)  Db N (380  50)  1.2  400
BP = 
60  1000 60  1000
= 8.294 kW
4. Also, FP = IP – BP = 10.05 – 8.294 = 1.756 kW
5. Mechanical efficiency,
BP 8.294
mech =  = 82.53 %
IP 10.05
6. Brake specific fuel consumption,
bsfc = Fuel consumption per BP hour
2.8
= = 0.3376 kg/ BP hour.
8.294
7. Brake thermal efficiency,
BP 8.294
bth = 
 f CV
m 2.8
 42000
3600
= 0.2539 or 25.39 %.
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. Describe the basic terminology used in internal combustion

engine.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.2.
Q. 2. Explain with suitable sketch, the working of four stroke
spark ignition engine.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.5.
Q. 3. Compare the SI and CI engine.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.7.
Q. 4. Discuss the valve timing diagram for 4 stroke SI engine.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.9.
Q. 5. Explain in brief about on overhead type valve mechanism.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.10.
Q. 6. Derive an expression for air standard efficiency of Otto cycle
in terms of compression ratio.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.12.
Q. 7. Sketch the Diesel cycle on p-v and T-s diagram and show in
the relevant diagram, the heat supplied and work done in
various processes. Also derive the efficiency expression.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.15.
Q. 8. Derive an expression for the efficiency of dual cycle with
p-v and T-s diagram.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.17.
Q. 9. Compare the Otto and diesel cycle for same maximum
pressure and heat input and same compression ratio and
heat rejection.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.19.
Q. 10. Discuss the performance parameters of an engine.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.25.
Q. 11. Explain the Willan’s line and Morse test in detail.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.30.

2 Combustion
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Combustion : Stages of ........................... 2–2F to 2–6F
Combustion in SI and
CI Engine, Factors
Affecting Combustion
Part-2 : Flame Speed, Ignition Delay, ............... 2–6F to 2–12F

Abnormal Combustion
and its Control
Part-3 : Combustion Chamber : ....................... 2–12F to 2–21F

Squish, Swirl and Tumble,
Combustion Chamber Design
for SI and CI Engine
and Factors Affecting it
Combustion 2–2 F (ME-Sem-5)
PART-1
Combustion : Stages of Combustion in SI and CI
Engine, Factors Affecting Combustion.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Stages of Combustion in SI Engine :
1. Ignition lag or preparation phase,
2. Flame propagation, and
3. After burning.
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine :
1. Ignition delay period,
2. Rapid or uncontrolled combustion,
3. Controlled combustion, and
4. After burning.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.1. Explain the stages of combustion in SI Engine.
Answer
Combustion phenomenon in SI engine can be described in following
three stages :
Stage I : Ignition Lag or Preparation Phase :
1. Ignition lag is the time lag between the first ignition of fuel and beginning
of the main phase of combustion.
2. A is the point of spark, stage I is assumed to be beginning at this moment.
3. Stage I is sort of preparatory phase where the surrounding mixture
temperature is increased by heat transfer from the flame and by certain
chemical reactions.
4. The end of phase I is marked as point B.
5. Point B is obtained as the point where p- curve for combustion process
depart from the normal motoring curve.
6. In motoring test, the spark plug is deactivated and engine is driven by a
motor. So, the pressure variation is the same as if there was no
combustion process.
Pressure
c
Expansion
Compression b
d
a TDC
0° 180° 360°
Crank angle
Fig. 2.1.1. Theoretical p-  diagram.
30 I II III
C
20
Pressure, bar
I = Ignition lag
II = Flame propagation
Spark III = After burning
10
B
A
Motoring
(Non-firing)
80 60 40 20 8 TDC 20 40 60 80
Crank angle, 
Fig. 2.1.2. Stage of combustion in SI engine.
Stage II : Flame Propagation :
1. After the stage I, the mixture is in more ready position to be ignited
since it has absorbed heat from the flame and chemical reaction have
also increased the temperature of mixture.
2. Here the flame propagates rapidly thus consuming the mixture and
releasing energy which manifest itself in the increased temperature
and pressure.
3. End of stage II is the point C where the peak of pressure-angle
(p-) curve reached.
Stage III : After Burning :
1. After the flame propagation stage, there is some amount of energy
released due to the various reassociation reaction.
2. Because of the reassociation reaction some energy releases some charge
which could not burn during second stage, also burn in this stage.
3. Around 10 % energy released by fuel is in the after burning stage.
Que 2.2. Explain the stages of combustion in a CI engine.

OR
Explain the stages of combustion on p- diagram in CI engine.
Answer
Combustion phenomenon in CI engine can be explained in the following
stages :
i. First Stage (Ignition Delay Period) :
1. During this phase the fuel is injected, but it has not been ignited. This is
a sort of preparatory phase.
2. Ignition delay is counted from the start of injection to the point where
p- curve separates from the pure air compression curve.
3. Ignition delay is composed of the two components :
a. Physical Delay :
1. The period of physical delay is the time between the beginning of
injection and attainment of chemical reaction condition.
2. During this period fuel atomized, vaporized and mixed with air.
b. Chemical Delay :
90
80
70
1 2 3 4
Pressure, bar
60
Start of combustion Compression pressure
50
Injection starts B
40 Motoring
0.001 sec (non-firing)
30
20
Injection
10
Atmospheric
0
120 100 80 60 40 20 TDC 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time, degrees of crankshaft rotation
Fig. 2.2.1. Stages of combustion in the CI engine.
1. In this part, chemical reaction increases the temperature of mixture
till the mixture attains the self ignition temperature after which
ignition takes place.
2. Generally, chemical delay is longer than the physical delay.
ii. Second Stage (Rapid or Uncontrolled Combustion) :
1. The rate of combustion is very high during the delay period, sufficient
fuel droplets have accumulated in fuel cylinder and they are ready to
ignite.
2. Stage II starts from point B, and ends at the maximum pressure point of
p- curve.
iii. Third Stage (Controlled Combustion) :
1. At the end of second stage of combustion, the temperature and pressure
are so high that the fuel droplets injected in the third stage burn almost
as they enter and any further pressure rise can be controlled by purely
mechanical means, i.e., by the injection rate.
2. The period of controlled combustion is assumed to end at maximum
cycle temperature.
3. The heat evolved by the end of controlled combustion is about 70 to 80
percent.
iv. Fourth Stage (After Burning) :
1. The combustion continues even after the fuel injection is over, because
of poor distribution of fuel particles. This burning may continue in the
expansion stroke upto 70 to 80 degree of crank travel from TDC. This
continued burning called the after burning.
2. Here some energy is released because of the reassociation reaction
taking place during the burning of fuel.
Que 2.3. What are the factors which affecting combustion or

flame propagation in IC engine.
Answer
Engine variables which affect the flame propagation are as follows :
i. Compression Ratio : High compression ratio results in increased
temperature and pressure, hence increases the flame speed.
ii. Ambient Pressure and Temperature : Flame speed is increased as
the inlet temperature and pressure are increased.
iii. Air-fuel Ratio : Maximum flame velocity occurs when mixture strength
is 10 % more than the stoichiometric ratio. When mixture is made leaner
the flame speed is decreased.
iv. Turbulence : As turbulence increases, the flame speed increases because
of better mixing of charge but excessive turbulence is harmful since it
increases the heat losses to surrounding thereby lowering the
temperature of mixture.
v. Engine Load : Temperature and pressure within the cylinder increases
as the load is increased. So, flame speed increases as load increases.
vi. Engine Speed : A decrease in the engine speed decreases the turbulence
of the mixture resulting in reduced flame speed.
PART-2
Flame Speed, Ignition Delay, Abnormal Combustion and its Control.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Flame Speed : It is the measured rate of expansion of the flame
front in a combustion reaction.
Ignition Delay : It is the time period during which some fuel has
been already admitted but not yet ignited.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.4. Write short note on following :

i. Flame speed, and
ii. Ignition delay.
Answer
i. Flame Speed :
1. The flame speed is the measured rate of expansion of the flame front in
a combustion reaction.
2. In an internal combustion engine, the flame speed of a fuel is a property
which determines its ability to undergo controlled combustion without
detonation.
ii. Ignition Delay :
1. It is also called as preparatory phase during which some fuel has been
already been admitted but has not yet ignited.
2. This period is counted from the start of injection to the point where the
pressure time curve separates from the motoring curve indicated as
start of combustion.
Que 2.5. Explain ignition lag in SI engine. Discuss the effect of
engine variables on ignition lag. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Ignition Lag in SI Engine : Refer Q. 2.1, Page 2–2F, Unit-2.
B. Effect of Engine Variables on Ignition Lag :
i. Fuel : The higher the self-ignition temperature of the fuel used, the
longer the ignition lag.
ii. Mixture Ratio : The ignition lag is minimum for a mixture ratio that
gives the maximum temperature. This air fuel ratio is slightly richer
than the stoichiometric ratio.
iii. Initial Temperature and Pressure : Ignition lag decreases with
increase in temperature and pressure at the time of spark.
iv. Advancing the Spark or Electrode Gap : Advancing the spark means
giving the spark earlier than the present point. Advancing the spark
reduces the ignition lag since the piston compresses the burning gases.
Que 2.6. Discuss variables affecting the delay period.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 3.5
Answer
Following variables affect the ignition delay period :
i. Fuel : A higher cetane number (CN) means a lower delay period and
smoother engine operation.
ii. Injection Pressure or Size of Droplet : Size of droplet depends upon
the injection pressure. Lower the injection pressure, size of droplet is
smallest and it reduces the delay period.
iii. Injection Advance Angle : The delay period increases with increase
in injection advance angle.
iv. Compression Ratio : Increase in compression ratio reduces the delay
period as it increases the temperature and density both.
v. Intake Temperature : Increased intake temperature would result
increase in the compressed air temperature which would reduce the
delay period.
vi. Jacket Water Temperature : Increase in jacket water temperature
also increases compressed air temperature and hence delay period is
reduced.
vii. Fuel Temperature : Increased fuel temperature would reduce delay
period.
viii. Intake Pressure or Supercharging : Increase in intake pressure or
supercharging reduces the auto-ignition temperature and hence reduces
delay period.
ix. Speed : Increase in the speed, reduces the delay period.
x. Air-Fuel Ratio : By increasing air-fuel ratio, the combustion
temperature is lowered and cylinder wall temperature is reduced and
hence delay period increases.
Que 2.7. Explain the different factors affecting detonation in SI
engine. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
i. Fuel Choice : A low self-ignition temperature promotes knock.
ii. Induction Pressure : Increase of pressure decreases the self-ignition
temperature and the induction period. Knock will tend to occur at full
throttle.
iii. Engine Speed : Low engine speeds will give low turbulence and low
flame velocities (combustion period is constant in angle) and knock may
occur at low speed.
iv. Ignition Timing : Advanced ignition timing increases peak pressure
and promotes knock.
v. Mixture Strength : Optimum mixture strength gives high pressures
and promotes knock.
vi. Compression Ratio : High compression ratio increases the cylinder
pressures and promotes knock.
vii. Combustion Chamber Design : Poor design gives long flame paths,
poor turbulence and insufficient cooling all of which promote knock.
viii. Cylinder Cooling : Poor cooling raises the mixture temperature and
promotes knock.
ix. Engine Load : As the load on engine increases, fuel burning also
increases. Due to increase in fuel burning, temperature of cylinder
increase and therefore, knocking of SI engine increases.
Que 2.8. What do you mean by normal & abnormal combustions ?

Also discuss the phenomenon of knocking in IC engine.
Answer
A. Normal and Abnormal Combustions :
1. In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark travels across
the combustion chamber in a fairly uniform manner.
2. Under certain operating conditions the combustion deviates from its
normal course leading to loss of performance and possible damage to
the engine.
3. This type of combustion may be termed as an abnormal combustion or
knocking combustion.
B. Phenomenon of Knocking in IC Engine :
1. A very sudden rise of pressure during combustion accompanied by
metallic hammer like sound is called detonation.
2. The region in which detonation occurs is farthest region from the
sparking plug and is named the detonation zone.
3. The process of detonation or knocking may be explained by referring to
the Fig. 2.8.1, which shows the cross-section of the combustion chamber
with flame advancing from the spark plug location A.
B
C
A D
B C
Fig. 2.8.1. Combustion with knocking.
4. The advancing flame front compresses the end charge BB′D farthest
from the spark plug, thus raising its temperature.
5. The temperature of the end charge also increases due to heat transfer
from the hot advancing flame front. Also some preflame oxidation may
take place in end charge leading to further increase in its temperature.
6. If the end charge BBD reaches its auto-ignition temperature and remains
for some time to complete the preflame reactions, the charge will auto-
ignite leading to knocking combustion.
7. During the preflame reaction period the flame front could move from
BB to CC, and the knock occurs due to auto-ignition of the charge
ahead of CC.
Que 2.9. Write down the effects of detonation. What are the
various ways to control detonation ?
Answer
A. Effect of Detonation :
1. Noise and roughness,
2. Mechanical damage,
3. Carbon deposits,
4. Increase in heat transfer,
5. Decrease in power output and efficiency, and
6. Pre-ignition.
B. Control of Detonation : The detonation can be controlled or even
stopped by the following ways :
1. Increasing engine rpm.
2. Retarding spark.
3. Reducing pressure in the inlet manifold by throttling.
4. Making the ratio too lean or too rich, preferably latter.
5. Water injection increases the delay period as well as reduces the flame
temperature.
6. Use of high octane fuel can eliminate detonation.
Que 2.10. What do you understand by pre-ignition ? What are its

effect ?
Answer
A. Pre-Ignition :
1. It is the ignition of the homogeneous mixture in the cylinder, before the
timed ignition spark occurs, caused by the local overheating of the
combustible mixture.
2. It is initiated by some overheated projecting part such as the sparking
plug electrodes, exhaust valve head, metal corners in the combustion
chamber.
B. Effect of Pre-Ignition :
1. It increases the tendency of detonation in the engines.
2. It increases the heat transfer to the cylinder walls because high
temperature gases remain in contact with the cylinder for a longer
period. The load on the crankshaft during compression is abnormally
high. This may cause crank failure.
3. Pre-ignition in a single cylinder engine will result in a steady reduction
in speed and power output.
4. The increased heat generated makes the pre-igniting cylinder's pistons
and rings seize.
Que 2.11. Write short notes on diesel knock and its control.

Answer
A. Diesel Knock :
1. Diesel knock is the sound produced by the very rapid rate of pressure
rise during the early part of the uncontrolled second phase of
combustion.
2. The primary cause of an excessively high pressure rise is due to a
prolonged delay period.
3. When combustion does commence a relative amount of heat energy
will be released almost immediately, this correspondingly produces the
abnormally high rate of pressure rise, which is mainly responsible for
rough and noisy combustion process under these condition.
B. Diesel Knock Control :
1. The diesel knock can be controlled by reducing delay period.
2. The delay period is reduced by the following :
i. The delay period can be reduced by reducing the degree of
turbulence.
ii. If cetane number of fuel is increased by using dopes and additive,
delay period is reduced.
iii. During the second stage (uncontrolled combustion) pressure rise
in the cylinder is maximum if large amount of fuel is accumulated
in cylinder during delay period. If only a small amount of fuel is
injected in this stage, knocking can be reduced.
Que 2.12. What are the causes of delay period which results in
diesel knock ?
Answer
Causes of delay period which results in diesel knock :
1. A low design compression ratio permitting only a marginal self-ignition
temperature to be reached.
2. A low combustion pressure due to worn piston rings or badly seating
valves.
3. Poor fuel ignition quality that is a low cetane number fuel.
4. A poorly atomized fuel spray preventing early ignition to be established.
5. An inadequate injector needle spring load producing coarse droplet
formation.
6. A very low air intake temperature in cold weather and during cold
starting.
Que 2.13. Compare knocking phenomenon in SI and CI engines.

Answer
S. No. Knocking in SI Engines Knocking in CI Engines
1. It occurs near the end of It occurs near the beginning of

combustion. combustion.
2. Pressure rise is high. Pressure rise is not as high as in
SI engines.
3. Pre-ignition occurs. There is no pre-ignition.
4. Easy to distinguish between N ot so easy to distinguish
knocking and non-knocking between knocking and non-
operation. knocking operation.
PART-3
Combustion Chamber : Squish, Swirl and Tumble, Combustion
Chamber Design for SI and CI Engine and Factors Affecting it.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.14. What do you mean by air swirl ? What are the three
methods of generating swirl in CI engine combustion chamber ?
Answer
A. Air Swirl :
1. For the proper mixing of fuel and air in short time in combustion chamber
an organized air movement is provided to produce high relative velocity
between the fuel droplets and air. This movement of air is called air swirl.
B. Methods of Generating Air Swirl in CI Engine :
i. Induction Swirl :
1. This swirl is generated by directing the flow of the air during
its entry into the cylinder.
2. This method is used in open combustion chamber.
ii. Compression Swirl :
1. This swirl is generated by forcing the air through a tangential
passage into a separate swirl chamber during the compression
stroke.
2. This method is used in swirl chambers.
iii. Combustion Induced Swirl :
1. This swirl is generated by use of initial pressure rise due to
partial combustion to create swirl turbulence.
2. This method is used in pre-combustion chambers and air-cell
chambers.
Que 2.15. What do you understand by squish and tumble method
of intensifying the rate of burning ?
Answer
i. Squish :
1. When the piston approaches TDC at the end of compression stroke,
the volume around the outlet edges of the combustion chamber is
suddenly reduced to a very small value.
2. Many modern combustion chamber designs have most of the clearance
volume near the centreline of the cylinder.
3. The gas mixture occupying the volume at the outer radius of the
cylinder is forced radially inward as this outer volume is reduced to
near zero. This radial inward motion of the gas mixture is called squish.
4. It adds to other mass motions within the cylinder to mix the air and
fuel and to quickly spread the flame front.
ii. Tumble :
1. As the piston nears TDC squish motion generates a secondary rotational
flow called tumble. This rotation occurs about a circumferential axis
near the outer edge of the piston bowl.
Que 2.16. What are the types of combustion chamber used in CI
engines ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

OR
Explain the types of combustion chamber used in CI engines ?
OR
Sketch some important designs of open combustion chamber for
CI engines. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
Answer
Combustion chambers for CI engine are of following types :
i. Open or Direct Injection Combustion Chamber :
1. It is defined as one in which the combustion space is essentially a single
cavity with little restrictions from one part of the chamber to the other
and hence no large difference in pressure between parts of the chamber
during combustion.
2. The fuel is directly injected into the clearance space provided by the
shape of the piston crown.
3. The swirl used in this chamber is induction swirl.
4. This type of chamber is ordinarily used on low speed engines.
5. Depending upon the shape, these combustion chambers are further
classified as :
i. Shallow depth chamber,
ii. Hemispherical chamber,
iii. Cylindrical chamber, and
iv. Toroidal chamber.
(a) Shallow depth chamber (b) Hemispherical chamber
(c) Cylindrical chamber (d) Toroidal chamber

Fig. 2.16.1. Open combustion chambers.
6. The main advantages of this type of chamber are :

i. Minimum heat loss during compression.
ii. No cold starting problem.
iii. Fine atomization because of multi-hole nozzle.
ii. Turbulent Chamber :
Fig. 2.16.2. Turbulent chamber.

1. In the turbulent chamber the upward moving piston forces all the air at
a greater velocity into a small anti chamber, thus imparting a rotary
motion to the air passing the pintle type nozzle.
2. As the fuel is injected into the rotating air, it is partially mixed with this
air and commences to burn.
3. The pressure built up in the anti chamber by the expanding burning
gases force the burning and unburned fuel and air mixtures back into
the main chamber, again imparting high turbulence and further assisting
combustion.
4. It has the following advantages :
i. Good mixing during controlled combustion.
ii. Shortens the delay period resulting in smoother running.
iii. Suitable for high speeds.
iii. Pre Combustion Chamber :
1. It consists of pre combustion chamber or anti chamber connected to the
main chamber through a number of very small holes contains 20 to 30
percent of the clearance volume.
2. The fuel is injected into pre chamber in such a manner that bulk of it
reaches the neighbourhood of the orifice separating the two chambers.
3. The combustion is initiated in the pre chamber and the resulting pressure
rise forces the flaming droplets together with some air and their
combustion products to rush out at high velocity through the small
holes, thus both creating strong secondary turbulence and distributing
them throughout the air in the main combustion chamber where bulk
of combustion takes place.
4. About 80 percent of energy is released in main combustion chamber.
i. Tendency to knock is minimum due to short delay period.
ii. Rapid mixing of fuel and air.
Nozzle
Pre chamber
Orifice
Piston
Fig. 2.16.3. Pre combustion chamber.
iv. Air-Cell Chamber :
1. In this type of combustion chamber, induced swirl is used.
Inlet and Two-part energy cell
exhaust valves
Cylinder
head
Cylinder
Piston
Two-lobed main combustion chamber
Fig. 2.16.4. Lanova air-cell combustion chamber.

2. In this chamber, clearance volume is divided into two parts, one is main
cylinder and other is energy cell or air-cell.
3. The energy cell has two chambers which are separated from each other
and from the main chamber by narrow orifice.
i. Short delay period.
ii. Smooth running.
ii. Easy starting.
iv. Rapid mixing of air and fuel during controlled combustion stage.
Que 2.17. What are the types of combustion chamber used in SI
engines ?
Answer
Various types of combustion chamber used in SI engines are as follow :
i. T-Head Combustion Chamber :
1. This type of combustion chamber has inlet and exhaust valves on opposite
side of cylinder.
2. The spark plug is located near the exhaust.
3. It has the following characteristics :
i. Good turbulence.
ii. Short cylinder block.
iii. Long flame travel and greater tendency to knock.
iv. Unsatisfactory fuel and air utilization.
Spark
plug
Exhaust
Inlet
valve
valve
Fig. 2.17.1. T-head combustion chamber.

ii. L-Head Combustion Chamber :
1. This is a modification of T-type of combustion chamber.
2. In this combustion chamber, the two valves are on the same side of the
cylinder and the valves are operated by a single camshaft.
3. The main objectives of the Ricardo’s turbulent head design as shown in,
Fig. 2.17.2, is to obtain fast flame speed and reduced knock.
4. It has following characteristics :
i. Provide high turbulence.
ii. Short flame travel.
iii. High power output.
iv. Design is better than T and F type.
S
Inlet
I E
Exit
Fig. 2.17.2. L-head type.

iii. I-Head Type or Overhead Valve :
1. In this type, both the valves are located on the cylinder head.
2. The overhead valve engine is superior to a side valve or an L-head
engine at high compression ratio.
3. Some of the important characteristics of this type of valve arrangement
are :
i. Very high turbulence.
ii. Smooth operation.
iii. Higher volumetric efficiency.
iv. High output.
I, E
Fig. 2.17.3. I-head type.
iv. F-Head Combustion Chamber :

1. Combustion chamber in which one valve is in head and other is in block
is known as F-head combustion chamber.
2. This design is better than T-head type combustion chamber in
performance but valve operating mechanism is complicated and requires
two sets of cam shafts.
Exit S
Inlet
I
Fig. 2.17.4. F-head type.
Que 2.18. What are the primary considerations in the design of

combustion chamber for CI engines ?
Answer
The consideration can be summarized as follows :
1. High thermal efficiency.
2. Ability to use less expensive fuel.
3. Ease of starting.
4. Ability to handle variations in speed.
5. Smoothness of operation i.e., avoidance of diesel knock and noise.
6. Low exhaust emission.
7. Nozzle design.
8. High volumetric efficiency.
9. High brake mean effective pressure.
Que 2.19. Discuss the general principles of SI engine combustion

chamber design.
Answer
Design principles of SI engine combustion chamber are as follows :
1. To achieve high volumetric efficiency, the largest possible inlet valve
should be accommodated with ample clearance round the valve heads.
2. To prevent detonation, the length or flame travel from the sparking
plug to the farthest point in the combustion space should be as short as
possible.
3. The shape of the chamber should be such that the largest mass of the
charge burns as soon as possible after ignition with progressive
reduction in the mass of charge burnt towards the end of combustion.
4. To ensure high thermal efficiency and satisfactory initial combustion
conditions, the heat flow should be minimum in the zone around
sparking plug.
5. There should be good scavenging of the exhaust gases.
6. To achieve maximum thermal efficiency for a given grade of fuel, the
highest possible compression ratio must be employed.
Que 2.20. What are the objectives of good combustion chamber

design ?
Answer
Following are the objectives of good combustion chamber design :
1. To optimize the filling and emptying of the cylinder with fresh unburn
charge respectively over the engine’s operating speed range.
2. To create the condition in the cylinder for the air and fuel to be
thoroughly mixed and then excited into a highly turbulent state so that
the burning of the charge will be completed in the shortest possible
time.
3. To prevent the possibility of detonation at all times, as far as possible.
Que 2.21. What are the des irable factors for combus tion
chambers in SI engines ?
Answer
Following are the desirable factors for combustion chambers in SI
engines :
1. Smallest possible ratio of surface area of chamber to its volume. This
minimizes heat loss to the cooling system.
2. Shortest travel distance for the flame front.
3. Sufficient swirl of the incoming mixture to get a uniform mixture
rapidly. However, excessive swirl may cause excessive heat loss.
4. Adequate cooling of the exhaust valve.
5. Provision for the cooling of spark plug by the incoming fresh charge to
avoid pre-ignition under wide throttle conditions.
6. Adequate sizes and numbers of inlet and exhaust valves for higher
volumetric efficiency at higher speeds and to expel the exhaust gases
completely, respectively.
Que 2.22. Discuss factors affecting combustion chamber design.
Answer
Following are the factors affecting combustion chamber design :
i. Swirl :
1. It is the rotational flow of charge within the cylinder, about its axis.
Induction swirl is created by so positioning the induction (i.e., inlet)
port passage to one side of the cylinder axis so that the flow discharges
into the cylinder tangentially.
ii. Swirl Ratio :
1. Cylinder air swirl is the angular rotational speed of air about the cylinder
axis. For convenience it can be related to the angular rotational speed
of the crankshaft, the ratio of the two being called as swirl ratio i.e.,
Ai r rotational speed
Swirl ratio =
Cr ankshaft rotational speed
2. With helical ports, swirl ratio of 5 at TDC can be achieved with a flat
piston crown, which can be increased to 15 in case of piston with bowl.
iii. Surface to Volume Ratio :
1. The larger this ratio for a combustion chamber, the higher will be the
heat losses and cooler will be the walls of the combustion chamber, due
to which higher will be the exhaust gas hydrocarbon concentration.
2. Therefore, to minimize the formation of hydrocarbons, the surface to
volume ratio should be minimum.
3. The combustion chamber with the least surface area containing a
given volume is the spherical type. Thus a double hemispherical
chamber has the least surface to volume ratio.
4. Chambers with small quench area have small surface to volume ratios.
5. Increasing compression ratio increases the surface to volume ratio.

Q. 1. Explain the stages of combustion in SI Engine.

Ans. Refer Q. 2.1.
Q. 2. Explain the stages of combustion in a CI engine.

Ans. Refer Q. 2.2.
Q. 3. Explain ignition lag in SI engine. Discuss the effect of engine

variables on ignition lag.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.5.
Q. 4. What do you mean by normal and abnormal combustions ?

Also discuss the phenomenon of knocking in IC engine.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.8.
Q. 5. What are the types of combustion chamber used in CI

engines ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.16.
Q. 6. What are the types of combustion chamber used in SI

engines ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.17.

3 Carburetion, Fuel
Injection and
Turbocharging
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Carburetion, Mixture ................................. 3–2F to 3–3F
Requirements
Part-2 : Carburetors and Fuel ............................... 3–3F to 3–10F

Injection System
in SI Engine
Part-3 : MPFI, Scavenging ................................... 3–10F to 3–13F

in 2 Stroke Engines
Part-4 : Fuel Injection in CI Engines, ............... 3–13F to 3–14F

Requirements
Part-5 : Types of Injection Systems, .................. 3–15F to 3–23F

Fuel Pumps, Fuel Injectors,
Injection Timings
Part-6 : Turbocharging and its ............................ 3–23F to 3–27F

Types : Variable
Geometry Turbocharger,
Waste Gate Turbocharger,
Effect of Turbocharging
on Power and Emission
Carburetion, Fuel Injection & Turbocharging 3–2 F (ME-Sem-5)
PART-1
Carburetion, Mixture Requirements.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.1. Define carburetion. What are the factors which affect
the process of carburetion ?
Answer
A. Carburetion : In the SI engine, a combustible fuel air mixture is
prepared outside the engine cylinder. The process of preparing this
mixture is called carburetion.
B. Factors affecting Carburetion :
1. The engine speed.
2. The time available for the preparation of the mixture.
3. The vapourisation characteristics of fuel.
4. The temperature of the incoming air.
5. The design of the carburetor.
Que 3.2. What are the mixture (air-fuel ratio) requirement for :
i. Maximum power,
ii. Maximum economy,
iii. No load,
iv. Normal load, and
v. Full load.
Answer
i. Mixture Requirement for Maximum Power :
1. The mixture (air + fuel) ratio required is 12.5 : 1 (richer).
2. The maximum energy is released when slightly excess fuel is used
because all the oxygen present in the cylinder is utilized.
3. More rich mixture than this is not helpful because it will result in poor
combustion and lesser release of energy.
ii. Mixture Requirement for Maximum Economy :
1. The maximum economy is obtained when slightly leaner mixture is
used because excess of air present ensures that all fuel is utilized with
good combustion processes.
2. More lean mixture than required is not helpful as it will lower the cycle
temperature and the efficiency.
iii. Mixture Requirement for No Load Condition or Idling
Condition :
1. The rich mixture is required when there is idling or no load condition.
iv. Mixture Requirement for Normal Load (Economy Range) :
1. In this range, the dilution by residual gases and locked air is reduced and
primary concentration is maintenance of economy.
2. So, slightly leaner air-fuel ratio is needed around 16.5 : 1.
v. Mixture Requirement for Full Load (Power Range) :
1. Rich mixture is needed for power range. Besides providing maximum
power a rich mixture also prevents overheating of exhaust valve at high
load and inhibits detonation.
Que 3.3. What are the mixture requirements for :

i. Starting and warm up, and
ii. Acceleration.
Answer
i. Mixture Requirement for Starting and Warm Up :
1. While starting from cold, the engine temperature is low. So, the fuel
sent by carburetor, which is in vapour form gets condensed on its way to
the engine.
2. The heavy ends (having high boiling point and less volatility)
hydrocarbons are more tend to condensation.
3. So, mixture that is send should be rich so that enough of light end (low
boiling point) are available in the cylinder and air-fuel ratio in cylinder is
within combustible range.
ii. Mixture Requirement for Acceleration :
1. During acceleration, the throttled valve is opened which means more of
the charge has to go inside the cylinder but liquid fuel lag behind because
of inertia.
2. To compensate this, rich mixture is required so that in cylinder sufficient
amount of evaporated fuel is present for more energy.
PART-2
Carburetors and Fuel Injection System in SI Engine.
Questions-Answers

Que 3.4. What is carburetor ? Discuss its function. Also classify
the various types of carburetor.
Answer
A. Carburetor and its Function :
1. Carburetor is an essential part of the petrol engine and it is used on both
the two stroke and the four stroke engines.
2. A carburetor vaporizes the petrol and mixes it with the air in such a
proportion which is in accordance with the weather and the driving
conditions.
3. The functions of a carburetor are as follows :
i. It maintains a small quantity of fuel (i.e., petrol) in the float chamber
at constant head to ensure uninterrupted supply for vaporization.
ii. It converts the liquid petrol into vapour form for convenient mixing
with air i.e., atomization of fuel occurs.
iii. It prepares a homogeneous mixture of air and vaporized petrol.
B. Classification :
i. On the Basis of Direction of Air Flow :
1. Up draught carburetor,
2. Down draught carburetor, and
3. Horizontal draught carburetor.
ii. On the Basis of Number of Venturies :
1. Single venturi carburetor, and
2. Multi venturi carburetor.
iii. On the Basis of Number of Jets :
1. Single Jet carburetor, and
2. Multi jet carburetor.
iv. On the Basis of Fuel Used :
1. Liquid fuel carburetor, and
2. Gas carburetor.
v. On the Basis of Application of the Vehicle :
1. Two wheeler carburetor,
2. Passenger car carburetor,
3. Racing car carburetor,
4. Agricultural tractor carburetor, and
5. Producer gas carburetor.
vi. On the Basis of Commercial Trade Names :
1. Zenith carburetor,
2. Solex carburetor,
3. Carter carburetor,
4. Stromberg carburetor,
5. Spaco carburetor,
6. Mikuni carburetor,
7. Jetex carburetor, and
8. SU carburetor.
Que 3.5. Briefly explain with a neat sketch the operation of a
simple float type carburetor. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
A. Construction of Simple Float Type Carburetor :
1. A simple float type carburetor is shown in Fig. 3.5.1. It consists of a float
chamber with needle valve, nozzle with metering orifice, venturi and
throttle valve.
2. In float chamber, a constant level of fuel is maintained.
3. Whenever the level of fuel in float chamber goes down below the
designed level, float comes lower and thereby opens the needle of the
valve to supply more fuel from fuel tank.
4. When the level is reached, the float move upward and closes the valve.
B. Working of Simple Float Type Carburetor :
Air-fuel mixture to cylinders
Throttle valve
Fuel from
Vent Strainer pump
Needle
Venturi valve
h
Float
Nozzle
(discharge jet)
Float chamber (to maintain

constant fuel level)
Choke Air inlet
Fig. 3.5.1. A simple float type carburetor.
1. During the suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi. Venturi is a
tube of decreasing cross-section which reaches a minimum at the throat.
2. When air flows through the venturi, its velocity increases and pressure
decreases in the throat. This pressure is below the atmospheric pressure
but the pressure of fuel in float chamber is atmospheric.
3. So, fuel is fed through the discharge jet in venturi, where air is flowing
during suction stroke. Thus, mixture of air and fuel is prepared in
carburetor. This mixture is supplied to the cylinder.
4. Discharge of fuel in venturi is through the jet. The size of the jet is
chosen empirically to give the required engine performance.
Que 3.6. Explain the construction and working of a simple

carburetor. Also describe with suitable sketch the working of choke
and idling system in case of carburetor.
Answer
A. Cons truction and Working of a Simple Carburetor :
Refer Q. 3.5, Page 3–5F, Unit-3.
B. Idling System :
1. Fig. 3.6.1 shows an idling system.
2. It consists of a small fuel line from the float chamber to a point on the
engine side of the throttle; this line contains a fixed fuel orifice.
To engine
Throttle valve
almost closed Fuel line
Air bleed
Idle adjust
Idle jet
Venturi
Float
chamber
Air
Fig. 3.6.1. Idling system.
3. When throttle is practically closed, the full manifold suction operates on
the outlet to this jet. Besides local suction is increased due to very high
velocity past the throttle valve. Fuel therefore can be lifted by the
additional height upto the discharge point, but this occurs only at very
low rates of air flow.
4. When the throttle is opened, the main jet gradually takes over and the
idle jet eventually becomes ineffective.
5. The idle adjust (a needle valve controlling the air bleed, which is manually
operated) regulates the desired A/F ratio for the idling jet.
C. Choke :
1. A choke is simply butterfly valve located between the entrance to the
carburetor and the venturi throat as shown in Fig. 3.6.2.
2. When the choke is partly closed, large pressure drop occurs at the
venturi throat, would normally result from the amount of air passing
through the venturi throat.
3. The very large carburetor depression at the throat inducts large amount
of fuel from the main nozzle and provides a very rich mixture so that the
ratio of the evaporated fuel to air in the cylinder is within the combustible
limits.
Fuel-air mixture
to engine
Throttle
Venturi
Float
chamber
Choke
Air
Fig. 3.6.2. Choke valve with spring loaded by-pass.
Que 3.7. Derive an expression for A/F ratio

i. Neglecting compressibility, and
ii. Taking compressibility into account.
Answer
i. Neglecting the Compressibility of Air (Approximate Analysis) :
1. Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1-1 and 2-2, the equation for air
is given by
p1 C12 p C2
 = 2 2 ...(3.7.1)
a 2 a 2
Where, a = Density of air in kg/m . 3
p1, p2 = Pressure at sections 1-1 and 2-2 respectively.

C1, C2 = Velocities at sections 1-1 and 2-2 respectively.
2. Assuming initial velocity of air to be zero (C1 = 0), density of air (a) to be
constant since air is assumed incompressible, we have
p1 p C2
= 2 2 ...(3.7.2)
a a 2
2( p1  p2 ) 2pa
 C2 =  ...(3.7.3)
a a
Where, pa = p1 – p2
Throttle valve
Fuel from
Vent Strainer pump
Needle
Venturi 2 valve
2 h
Float
Nozzle
(Discharge jet)

1 1
Air inlet
Fig. 3.7.1. A simple or elementary carburetor.
3. Mass of air per second,


ma = C2 A2a  A2 2a pa ...(3.7.4)
Where, A2 = Area of venturi throat in m2.
4. Similarly, for the flow of fuel, we have
2
p1 p C
= 2  f + gz ...(3.7.5)
f f 2
Where, f = Constant density of fuel, and
Cf = Velocity of flow of fuel.
2( p1  p2  gzpf ) 2(pa  gzpf )
 Cf =  ...(3.7.6)
f f
5. Theoretical mass of fuel per second,

mf = AfCff = Af 2 f (pa  gz f ) ...(3.7.7)
Where, Af = Cross-sectional area of the fuel jet in m2.
6. So, Air-fuel (A/F) ratio,

ma A2 2 a pa A2 a pa

= 
Af 2 f (pa  gz f ) Af f (pa  gz f )
mf
...(3.7.8)
7. If Cda and Cdf are the coefficients of discharge of venturi and fuel jet
respectively, then

ma Cda A2 a pa

= ...(3.7.9)
Cdf Af f (pa  gz f )
mf
8. If z = 0, then,

ma Cda A2 a

=
mf Cdf Af f
ii. Taking into Consideration the Compressibility of Air (Exact

Analysis) :
1. When the compressibility of air is taken into account, the air flow will
change but the fuel flow will remain unchanged. Applying steady flow
energy equation (SFEE) at section 1-1 and 2-2, we get,
C22  C12
Q – W = (h2 – h1) +
2
Where, h1, h2 = Enthalpies at section 1-1 and 2-2 respectively.
2. Since Q = 0, W = 0 and C1 = 0
 C2 = 2(h1  h2 )
Substituting h1 = cpT1 and h2 = cpT2, we get
 T
C2 = 2c pT1  1  2  ...(3.7.10)
 T1 
3. Since the flow process between the atmosphere and the venturi throat
is isentropic,
 1
T2  p2  
= ...(3.7.11)
T1  p 
1
4. Substituting eq. (3.7.11) in eq. (3.7.10), we get

  p  (  1)/  
C2 = 2 cpT1 1   2   ...(3.7.12)
  p1  
5. Now, the mass of flow of air is constant from inlet to venturi throat, and
is given by,

A1C1 A2C2
ma =  ...(3.7.13)
v1 v2
Where, v1, v2 = Specific volumes at section 1-1 and 2-2
respectively.
6. Since, p1v1 = p2v2
1/  1/ 
p  RT1  p1 
 v2 = v1  1   ...(3.7.14)
 p2  p1  p2 
7. Substituting the values of C2 from eq. (3.7.12) and v2 from eq. (3.7.14) in
eq. (3.7.13), we get theoretical mass flow of air,
1/ 

A2 p1  p2    p  (  1) /  
ma = 2 cpT1 1   2  
RT1  p1  p
  1  
A2 p1   p  2/   p  (  1) /  
= 2c p   2    2   ...(3.7.15)
R T1   p1   p1  
8. So, the A/F ratio is given as,
2/  (  1) / 
 p  p  

2 cp   2   2  
ma Cda A2 p1  p1   p1  
So, 
=
Cdf Af R T1 2 f (pa  gz f )
mf
PART-3
MPFI, Scavenging in 2 Stroke Engines.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.8. Describe MPFI system with the help of neat sketch.
Answer
1. An MPFI system is as shown in Fig. 3.8.1.
2. The main task of MPFI system is to supply a proper ratio of gasoline and
air into the cylinders.
3. It consists of following three components :
A. Air Intake System :
1. In this system, the air is filtered by the air cleaner passes through the
throttle body and is distributed by the intake manifold and finally drawn
into each combustion chamber.
2. Opening and closing of throttle valve is controlled by ECU according to
demand & necessity with proper calculation with input system.
Full supply
Fuel filter Fuel pump, high pressure
Fuel pressure
regulator
Fuel rail
Injectors
Return line
Sensor harness Electronic

control unit (ECU)
Throttle Coolant Oil temp Oxygen Intake

position temp (if fitted) sensor air temp
(if fitted)
Fig. 3.8.1.
B. Fuel Delivery System :

1. The fuel in the fuel tank is pumped up by the fuel pump, filtered by fuel
filter and fed under pressure to each injector through the delivery pipe.
2. The fuel is injected into the intake port of the cylinder head when the
injector opens according to the injection signal from ECM.
C. Electronic Control System :
1. The electronic control system consists of various sensors which detect
the state of engine and driving conditions.
2. It controls various devices according to the signals from the sensors and
various controlled devices such as :
i. Fuel Injection Control System,
ii. Idle Speed Control System,
iii. Fuel Pump Control System,
iv Ignition Control System,
v. Radiator Fan Control System.
Que 3.9. Discuss various types of MPFI for SI engines.
Answer
Various types of MPFI for SI engines are as follows :
i. Port Injection :
1. In this type of system, the injector is placed near the intake manifold
of the intake port and through the injector gasoline coming out and
mixes properly with air.
2. Thereafter, this mixture of gasoline and air passes through the
intake valve and enters into the cylinder.
3. In this system, number of injectors is equal to the number of
cylinders.
Air
Injector
Fuel spray
Fig. 3.9.1. Multi-point fuel injection (MPFI) near port.
ii. Throttle Body Injection System :

1. As shown in Fig. 3.9.2, an injector is placed near the throat of the
throttle body.
Injector
Air Air
Throttle body Fuel spray

Intake
manifold
Fig. 3.9.2. Throttle body injection (Single point).

2. The injector sprays gasoline into the air in the intake manifold
where gasoline mixes with air.
3. Thereafter mixture passes through the throttle valve and enters
into the intake manifold.
Que 3.10. Explain the scavenging process in two stroke engines.
Answer
1. In a two stroke engine because of non-availability of an exhaust stroke
at the end of an expansion stroke, its combustion chamber is left full of
combustion products. The process of clearing the cylinder after the
expansion stroke is called scavenging process.
2. Scavenging process can be divided into following four parts :
i. Pre-blowdown :
1. On the opening of inlet ports, the gases expanding in the main cylinder
tend to escape from it and to pre-discharge into the scavenge air manifold.
2. This process ends with the opening of exhaust port.
ii. Blowdown :
1. With the opening of exhaust ports, the gases present in cylinder discharge
into the exhaust manifold and pressure inside the cylinder drop to a
value lower than the pressure of scavenge air.
2. The blowdown process terminates at the moment the gas pressure
inside the cylinder attain a value slightly less than air pressure inside
scavenge manifold.
iii. Scavenging :
1. This phase of scavenging process start at the moment at spontaneous
exhaust gases from the cylinder terminates and ends at the moment the
exhaust ports are closed.
2. The scavenge air sweeps out all residual gases remaining in the main
cylinder at the end of spontaneous exhaust and replaces them as
completely as possible with fresh charge.
iv. Additional Charging :
1. After the completion of scavenging phase, the fresh charge continues to
flow into the cylinder and pressure in cylinder rises.
2. This results in better filling of the cylinder.
PART-4
Fuel Injection in CI Engines, Requirements.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.11. Explain the phenomenon of fuel injection in CI engine.
Answer
1. In diesel engine air is alone drawn into the cylinder during suction
stroke and compressed to very high pressure. The compression ratio
used in diesel engine varies from 16 : 1 to 20 : 1.
2. Due to compression, the pressure and temperature of air is raised to a
value required for ignition of the fuel.
3. At the end of the compression stroke, pressure is about 28 bar to 70 bar
and temperature is about 520 °C to 720 °C.
4. Fuel is injected by means of injector at the end of the compression
stroke, thus require a high injection pressure.
5. During the injection process, fuel is broken into fine spray of very small
droplet. These droplets take heat from the hot compressed air so these
droplets of fuel changed into the vapour and get mixed with air.
6. Due to continuous heat transfer from the hot air to the fuel, the
temperature of fuel reach a value greater than the self ignition
temperature of fuel and fuel starts to ignite.
Que 3.12. What are the functional requirements of an injection

system ?
Answer
A fuel injection system must meet the following requirements :
1. Accurate metering of fuel injected per cycle.
2. The fuel should be introduced into combustion chamber within a precisely
defined period of cycle.
3. Proper control of the rate of injection.
4. Proper atomization of fuel into fine droplet.
5. Proper spray pattern to ensure rapid mixing of the air and fuel.
6. Uniform distribution of fuel droplet in combustion chamber.
7. In case of multicylinder engine, supply equal quantity of fuel in each
cylinder.
8. No lag during beginning and end of injection.
PART-5
Types of Injection Systems, Fuel Pumps, Fuel Injectors, Injection
Timings.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Fuel Pump : The function of fuel pump is to deliver accurately metered
quantity of fuel under pressure at correct instant to the injector fitted
on each cylinder.
Fuel Injector : The main function of injector is to atomize the fuel
into the fine droplet which increases the surface area of the fuel droplet
resulting in better mixing and hence better combustion.
Injection Timing : The timing at which the injection of the fuel takes
place inside the inlet manifold is called injection timing.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.13. How are the injection system classified ? Describe them
briefly. Why the air injection system is not used nowadays ?
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
OR
How are the injection system classified ? Describe them briefly.
Answer
A. Classification of Injection System : There are two type of injection
system :
i. Air Injection System :
1. In air injection system, fuel is forced into the cylinder by means of
compressed air.
2. The fuel is metered and pumped to the fuel valve by a camshaft driven
fuel pump.
3. The fuel valve is opened by means of a mechanical linkage operated by
the camshaft which controls the timing of injection.
4. Fuel valve is also connected to a high pressure air line fed by multistage
compressor.
5. When the fuel valve is opened the high pressure carries the fuel and
sprays it in the form of droplet into the combustion chamber.
HP air
Cylinder
Mechanical
HP HP linkage
fuel fuel cylinder
LP fuel
Multistage Metering pump Cam shaft

air
compressor
Fig. 3.13.1. Schematic diagram of an air injection system.
ii. Solid Injection System :

1. In this system, liquid fuel directly injected into combustion chamber
without primary atomisation.
2. This is also called air less mechanical injection.
3. Solid injection system can be classified into four types :
i. Individual pump and nozzle system,
ii. Unit injector system,
iii. Common rail system, and
iv. Distributor system.
B. Reason for not using the Air Injection System : Air injection system
is not used nowadays because in air injection system, a multistage
compressor is used which increases the size and weight of the engine
and reduce the brake power output.
Que 3.14. Describe the types of modern fuel injection system.
Answer
Following are the types of modern fuel injection systems :
i. Individual Pump and Nozzle System :
1. A schematic diagram of pump is shown in Fig. 3.14.1.
2. In this system, each cylinder is provided with one pump and one injector.
3. In this arrangement a separate metering and compression pump is
provided for each cylinder.
4. The high pressure pump plunger produces the fuel pressure, necessary
to open the injector valve at the correct time.
HP
fuel
LP fuel
Distributor
Fig. 3.14.1. Schematic diagram of individual pump

and injector or jerk pump system.
ii. Unit Injector System :

1. A schematic diagram of unit injector system is shown in Fig. 3.14.2.
2. In this system, pump and injector are combined in one housing.
3. Each cylinder has one such unit injector.
4. Fuel is brought upto the injector by a low pressure pump.
5. The amount of fuel injected is regulated by effective stroke of the plunger.
Fuel
Drive Cam shaft
Governor
Pump injector unit

Fig. 3.14.2. Unit injector.
iii. Common Rail System :
1. In this, a high pressure pump supplies fuel, under high pressure to a
fuel header.
2. High pressure in the header forces the fuel to each of the nozzle located
in the cylinder.
3. At proper time, a mechanically operated valve allows the fuel to enter
the proper cylinder through the nozzle.
4. The amount of fuel entering the cylinder is regulated by varying the
length of the push rod stroke.
Accumulator
HP fuel
Multicylinder Metering and

HP pump timing element
Fig. 3.14.3. Schematic diagram of common rail system.
iv. Distributor System :
1. A schematic diagram of distributor system is shown in Fig. 3.14.4.
2. In this system, a pump which pressurizes the fuel, also metered and
time it.
3. The fuel pump after the metering of the required amount of fuel, supply
it to rotating distributor at the correct time for supply to each cylinder.
4. Since there is one metering element in each pump, a uniform distribution
is automatically ensured.
LP fuel
HP pump
Fig. 3.14.4. Schematic diagram of distributor system.
Que 3.15. Draw a schematic diagram of fuel injection pump and
explain its working principle.
Answer
A. Construction :
1. A fuel injection pump is shown in Fig. 3.15.1.
2. It consists of a barrel in which a plunger reciprocates when driven by a
camshaft. The plunger is single acting.
3. The barrel and plunger has a very small clearance for smooth movement
of plungers and it also provides the perfect sealing even at high pressure.
The pump barrel has inlet and control port.
4. At the top of the barrel a spring loaded delivery valve is provided.
5. A rack and pinion arrangement is provided to rotate the plunger for
controlling the quantity of fuel delivery per stroke.
B. Working :
1. When the plunger is at its bottom stroke, the spill port and supply port
are uncovered (as shown in Fig. 3.15.1) oil from pressure pump after
being filtered is forced into the barrel.
To inject
Fuel chamber
Inlet port Spill port

Plunger Barrel
Plunger spring
Tappet
Camshaft
Cam
Fig. 3.15.1. Fuel injection pump.
2. When the plunger moves up due to cam and tappet mechanism, a stage
reaches when both the ports spill port and supply port are closed and
with the further upward movement of the plunger the fuel gets
compressed.
3. The high pressure thus developed lifts the delivery valve off its seats
and fuel flows to atomiser through the passage.
4. With further rise of the plunger, at a certain moment, the supply port is
connected to the fuel in the upper part of the plunger through the
rectangular vertical groove by the helical groove, as a result of which a
sudden drop in pressure occurs and the delivery valve falls back and
occupies its seat against the spring force.
Que 3.16. Sketch and explain the construction and working of a

fuel injector.
Answer
A. Construction :
1. A cross sectional view of a fuel injector is shown in Fig. 3.16.1
End cap
Adjusting screw
Lock nut
Leak off Spring
Spindle
Fuel inlet
Injector body Nozzle cap
Nozzle valve
Fuel passage
Nozzle body
Fig. 3.16.1. Fuel injector.

2. It consists of :
i. A needle valve,
ii. A compression spring,
iii. A nozzle, and
iv. An injector body.
B. Working :
1. When the fuel is supplied by the injection pump, it exerts sufficient force
against the spring to lift the nozzle valve, fuel is sprayed into the
combustion chamber in a finely atomized particles.
2. After, fuel from the delivery pump gets exhausted, the spring pressure
pushes the nozzle valve back on its seat.
3. For proper lubrication between nozzle valve and its guide a small quantity
of fuel is allowed to leak through the clearance between them and then
drained back to fuel tank through leak off connection.
4. The spring tension and hence the valve opening pressure is controlled
by adjusting the screw provided at the top.
Que 3.17. Describe the different types of nozzle used in injector.

OR
Describe the operation of any two types of modern fuel injection
system with sketch and also explain working of pintle nozzle and
pintaux nozzle with sketch. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Type of Modern Fuel Injection System : Refer Q. 3.14, Page 3–16F,
Unit-3.
B. Types of Nozzles :
i. Single Hole Nozzle :
1. At the centre of the nozzle body there is a single hole which is closed by
the nozzle valve.
2. The size of the hole is usually of the order of 0.2 mm.
3. Injection pressure is of order of 8-10 MPa and spray cone angle is about
15°.
4. Major disadvantage with such nozzle is that they tend to dribble.
Fig. 3.17.1. Single hole nozzle.

ii. Multi Hole Nozzle :
1. It consists of a number of holes bored in the tip of the nozzle.
2. The number of holes varies from 4 to 18 and the size from 35 to 200 m.
3. The hole angle may be from 20° upwards.
4. These nozzles operate at high injection pressure of the order of 18 MPa.
5. Their advantage lies in the ability to distribute the fuel properly even
with lower air motion available in open combustion chambers.
Fig. 3.17.2. Multi hole nozzle.

iii. Pintle Nozzle :
1. The spindle is provided with a projection called pintle which protrudes
through the mouth of the nozzle body.
2. This size and shape of the pintle can be varied according to the
requirement.
3. It is operated between 8-10 MPa pressure and spray cone angle is generally
60°.
4. This type of nozzle is used to avoid the weak injection and dribbling.
Fig. 3.17.3. Pintle nozzle.
iv. Pintaux Nozzle :

1. It is a type of pintle nozzle provided with an auxiliary hole drilled in
nozzle body.
2. It injects a small amount of fuel through this additional hole in the
upstream direction before main injection.
3. The needle valve does not lift fully at low speeds and most of the fuel is
injected through the auxiliary hole.
4. Main advantage of this nozzle is that it has good cold starting performance.
Nozzle valve
Nozzle body
Auxiliary hole
Fig. 3.17.4. Pintaux nozzle.
PART-6
Turbocharging and its Types : Variable Geometry Turbocharger,
Waste Gate Turbocharger, Effect of Turbocharging on Power and
Emission.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.18. What are turbochargers ?
Answer
1. Turbochargers are centrifugal compressors driven by the exhaust gas
turbines.
2. By utilising the exhaust energy of the engine it recovers a substantial
part of energy which would otherwise go waste. Thus the turbocharger
will not draw upon the engine power.
3. These are nowadays extensively used for supercharging almost all
types of two stroke engines.
4. A turbocharger utilizes a portion of the energy contained in the exhaust
gas, when it is released by the opening of the exhaust valve towards
the end of the power stroke to drive a turbine wheel which
simultaneously propels a centrifugal compressor wheel.
5. Turbocharged engines produce higher cylinder volumetric efficiencies
compared with the normally aspirated induction systems.
Que 3.19. What are the main types of turbocharging ?
Answer
Main types of turbocharging are as follows :
i. Constant Pressure Turbocharging :
1. The various cylinders discharge their exhaust into a common manifold
at pressures higher than the atmospheric.
2. The exhaust gases undergo expansion in the exhaust valves, without
doing any work, to an approximately constant pressure in the common
manifold and then enter the turbine.
3. Thus the blow-down energy in the form of internal energy is converted
into work in the turbine.
4. The higher the pressure ratio of the turbine, the higher is the recovery
of blow-down energy.
5. During the whole of the cycle the exhaust gases are maintained at
constant pressure to make use of a pure reaction turbine.
ii. Pulse Turbocharging :
1. In this method of supercharging, as soon as the exhaust valve opens a
considerable part of the blow-down energy is converted into exhaust
pulses.
2. These pulses enter the turbine where a major proportion of the energy
is recovered.
3. In order that exhaust process of various cylinders do not interfere with
one another, separate exhaust pipes are used.
iii. Pulse Converter :
1. This turbocharging method permits the advantages of the pulse and
constant pressure tubocharging methods simultaneously.
2. The combination of these two systems is done by connecting the different
branches of exhaust manifolds together in a specially designed venturi
junction, called “pulse converter”, before the turbine.
iv. Two-Stage Turbocharger :
1. Two-stage turbocharging is defined as the use of two turbochargers of
different sizes in series, e.g., a high pressure stage operating on pulse
system and low pressure stage on constant pressure operation.
2. This type of arrangement is employed for diesel engines requiring very
high degree of supercharging.
v. Miller Turbocharging :
1. The system of turbocharging is based upon the idea of increasing the
expansion ratio relative to compression ratio by means of early closure
of inlet valve as the boost pressure is increased.
2. The Miller turbocharging is not very attractive unless two-stage
turbocharging is necessary because of other reasons such as need to
reduce exhaust valve failures.
Que 3.20. Mention limitations of turbocharging.

Answer
Limitations of turbocharging are as follows :
1. Special exhaust manifolds are required for the turbocharging system.
2. In order to inject more fuel per unit time fuel injection needs
modification.
3. In contrast to a naturally aspirated engine which can digest solid
particles in the inlet air without undue stress, a turbocharged engine
can pass only the most minute material particles without damage.
4. It is difficult to obtain good efficiency over a wide range of operations
since the efficiency of the turbine blades is very sensitive to gas velocity.
Que 3.21. What do you mean by Variable Geometry Turbocharger ?
Answer
1. Variable Geometry Turbochargers (VGTs), occasionally known as
Variable Nozzle Turbines (VNTs), are a type of turbochargers, usually
designed to allow the effective aspect ratio of the turbocharger to be
altered as conditions change.
2. This is done because the optimum aspect ratio at low engine speeds is
very different from that at high engine speeds.
3. If the aspect ratio is too large, the turbo will fail to create boost at low
speeds; if the aspect ratio is too small, the turbo will choke the engine at
high speeds, leading to high exhaust manifold pressures, high pumping
losses, and ultimately lower power output.
4. By altering the geometry of the turbine housing as the engine accelerates,
the turbo’s aspect ratio can be maintained at its optimum. Because of
this, VGTs have a minimal amount of lag, a low boost threshold, and
high efficiency at higher engine speeds.
5. The variable geometry turbine allows significant flexibility over the
pressure ratio across the turbine. In diesel engines, this flexibility can be
used for improving low speed torque characteristics, reducing
turbocharger lag and driving EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) flow.
6. The most common designs of variable geometry turbochargers include
the pivoting vane design and the moving wall design.
Que 3.22. Write down the advantages of variable geometry

turbocharger.
Answer
Advantages of variable geometry turbocharger are as follows :
1. No throttling loss of the waste gate valve.
2. Higher air-fuel ratio and higher peak torque at low engine speeds.
3. Improved vehicle accelerations without the need to resort to turbines
with high pumping loss at high engine speeds.
4. Ability to provide engine braking.
5. Ability to raise exhaust temperature for after treatment system
management.
Que 3.23. Write a short note on waste gate turbocharger.
Answer
1. The waste gate is the control valve for the turbocharger. It prevents
excess boost pressure that could cause detonation and severe engine
damage.
2. This feature in the turbocharger consists of a bypass valve. It circumvents
some part of the exhaust gas going to the turbine and releases them into
the outlet.
3. Nowadays, vehicles with turbocharged engines feature the waste gate
turbocharger.
4. This technology helps to deliver optimum engine performance during
peak operating conditions.
5. The waste gate turbocharger has a bypass valve built into the turbine
housing. It diverts some of the exhaust gases away from the turbine
wheel through this valve.
Que 3.24. Mention advantages of waste gate turbocharger.
Answer
Advantages of waste gate turbocharger are as follows :
1. Needs a smaller space to fit.
2. Reduces turbo lag to some extent.
3. Installation of compact and simple external exhaust pipe system, thus,
reducing the engine weight.
4. Delivers optimum engine performance at all times.
5. Avoids mechanical damage to engine parts.
Que 3.25. Explain effect of turbocharger on power and emission.
Answer
1. Turbochargers are used throughout the automotive industry as they
can enhance the output of an internal combustion (IC) engine without
the need to increase its cylinder capacity.
2. The application of such a mechanical device enables automotive
manufacturers to adopt smaller displacement engines, commonly known
as engine downsizing.
3. Turbochargers were often used to increase the potential of an already
powerful IC engine.
4. The emphasis today is to provide a feasible engineering solution to
manufacturing economics and greener road vehicles. It is because of
these reasons that turbochargers are now becoming more and more
popular in automobile applications.
5. The aim of techniques used in turbocharging to increase the engine
output and reduce the exhaust emission levels.
6. By increasing the combustion efficiency with which an engine burns
diesel, a turbocharger increases the amount of energy diesel produces
and reduces emissions by converting a greater percentage of diesel fuel
into carbon dioxide or water as opposed to a toxic emission.
7. The basic concept of a turbocharger is to recycle wasted energy from
exhaust gas, transforming more of the fuel energy consumed into power.
A turbocharged engine, therefore offers improved fuel economy, less
CO2 emissions and better performance over a non turbocharged engine.
8. Turbocharging allows auto manufacturers to reduce their engine sizes
and therefore emissions while continuing to deliver the power and
performance customers demand.
9. Turbochargers offer the fastest response to global warming at a lower
cost per vehicle than any other technology.

Q. 1. Define carburetion. What are the factors which affect the

process of carburetion ?
Ans. Refer Q. 3.1.
Q. 2. What is carburetor ? Discuss its function. Also classify the

various types of carburetor.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.4.
Q. 3. Briefly explain with a neat sketch the operation of a simple

float type carburetor.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.5.
Q. 4. Describe MPFI system with the help of neat sketch.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.8.
Q. 5. How are the injection system classified ? Describe them

briefly. Why the air injection system is not used nowadays ?
Ans. Refer Q. 3.13.
Q. 6. Describe the types of modern fuel injection system.

Ans. Refer Q. 3.14.
Q. 7. Describe the operation of any two types of modern fuel

injection system with sketch and also explain working of
pintle nozzle and pintaux nozzle with sketch.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.17.
Q. 8. What are the main types of turbocharging ?

Ans. Refer Q. 3.19.

4 Engine Emission
and Control
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Engine Emission and Control : ................. 4–2F to 4–5F
Pollutant, Sources and Types,
Effect on Environment and
Human Health
Part-2 : Formation of NO x , Hydrocarbon .............. 4–5F to 4–7F

Emission Mechanism, Carbon
Monoxide Formation, Particulate
Emissions
Part-3 : Methods of Controlling ............................. 4–7F to 4–12F

Emissions : Catalytic
Converters and
Particulate Traps
Part-4 : Selective Catalytic Reduction ................ 4–12F to 4–13F

(SCR) and Diesel
Oxidation Catalyst (DOC)
Part-5 : Fuels : Fuels For SI and ......................... 4–13F to 4–18F

CI Engine, Important
Qualities of SI and CI
Engine Fuels, Rating
of SI Engine and CI Engine
Fuels, Dopes, Additives
Part-6 : Gaseous Fuels, LPG, CNG, .................... 4–18F to 4–23F

Biogas, Producer Gas,
Alternative Fuels for
IC Engines
Engine Emission & Control 4–2 F (ME-Sem-5)
PART-1
Engine Emission and Control : Pollutant, Sources and Types,
Effect on Environment and Human Health.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Pollutants : These are produced by the incomplete burning of air-
fuel mixture in the combustion chamber.
Sources of Engine Emission :
1. Exhaust emissions.
2. Non-exhaust emissions.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.1. What are the types of engine emission ?
Answer
Engine emission can be classified into two categories :
i. Exhaust Emissions :
1. Unburnt hydrocarbons (HC),
2. Oxides of carbon (CO and CO2),
3. Oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO2),
4. Oxides of sulphur (SO2 and SO3),
5. Particulates, and
6. Soot and smoke.
ii. Non-exhaust Emissions :
1. Fuel Tank : The fuel tank emits fuel vapours into the atmosphere.
2. Carburetor : The carburetor gives out fuel vapours.
3. Crankcase : It emits blow-by gases and fuel vapours into the
atmosphere.
Que 4.2. What are the various methods of emission control ?
Answer
Various methods of emission control are as follows :
i. Modification in the Engine Design and Operating Parameters :
A few parameters which improve the emission are :
1. Combustion chamber configuration,
2. Lower compression ratio,
3. Modified induction system,
4. Ignition timing, and
5. Reduced valve overlap.
ii. Treatment of Exhaust Products of Combustion : The exhaust gas
coming out of exhaust manifold is treated to reduce HC and CO emissions.
The devices used for this are :
1. After-burner,
2. Exhaust manifold reactor, and
3. Catalytic converter.
iii. Modification of the Fuels : If gasoline is changed to propane as engine
fuel CO emission can substantially be reduced with reduced HC and
NOx, and in changing from propane to methane the CO as well HC
emission touch zero level and only the NOx remains as a significant
factor.
Que 4.3. Explain the effects of engine emission on environment.
Answer
Effects of engine emission on environment are as follows :
i. Global Warming :
1. Global warming is one of the most worrying effects for scientists and
environmentalists.
2. Global warming is a direct consequence of the greenhouse effect, which
is produced by the high emission of CO 2 and methane into the
atmosphere.
ii. Climate Change :
1. Climate Change is consequence of global warming. When the
temperature of the planet increases, there is a disturbance in the
usual climatic cycles, accelerating the changes of these cycles in an
evident way.
2. Due to climate change, the mass of the poles is melting, and this is
leading to flooding and the rising of sea levels.
iii. Acid Rain :
1. The gases emitted by engines are very toxic. Those gases include sulphur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) issued into the atmosphere
that come from fossil fuels burning.
2. When those substances accumulate in the atmosphere and react with
water, they form dilute solutions of nitric and sulphuric acid, and when
those concentrations become rain, both the environment and surfaces
suffer.
iv. Smog Effect :
1. The smog effect happens when there is a kind of dark fog concentrated
over the cities and fields.
2. That fog is a load of pollutants and can be of two types : sulphurous
smog and photochemical smog, both dangerous and harmful to
environment.
v. Deterioration of Fields :
1. Acid rain, climate change and smog all damage the earth surface.
Contaminated water and gases seep into the earth, changing the
composition of soils.
2. That directly affects agriculture, changing crop cycles and the
composition of the food we all eat.
vi. Extinction of Animal Species :
1. As the ice masses of the poles melt and sea levels rise, many animal
species, whose survival depends on oceans and rivers, are threatened.
2. Currents change, ocean temperature changes and migratory cycles
change, and many animals are forced to seek food in environments
unknown to them.
Que 4.4. Discuss the effects of engine emissions on human health.
Answer
The effects of different engine emissions on human health are as follows :
i. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) :
1. It is an irritant gas and affects the mucous membrane when inhaled. In
the presence of water vapour it forms sulphurous and sulphuric acids.
These acids cause severe bronchospasm at very low levels of
concentration.
2. Diseases like bronchitis and asthma are aggravated by a high
concentration of SO2.
ii. Carbon Monoxide (CO) :
1. It has a strong affinity for combining with the haemoglobin of the blood
to form carboxyhaemoglobin. This reduces the ability of the haemoglobin
to carry oxygen to the blood tissues.
2. CO affects the central nervous system.
3. It is also responsible for heart attacks and a high mortality rate.
iii. Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2) :
1. These are known to cause occupational diseases. It is estimated that eye
and nasal irritation will be observed after exposure to about 15 ppm of
nitrogen oxide, and pulmonary discomfort after brief exposure to 25
ppm of nitrogen oxide.
2. It also aggravates diseases like bronchitis and asthma.
iv. Hydrocarbon Vapours :
1. They are primarily irritating.
2. They are major contributors to eye and respiratory irritation caused by
photochemical smog.
v. Compounds of Incomplete Combustion :
1. Exhaust discharge from IC engines carry compounds of incomplete
combustion (polycyclic organic compounds and aliphatic hydrocarbons),
which act as carcinogenic agents and are responsible for lungs cancer.
vi. Lead :
1. Inorganic lead compounds (discharged from vehicles using leaded petrol)
cause a variety of human health disorders.
2. The effects include gastrointestinal damage, liver and kidney damage,
abnormality infertility and pregnancy etc.
vii. Smoke :
1. It is visible carbon particles.
2. It causes irritation in eyes and lungs, and visibility reduction. It also
causes other respiratory diseases.
PART-2
Formation of NO x, Hydrocarbon Emission Mechanism, Carbon
Monoxide Formation, Particulate Emissions.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.5. Name the pollutants emitted by gasoline engines and

petrol engines into the atmosphere.
Answer
Following are the various pollutants emitted by gasoline engines or
petrol engines :
i. Carbon Monoxide (CO) :
1. Carbon monoxide occurs only in engine exhaust.
2. It is a product of incomplete combustion due to insufficient amount of
air in the air-fuel mixture or insufficient time in the cycle for completion
of combustion.
3. Carbon monoxide emissions are high when the engine is idling and
reach a minimum value during deceleration. They are lowest during
acceleration at steady speeds.
4. Closing of the throttle which reduces the oxygen supply to engine is the
main cause of CO production.
ii. Hydrocarbons :
1. Unburnt hydrocarbon emissions are the direct result of incomplete
combustion. The pattern of hydrocarbon emissions is closely related to
many design and operating variables.
iii. Particulate Matter and Partial Oxidation Product :
1. Some traces of products of partial oxidation are also present in the
exhaust gas, of which formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are important.
2. Other constituents are phenols, acids, ketones, ethers, etc. These are
essentially products of incomplete combustion of the fuel.
iv. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) :
1. Oxides of nitrogen which also occur only in the engine exhaust are a
combination of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
2. Nitrogen and oxygen react at relatively high temperatures. Therefore,
high temperatures and availability of oxygen are the two main reasons
for the formation of NOx.
Que 4.6. Explain the mechanism of formation of hydrocarbon.
Answer
1. Hydrocarbon formed due to existence of local very rich mixture pockets
at much lower temperature than the combustion chambers, unburnt
hydrocarbons may appear in the exhaust.
2. The hydrocarbons also appear due to flame quenching near the metallic
walls.
3. A significant portion of this unburnt hydrocarbon may burn during
expansion and exhaust strokes if the oxygen concentration and exhaust
temperature is suitable for complete oxidation. Otherwise a large
amount of hydrocarbon will go out with the exhaust gases.
Que 4.7. Discuss the mechanism of formation of carbon monoxide.

Answer
1. Carbon monoxide (CO) is generally formed when the mixture is rich in
fuel. The amount of CO formed increases as the mixture becomes
more and more rich in fuel.
2. A small amount of CO will come out of the exhaust even when the
mixture is slightly lean in fuel.
3. This is due to the fact that equilibrium is not established when the
products pass to the exhaust.
4. At the high temperature developed during the combustion, the products
formed are unstable, and the following reactions take place before the
equilibrium is established.
2H2O + O2  2(1 – y)H2O + 2yH2 + yO2
Where, y is the fraction of H2O dissociated.
C + O2  CO2  (1 – x)CO2 + xCO + x/2 O2
5. As the products cool down to exhaust temperature, major part of CO
reacts with oxygen to form CO2. However, a relatively small amount of
CO will remain in exhaust, its concentration increasing with rich
mixtures.
Que 4.8. What is particulate emission ?
Answer
1. Particulate matter can be either dust (particles having a diameter of
1 micron) which do not settle down or particles with a diameter of more
than 10 microns which settle down to the ground.
2. The particulate emission can be classified as follows :
i. Smoke : It composes of stable suspension of particles that have a diameter
of less than 10 microns and are visible only in the aggregate.
ii. Fumes : These are very small particles resulting from chemical reactions
and are normally composed of metals and metallic oxides.
iii. Fly Ash : These are ash particles of diameter 100 microns or less.
iv. Cinders : These are ash particles of diameter 100 microns or more.
PART-3
Methods of Controlling Emissions : Catalytic Converters and
Particulate Traps.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Emission Control : The term emission refers to the exhaust of
an automobile. The knowledge or subject of automobile exhaust
quality and holding it within tolerable limits is called emission
control.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.9. What is catalytic converter ? Also write the advantages

and application of it.
Answer
A. Catalytic Converter :
1. The most effective treatment for reducing engine emissions is the
catalytic converter found on most automobiles and other modern engines
of medium or large size.
2. A catalyst is a substance that accelerates a chemical reaction by lowering
the energy needed for it to proceed. It is not consumed in the reaction
and so functions indefinitely unless degraded by heat, age, contaminants,
or other factors.
3. Catalytic converters are chambers mounted in the flow system through
which the exhaust gases passes through.
4. These chambers contain catalytic material, which promotes the oxidation
of the emissions contained in the exhaust flow.
5. Generally, catalytic converters are called three way converters because
they are used to reduce the concentration of CO, HC and NOx in the
exhaust.
B. Advantages :
1. The conversion is possible at normal exhaust temperatures and not at
high temperatures as in thermal conversion.
2. Reduction of nitrogen oxides can also be accomplished inside a catalytic
converter.
C. Application : Its sole purpose is to reduce the amount of pollution
produced by the combustion of hydrocarbon based fossil fuels in
automobiles.
Que 4.10. Explain the construction and working of catalytic
converter.
Answer
A. Construction :
1. Catalytic converter is usually a stainless steel container mounted
somewhere along the exhaust pipe of the engine.
2. Inside this container there is a porous ceramic structure through which
the exhaust gas flow.
3. In most converters, the ceramic is a single honeycomb structure with
many flow passages as shown in Fig. 4.10.1.
4. Some converters use loose granular ceramic with the gas passing
between the packed spheres.
5. Volume of the ceramic structure of a catalytic converter is generally
about half the displacement volume of the engine.
6. Catalytic converters for CI engines need larger flow passages because
of the solid soot in the exhaust gases.
C. Working :
1. The surface of the ceramic passages contains small embedded particles
of catalytic material that promote the oxidation reactions in the exhaust
gas as it passes.
2. Aluminum oxide (alumina) is the base ceramic material used for most
catalytic converters.
3. Alumina can withstand the high temperatures, it remains chemically
neutral, it has very low thermal expansion, and it does not thermally
degrade with age.
4. The catalyst materials most commonly used are platinum, palladium,
and rhodium.
5. Palladium and platinum promote the oxidation of CO and HC.
1
CO + O  CO2
2 2
CxHy + 2O2  xCO2 + yH2O
6. Rhodium promotes the reaction of NOx in one or more of the
following reactions :
1
NO + CO  N + CO2
2 2
2 NO + 5 CO + 3 H2O  2 NH3 + 5 CO2
2 NO + CO  N2O + CO2
1
NO + H2  N + H2O
2 2
2 NO + 5 H2  2 NH3 + 2 H2O
2 NO + H2  N2 O+ H2O
Secondary air
Gas Gas
in out
NOx element HC/CO element

Fig. 4.10.1. Catalytic converter.
Que 4.11. What are various methods of controlling of particulate

emission ?
Answer
Various methods of controlling of particulate emissions are as follows :
i. Cinder Catchers : The cinder catchers are shown in Fig. 4.11.1 given
below :
1. Fig. 4.11.1 (a) shows sudden decrease in gas velocity makes the particulate
separate and fall.
2. Fig. 4.11.1(b) shows a sudden change in the direction of flow of flue gas
throws the particulates away and can be collected.
3. Fig. 4.11.1(c) shows impingement of flue gases on a series of baffle stops
the particulate matter as shown in figure. These are commonly used in
stoker and small cyclone furnaces where crushed coal is burned rather
than the very fine pulverized coal. The collection efficiencies of cinder
catchers are from 50 to 75 %.
( a) Sudden decrease (b) Sudden change in the

in gas velocity. direction of the flow of flue gas.
(c) Impingement of flue gases (d) Cinder vane fan

on a series of baffle stops.
Fig. 4.11.1.
4. Fig. 4.11.1(d) shows a cinder vane fan. The cinder vane fan uses the fan
which imparts centrifugal force to the particulates and they are collected
as shown in figure. The efficiency is from 50 to 75%.
ii. Electrostatic Precipitator :
1. An electrostatic precipitator is shown in Fig. 4.11.2. In this device a very
high voltage of 30 kV to 60 kV is applied to wires suspended in a gas-flow
passage between two grounded plates.
2. The particles in the gas stream acquire a charge from the negatively
charged wires and arc then attracted to the ground plates. The grounded
plates are periodically rapped by a steel plug which is raised and dropped
by an electromagnet and dust is collected in the hoppers below.
High voltage electrode
Collector plases
Fig. 4.11.2. Electrostatic precipitator.
3. In this type of collector, care must be taken to see that large quantity of
unburnt gases do not enter the precipitator. If such a mixture enters,
power should be turned off, otherwise there could be explosion because
of constant sparking between wires and plates.
4. The collection efficiency is about 99 %.
5. Electrostatic precipitators are suitable for power plants where fly-ash
content is high.
Que 4.12. Write a short note on particulate traps.
Answer
1. Compression ignition engine systems are equipped with particulate
traps in their exhaust flow to reduce the amount of particulates released
to the atmosphere.
2. Traps are filter-like systems often made of ceramic in the form of a
monolith or mat, or else made of metal wire mesh. Traps typically
remove 60-90 % of particulates in the exhaust flow.
3. As traps catch the soot particles, they slowly fill up with the particulates.
This restricts exhaust gas flow and raises the back pressure of the
engine.
4. To reduce this flow restriction particulate traps are regenerated when
they begin to saturate. Regeneration consists of combusting the
particulates in the excess oxygen contained in the exhaust of the lean
operating CI engine.
5. On some larger stationary engines and on some construction equipment
and large trucks, the particulate traps is replaced when it becomes
close to filled position.
6. The removed trap is then regenerated externally, with the carbon being
burned off in a furnace. The regenerated trap can then be used again.
7. Modern particulate traps are not totally satisfactory, especially for
automobiles. They are costly and complex when equipped for
regeneration, and long-term durability does not exist.
8. An ideal catalytic trap would be simple, economical and reliable, it
would be self-regenerating, and it would impose a minimum increase
in fuel consumption.
PART-4
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) and Diesel Oxidation
Catalyst (DOC).
Questions-Answers
Que 4.13. What is selective catalytic reduction (SCR) ?
Answer
1. Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) is an advanced active emissions
control technology system that injects a liquid-reductant agent through
a special catalyst into the exhaust stream of a diesel engine.
2. The reductant source is usually automotive-grade urea, otherwise known
as diesel exhaust fluid (DEF). The DEF sets off a chemical reaction that
converts nitrogen oxides into nitrogen, water and tiny amounts of carbon
dioxide (CO2), natural components of the air we breathe, which is then
expelled through the vehicle tailpipe.
3. SCR technology is designed to permit nitrogen oxide (NOx) reduction
reactions to take place in an oxidizing atmosphere.
4. It is called selective because it reduces levels of NOx using ammonia as
a reductant within a catalyst system. The chemical reaction is known as
reduction where the DEF is the reducing agent that reacts with NOx to
convert the pollutants into nitrogen, water and tiny amounts of CO2.
5. The DEF can be rapidly broken down to produce the oxidizing ammonia
in the exhaust stream. SCR technology alone can achieve NOx reductions
up to 90 percent.
Que 4.14. What is diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) ?

Answer
1. Diesel oxidation catalysts (DOC) are catalytic converters designed
specifically for diesel engines and equipment to reduce carbon monoxide
(CO), hydrocarbons (HC) and particulate matter (PM) emissions.
2. DOC’s are simple, inexpensive, maintenance-free and suitable for all
types and applications of diesel engines.
3. Modern catalytic converters consist of a monolith honeycomb substrate
coated with platinum group metal catalyst, packaged in a stainless
steel container. The honeycomb structure with many small parallel
channels presents a high catalytic contact area to exhaust gases.
4. As the hot gases contact the catalyst, several exhaust pollutants are
converted into harmless substances such as carbon dioxide and water.
5. Conversion of diesel particulate matter is an important function of the
modern diesel oxidation catalyst. The catalyst exhibits a very high
activity in the oxidation of the organic fraction of diesel particulates.
6. The diesel oxidation catalyst, depending on its formulation, may also
exhibit some limited activity towards the reduction of nitrogen oxides
in diesel exhaust. NOx conversions of 10-20 % are usually observed.
The NOx conversion exhibits a maximum at medium temperatures of
about 300 °C.
PART-5
Fuels : Fuels For SI and CI Engine, Important Qualities of SI and
CI Engine Fuels, Rating of SI Engine and CI Engine Fuels,
Dopes, Additives.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Fuel for SI Engine : Gasoline is the main fuel used in SI engine. It
is a mixture of various hydrocarbons such as paraffins, olefins,
naphthenes and aromatics.
Fuel for CI Engine : Diesel is the main fuel used in CI engine.
Diesel fuels are the petroleum fractions that lie between kerosene
and the lubricating oils.
Dopes : These are chemicals which added to petrol or diesel to
prevent knocking.
Questions-Answers

Que 4.15. What are the different kinds of fuel used in an IC engine ?
Answer
Following are the different types of fuels used in IC engine :
i. Solid Fuel :
1. Solid fuel find little application in IC engine because of the handling the
fuel and disposing off the ash after the combustion.
2. Example : Powdered coal and saw dust.
ii. Liquid Fuel :
1. Liquid fuel is the derivative of the liquid petroleum.
2. Liquid fuel is widely used in IC engine.
3. The three principle commercial types of liquid fuels are benzyl, alcohol
and petroleum products.
4. But gasoline (petrol), diesel, kerosene are main fuel used for IC engine.
5. The main reason for use of liquid fuel is their high heating value, excellent
performance, ease of storing and ease of transportation.
iii. Gaseous Fuel :
1. Gaseous fuel are considered as ideal fuel and pose very few problem
while using in IC engine but storage and handling problem restrict their
use in IC engine.
2. Example : Blast furnace gas, coal gas, natural gas and coke oven gas.
Que 4.16. Discuss the important qualities of an SI and CI engine

fuel.
Answer
A. Important Qualities of SI Engine Fuel :
i. Volatility : It is most important factor of a gasoline used as a fuel in SI
engine. It has effect on several phases of the operation and maintenance
as starting and warm up, during acceleration etc.
ii. Sulphur Content : Fuel should have minimum sulphur content as
sulphur forms corrosive compound that may damage the various part of
engine.
iii. Operating Range Performance :
1. The acceleration of an engine depends upon its ability to deliver suddenly
to intake an extra supply of fuel air mixture in a sufficiently vapourised
form to burn quickly.
2. Good acceleration occurs when air-fuel vapour ratio of 12 : 1 is supplied.
3. The ability to accelerate falls off as available mixture becomes lean.
iv. Gum Content : SI fuel contains some unsaturated hydrocarbons, which
oxidized during storage and form a product known as gum. This is
undesirable deposits on the intake valve, piston rings and other engine
parts and sometimes clogged the carburetor jets.
v. Antiknock Quality : Due to abnormal burning or detonation in
combustion chamber, high rate of energy releases and adversely affect
the thermal efficiency of the engine. So fuel used should be such that it
resists the tendency to produce detonation and this property is called
antiknock quality. Hence best SI engine fuel should have high antiknock
property.
vi. Viscosity : Viscosity of the fuel should be optimum. Excess of viscosity
may create the problem during atomization.
B. Important Qualities of CI Engine Fuels :
i. Knock Characteristics : Knock in the CI engines occurs because of
an ignition lag in the combustion of the fuel between the time of injection
and the time of actual burning. A good CI engine fuel should have a
short ignition lag and will ignite more readily.
ii. Starting Characteristics : The fuel should help in starting the engine
easily.
iii. Smoke and Odour : The fuel should not promote either smoke or
odour in the engine exhaust. Generally, good volatility is the first pre-
requisite to ensure good mixing and therefore complete combustion.
iv. Viscosity : CI engine fuels should be able to flow through the fuel
system and the strainers under the lowest operating temperatures to
which the engine is subjected to.
v. Corrosion and Wear : The fuel should not cause corrosion and wear
of the engine components before or after co mbustion. These
requirements are directly related to the presence of sulphur, ash and
residue in the fuel.
vi. Handling Ease : The fuel should be a liquid that will readily flow under
all conditions that are encountered in actual use. This requirement is
measured by the pour point and the viscosity of the fuel. The fuel should
also have a high flash point and a high fire point.
Que 4.17. Explain the ratings of SI and CI engine fuel.
Answer
Following are the methods for rating of SI and CI engine fuel :
i. HUCR :
1. The Highest Useful Compression Ratio (HUCR) is the highest
compression ratio at which a fuel can be used without detonation in a
specified test engine under certain condition and the ignition and mixture
strength being adjusted to give best efficiency.
2. This method of fuel rating is no more popular.
ii. Octane Number :
1. Octane number is used to give the knock rating.
2. The compression ratio increases as the octane number is increased. So
this is an indication to improve thermal efficiency and power output of
the engine.
iii. Performance Number :
1. To express the rating of the fuel, which have octane number more than
100, performance number is used.
2. It is the ratio of knock limited indicated mean effective pressure (klimep)
of test fuel to knock limited indicated mean effective pressure of iso-
octane.
Klimep of test fuel
Performance number (PN) =
Klimep of iso-octane
iv. Cetane Number :
1. It is also known as cetane rating.
2. It is a measurement of the quality or performance of diesel fuel.
3. The higher the number, the better the fuel burns within the engine.
Que 4.18. Discuss the effects of gasoline volatility on cold starting,

hot starting, warm up and vapour lock. What is performance number
and diesel index ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Effects of Gasoline Volatility : Following are the important aspect of
volatility :
i. Cold Starting :
1. In order to start an engine, a combustible mixture rich enough to
ignite easily at starting temperatures must be supplied near the
spark plug. The approximate limits of inflammability of air-gasoline
vapour mixture are about 8 : 1 for fuel rich mixture and 20 : 1 for
lean mixture. A mixture ratio of 12 : 1 which is the fastest burning
mixture is most suitable for starting.
2. From the standpoint of fuel, the problem of cold starting is largely
one of getting sufficient fuel evaporation a more volatile fuel is
desirable.
ii. Hot Starting :
1. Hot starting is given on the other side of the distillation curve.
2. If the front end volatility of the fuel is made excessively low to give
good cold starting, the amount of fuel evaporating and so going into
the intake manifold under hot shut down conditions is high and the
mixture formed is too rich to ignite causing hot starting problem.
240
Winter
Temperature (°C) 200 Summer
160
120
80
40
0
20 40 60 80 100
Volume evaporated (%)
Fig. 4.18.1. Typical distillation curves of gasoline.
iii. Warm Up :
1. As the engine warm up, the temperature increase to the operating
temperature, low distillation temperature are desirable for best
warm up throughout the range of distillation curve.
iv. Vapour Lock :
1. When the rate of vapourization is too great it can upset the
carburetor metering or even stop the fuel flow to the engine by
setting up a vapour lock in fuel passage.
2. This characteristics demand the presence of relatively high boiling
temperature hydrocarbon throughout the distillation range.
B Performance Number : Refer Q. 4.17, Page 4–15F, Unit-4.
C. Diesel Index :
1. The diesel index is a cheap method of predicting ignition quality.
2. The diesel index gives an indication of the ignition quality obtained
from certain physical characteristics of the fuel as opposed to an
actual determination in a test engine.
3. It is given as,
API gravity (deg)
Diesel index (DI) = Aniline point (°F) ×
100
Que 4.19. Define additives. What are the requirements of additive ?
Answer
A. Additives :
1. Additives are the compounds that are used to improve combustion
performance of fuels.
2. The main combustion problems that arise when operating conditions
become unfavourable are knock and surface ignition.
3. These combustion problems can be tackled by alternative means such
as improvement of combustion chamber desk, constructional materials,
and fuel and oil quality, etc.
4. Employment of additives, therefore, is only one of a number of measures
that can be taken for solving the combustion problems.
B. Requirements of an Additive :
1. It must be knock resistant.
2. It should be soluble in fuel under all conditions.
3. It should have no adverse effect on fuel.
4. It should be in the liquid phase at normal temperature, and volatile to
give rapid vapourisation in manifold.
5. It must not produce harmful deposits.
6. Its water solubility must be minimum to minimize handling losses.
PART-6
Gaseous Fuels, LPG, CNG, Biogas, Producer Gas, Alternative
Fuels for IC Engines.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Alternative Fuels for IC Engines : Some alternative fuels for IC
engines are as follows :
1. Alcohol,
2. Hydrogen,
3. Natural gas,
4. LPG, and
5. Biogas.
Questions-Answers

Que 4.20. What are gaseous fuels ? Write down the advantages
and disadvantages of gaseous fuel ?
Answer
A. Gaseous Fuel : Refer Q. 4.15, Page 4–14F, Unit-4.
B. Advantages of Gaseous Fuels :
1. Easily compressed and stored.
2. Easily carried through pipes.
3. Easy starting of engines.
4. Easy to maintain A/F ratio in multi-cylinder engines as compared to
liquid fuels.
C. Disadvantages of Gaseous Fuels :
1. High cost (on the basis of energy content).
2. High purifying cost.
3. Storage volume per unit energy is very large.
4. As compared to engines using liquid fuels, the size and weight of the
engine (kg/kW) is considerably large.
Que 4.21. What are the properties of LPG ? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of LPG ?
Answer
A. Properties of LPG :
1. It is colourless and odourless gas.
2. The flash point of LPG is –104 °C.
3. LPG vapour is heavier than air.
5. Boiling point of LPG is low (– 6 °C)
5. It is non toxic.
B. Advantages :
1. It contains less carbon than petrol.
2. It mixes with air at all temperatures.
3. Fuel is in the form of vapour, so there is no problem of crankcase
dilution.
4. It has high antiknock properties.
5. Engine life is increased when using the LPG.
C. Disadvantages :
1. Weight of vehicle is increased due to the use of heavy cylinder for
storing LPG.
2. Horse power produce at full throttle is reduced approximately 10 %.
3. A special fuel feed system is required for liquid petroleum gas.
Que 4.22. What is CNG ? What are its properties ? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of CNG ?
Answer
A. CNG :
1. When natural gas stored after the compression, it is known as
compressed natural gas. Its pressure varies between 7 to 21 bar and its
temperature is –160 °C.
2. An ideal composition of CNG as an automatic fuel is as follows :
i. Methane = 90 %
ii. Ethane = 4 %
iii. Propane = 1.7 %
iv. C4 and higher = 0.7 %
v. C6 and higher = 0.2 %
vi. (CO2 + N2) = 0.2 %
vii. Hydrogen = 0.1 %
viii. Carbon monoxide = 0.1 %
ix. Oxygen = 0.5 %
x. Sulphur = 10 % ppm
B. Properties of CNG :
1. CNG has very good antiknock quality which means it does not ignite
readily.
2. Antiknock octane number of CNG is nearly 130, so it burns at much
higher temperature compared with petrol unleaded and diesel which
have low octane number.
3. The engines using CNG have higher thermal efficiencies than those
fueled by gasoline.
4. CNG is non toxic and lighter than air.
C. Advantages of CNG :
1. High octane number makes it very good SI engine fuel.
2. Low engine emission.
3. It is cheap.
4. It is engine friendly as well as environment.
5. It is odourless.
6. It is clean.
D. Disadvantages :
1. Low energy density resulting in low engine performance.
2. Low volumetric efficiency.
3. Large pressure required for storage.
4. Refueling is a slow process.
5. Inconsistent fuel properties.
Que 4.23. What is biogas ? What are the properties of biogas ?
Answer
A. Biogas :
1. Biogas is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen
sulphide, the major constituent being methane.
2. Biogas is produced by anaerobic degradation of animal wastes and plant
wastes in presence of water.
3. Composition of biogas is as follows :
i. CH4 = 50 % – 60 %
ii. CO2 = 30 % – 45 %
iii. H2 and N2 = 5 % – 10 %
iv. H2S and O2 = Traces
B. Properties of Biogas :
1. Octane rating of biogas with CO2 is 110 and without CO2 is 130.
2. Its auto ignition temperature is higher than petrol which makes it safer
fuel.
3. Being a gas it mixes with air at low temperature so there is no need for
rich mixture for idling or starting.
4. It has low calorific value so it works on higher compression ratio. So we
need a large size engine.
5. Due to clean operation of the engine, emission of CO and NOx reduced
very much.
Que 4.24. Explain biogas plant with proper diagram.
Answer
Biogas plants are basically of two types :
i. Floating Gas Holder Type Biogas Plant :
1. This has a well shaped digester tank which is placed under the ground
and made up of bricks.
2. In digester tank, over the dung slurry, an inverted steel drum floats to
hold the biogas produced.
3. The gas holder can move which is controlled by a pipe and the gas outlet
is regulated by a valve.
4. This digester tank has a partition wall and one side of it receives the
dung-water mixture through inlet pipe while the other side discharges
the spent slurry through the outlet pipe.
Slurry Mixing Floating
(Cattle dung tank Biogas Overflow
biogas holder
+ Water) supply outlet tank
Ground
level
Outlet Spent
Inlet
pipe slurry
pipe
Underground
digester tank
Fig. 4.24.1. Floating gas holder type biogas plant.
ii. Fixed Dome Type Biogas Plant :

1. The structure is almost similar to floating gas holder type biogas plant,
but instead of a steel gas holder, there is a dome shaped roof made of
cement and bricks.
2. Instead of partitioning there is a single unit in main digester but it has
inlet and outlet chambers.
Mixing
tank Slurry Fixed
dome Biogas supply
outlet
Slab cover
Overflow tank
Ground level
Biogas
Inlet Spent
chamber slurry
Outlet
chamber
Underground
digester tank
Fig. 4.24.2. Fixed dome type biogas plant.
Que 4.25. Explain producer gas in brief.
Answer
1. Producer gas is made by flowing air and stream through a thick coal or
coke bed which ranges in temperature from red hot to low temperature.
2. The oxygen in the air burns the carbon to CO2.
3. This CO2 gets reduced to CO by contacting with carbon above the
combustion zone.
4. Steam gets dissociated, which introduces H2 and the freed O2 combines
with the carbon.
5. Producer gas has a high percentage of N2, since air is used.
6. Thus, it has a low heat value.

Q. 1. Discuss the effects of engine emissions on human health.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.3.
Q. 2. Name the pollutants emitted by gasoline engines and petrol

engines into the atmosphere.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.5.
Q. 3. What is catalytic converter ? Also write the advantages

and application of it.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.9.
Q. 4. What is selective catalytic reduction (SCR) ?

Ans. Refer Q. 4.13.
Q. 5. Discuss the important qualities of an SI and CI engine fuel.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.16.
Q. 6. Explain the ratings of SI and CI engine fuel.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.17.
Q. 7. What is CNG ? What are its properties ? What are the

advantages and disadvantages of CNG ?
Ans. Refer Q. 4.22.
Q. 8. What is biogas ? What are the properties of biogas ?

Ans. Refer Q. 4.23.

5 Engine Cooling
and Lubrication
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Engine Cooling and Lubrication : ......... 5–2F to 5–10F
Different Cooling Systems,
Radiators and Cooling Fans
Part-2 : Engine Friction, Lubrication ................ 5–10F to 5–18F

Principle, Type of Lubrication,
Lubrication Oils, Crankcase Ventilation
Part-3 : Ignition System in SI Engine : ............. 5–18F to 5–27F

Ignition System Requirements,
Magneto and Battery Ignition
Systems, Ignition Timing and
Spark Plug, Electronic Ignition
Part-4 : Recent Trends in IC Engine : ............... 5–27F to 5–30F

Lean Burn Engine, Stratified
Charge Spark Ignition Engine,
Homogeneous Charge Spark
Ignition Engine, GDI
Engine Cooling & Lubrication 5–2 F (ME-Sem-5)
PART-1
Engine Cooling and Lubrication : Different Cooling Systems,
Radiators and Cooling Fans.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Types of Cooling Systems :
1. Air cooling system, and
2. Water cooling system.
Water Circulating Methods :
1. Thermosyphon cooling,
2. Forced or pump cooling,
3. Cooling with thermostatic regulator,
4. Pressurized water cooling, and
5. Evaporative cooling.
Radiator : The function of radiator is to reject coolant heat to the
outside air.
Cooling Fan : The purpose of cooling fan is to maintain the required
air flow across the radiator matrix and to bring down the temperature
of the water.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.1. Explain the different types of cooling systems.
Answer
Following are the types of cooling system :
i. Air Cooling System :
1. In this system, a current of air is made to pass over the outside of
cylinder whose outer area is increased by providing the fins.
2. Fins are extended surface to increase the heat transfer rate between
the two medium. Generally one medium is metal surface and other is
air.
Cooling fins between walls
Cooling fins
Fig. 5.1.1. Cooling fins on an engine cylinder.

3. Since heat transfer coefficient between the metal surface and air is low
so heat transfer between these medium is also low. For increasing the
heat transfer rate, the surface area has to be increased by providing the
fins.
4. Since, the heat is dissipated gradually, so temperature of fin decreases
from roots to its tip.
5. Temperature difference between the tip and ambient air is less than
that at the root, so heat transfer rate at tip of the fin is also less than that
at the root. Due to this reason, fins are generally made of gradually
decreasing cross-section.
ii. Water Cooling System :
1. In this system, water is used for cooling purpose. A schematic diagram
of water cooling system is shown in Fig. 5.1.2.
Filler cap
Thermostat valve
House pipe
Upper Water jackets around the cylinder
tank Cylinders
Fan
By pass
pipe
Radiator
tubes
Lower
Water pump
tank
Drain tap
Fig. 5.1.2. Water cooling system.

2. A water jacket is provided around the cylinder wall and cylinder head
ports in which water is circulated for extracting the heat from engine
part.
3. The water becomes heated in its passage through the jacket and is
cooled by means of air cooled radiator system.
4. For ease of cold starting, some antifreeze solutions are added to water.
Que 5.2. Write the advantages and disadvantages of air and water
cooling system.
Answer
A. Advantages of Air Cooling System :
1. Direct transfer of heat from engine to air eliminates the use of water.
2. Engine design become simpler.
3. No antifreeze solution is needed.
4. Small thermal losses.
5. Better warm-up performance.
6. Control of this cooling system is simpler than water cooling system.
7. Less carbon deposit due to high mean cylinder temperature.
B. Disadvantages of Air Cooling System :
1. Lower volumetric efficiency.
2. Not useful for high output engine.
3. Greater noise due to use of air fan.
C. Advantages of Water Cooling System :
1. Useful for high output engine.
2. This can be conveniently located wherever required.
3. Fuel consumption of high compression water cooled engine is lower.
4. Higher volumetric efficiency.
D. Disadvantages of Water Cooling System :
1. Use of radiator increases the weight and also dimension of engine.
2. Require more maintenance.
3. More sensitive to climate. For ease of cold starting, antifreeze solution
are used.
4. Poor warm-up performance.
Que 5.3. Explain the working of thermosyphon cooling system
with neat sketch. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

OR
Why engine cooling is neces s ary. Explain the working of
thermosyphon cooling system with neat sketch.
Answer
A. Necessity of Engine Cooling :
Cooling system is provided on an engine due to following reasons :
1. Expansion of piston in cylinder may seize the piston.
2. High temperature may reduce the strength of piston and cylinder liner.
3. Overheated cylinder may lead to pre-ignition of the charge in cone of
ignition engines.
4. Physical and chemical changes may occur in lubricating oil which may
cause sticking of piston rings and excessive wear of cylinder.
5. If the cylinder head temperature is high, then volumetric efficiency and
power output of engine is reduced.
B. Working of Thermosyphon Cooling System :
1. A thermosyphon cooling system is shown in Fig. 5.3.1
Upper hose
Upper tank
connection
Radiator core
Cylinder water
jacket Lower hose
connection Lower tank
Fig. 5.3.1. Thermosyphon cooling system.
2. This system works on the fact that water becomes light on heating.
3. This type of system is provided with a radiator.
4. Top of the radiator is connected to the top of water jacket and bottom of
radiator is connected to the bottom of the water jacket.
5. Water travel down the radiator across which air is passed to cool it.
6. The air flow can take place due to vehicle motion or a fan can be provided
for the purpose.
7. The main drawback of this system is that the circulation of water will
start only after engine become hot enough to start thermosyphon action.
Que 5.4. Sketch and explain working principle of a typical
thermostat used in engine cooling system.
Answer
1. It consists of bellows which are made of thin copper tubes, partially
filled with a volatile liquid like ether or methyl alcohol.
2. The volatile liquid changes into vapour at the correct working
temperature, thus creating enough pressure to expand the bellows.
3. The movement of the bellows opens the main valve in the ratio of
temperature rise, increasing or restricting the flow of water from engine
to the radiator.
4. Hence when the normal temperature of the engine has been reached
the valve open and circulation of water commences.
Main valve
Out
Pressure
relief valve
By pass
Bellows
Water
In
Fig. 5.4.1. Thermostat.
5. When the unit is closed the gas condenses and so the pressure falls.
6. The bellows collapse and the thermostat seats on its seat and circulation
around thermostat stops.
7. When the thermostat valve is not open and the engine is running the
water being pumped rises in pressure and causes the pressure relief
valve to open.
8. Thus the water completes its circulation through the by-pass.
Que 5.5. What is the purpose of radiators in water cooling

system ? Explain the types of radiators.
Answer
A. Purpose of Radiator :
1. The purpose of radiator is to reject the coolant heat to the atmospheric
air.
2. The cooling effect in radiator is achieved by dispersing the heated coolant
into fine stream through the radiator matrix so that small quantity of
heat coolant come in contact with large metal surface area which in
turn are cooled by a stream of air.
B. Types of Radiator :
i. Down-Flow Type Radiator :
1. In the down-flow type radiator, water flows from top to bottom.
Header tank Filler neck

and cap
Baffle
Overflow
Inlet
pipe
connection
Side plates Matrix
Outlet or core
connection
Collector tank Drain tap

Fig. 5.5.1. Down-flow type radiator.
2. The radiator has a supply or header tank at the top and a collector
tank at the bottom of the main radiator core or matrix.
3. The he ader tank re ce ives hot coo lant fro m the engine ,
accommodates expansion of water and also acts as a water reserve
against coolant loss.
4. A submerged horizontal baffle is provided to reduce mixing of the
incoming coolant with air so that aeration, which impairs the
radiator heat transfer efficiency, is avoided.
ii. Cross-Flow Type Radiator :
1. In the cross-flow type radiator the hot coolant is supplied to the top
of the supply tank, it flows across the radiator and is taken out from
the bottom of the collector tank.
To coolant Header tank
pump inlet
Fig. 5.5.2. Cross-flow type radiator.

2. A separate header tank is usually provided at the upper end of the
collector tank to prevent aeration and also to provide a coolant
reserve.
Que 5.6. Discuss the different types of radiator matrices with

neat sketches.
Answer
Different types of radiator matrices are as follows :
i. Honey Comb Block Type Matrix :
1. In this type, radiator is provided with circular tubes which are upset at
each end of hexagonal shape.
2. The cooling air is passed through the circular tube and water is flowing
between the tubes.
Coolant flow
Air flow
Fig. 5.6.1. Honey comb block type radiator matrix.

ii. Ribbon-Cellular Matrix :
1. This consists of a pair of thin metal ribbons soldered together along their
edges so as to form a water way running from header tank to collector
tank and a zig-zag copper ribbon between two water ways acts as air
fins.
Coolant flow
Air flow
Secondary heat transfer surface

Fig. 5.6.2. Ribbon-cellular type radiator matrix.
iii. Long Tube and Fin Type Matrix :
1. This type of matrix consists of a series of long tube extending from top to
bottom of the radiator are surrounded by straight metallic fins which
form the secondary heat transfer surfaces.
2. Coolant passes through the tubes and air passes through the fins around
the tubes.
Coolant flow
Air flow
Secondary heat transfer surfaces

Fig. 5.6.3. Long tube type radiator matrix.
iv. Corrugated Fin Type Matrix :
1. In this, water tubes are made of flattened oval shape section and zig-zag
copper ribbons are used to provide secondary heat transfer areas and
air turbulence.
Coolant flow
Air flow
Secondary heat transfer surfaces

Fig. 5.6.4. Corrugated fin type radiator matrix.
Que 5.7. Write a short note on cooling fan.
Answer
1. The fan is generally fitted behind the radiator, usually being mounted
on the water pump shaft and induces a flow of air through the radiator
block.
2. This function being especially important when vehicle is moving slowly,
or when it is stationary and the engine is running.
3. The fan is generally driven by a V-belt from the engine crankshaft and
has a number of blades which are made from metal, nylon or some
other plastic.
4. As the number of blades increases, the fan size can be reduced.
5. It is important that the fan belt is correctly adjusted, if it is too tight the
dynamo and water pump bearing, may be damaged and excess power
absorbed and if it is too slack the efficiency of the cooling system and the
dynamo output will be affected.
6. On no account should the engine crankshaft be rotated by the fan
blades as this will cause distortion to the blades and the assembly will
run out of balance.
PART-2
Engine Friction, Lubrication Principle, Type of Lubrication,
Lubrication Oils, Crankcase Ventilation.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Lubrication : It is the admittance of lubricating oil between two
surfaces having relative motion in order to reduce friction between
them and to ensure smooth running.
Types of Lubrication System used in IC Engines :
1. Wet sump lubrication system,
2. Dry sump lubrication system, and
3. Mist lubrication system.
Crankcase Ventilation : The method of removing blow-by gases
from the engine by allowing a fresh stream of air to pass through
crankcase is called crankcase ventilation.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.8. Define engine friction and discuss the effect of engine
variables on engine friction.
Answer
A. Engine Friction :
1. It is defined as the difference between the indicated power and the
brake power.
2. The difference between indicated power and brake power is due to the
following losses :
i. Pumping losses,
ii. Blow-by losses,
iii. Valve throttling losses, and
iv. Power loss to drive the auxiliaries, etc.
3. The above mentioned losses results in the engine friction.
B. Effect of Engine Variables on Engine Friction :
i. Compression Ratio : The frictional mean effective pressure increases
as the compression ratio is increased. But the mechanical efficiency
may even increase because of improvement in indicated mean effective
pressure.
ii. Engine Speed : The mechanical friction increases with the increase in
speed.
iii. Engine Load : When the load on the engine increases, the indicated
mean effective pressure also increases and friction loss also increases.
iv. Cooling Water Temperature : The rise in cooling water temperature
reduces the frictional loss as the viscosity of oil at higher temperature is
lower which reduces the frictional loss.
v. Oil Viscosity : Higher the viscosity of oil greater is the friction loss.
Que 5.9. Describe lubrication principle.
Answer
1. The lubrication works on the principle of squeezing out of lubricating oil
when a suitable weight is placed on it.
2. Consider a block resting on a flat surface covered with a layer of
lubricating oil. If the weight of the block is very high or the oil is thin, the
oil will squeeze out. In other words, thick oil can support a higher load
than that supported by thin oil [Fig. 5.9.1(a)].
3. The lubrication principle can be described in different forms as follows :
i. Hydrodynamic Lubrication :
1. When the block is moved over the surface, a wedge-shaped oil film
[Fig. 5.9.1(b)] is built-up between the moving block and the surface.
2. This wedge-shaped film is thicker at the leading edge than at the
rear.
3. This type of lubrication where a wedge-shaped oil film is formed
between two moving surfaces is called hydrodynamic lubrication.
Oil
Journal
Bearing
Load Pad
Load Oil
Bearing
Supporting oil film Supporting oil film
(a) (b )
Surface
irregularities
Load Load
Elastic
deformation Oil
Oil
of material
High pressure oil film Incomplete oil film

(c ) (d)
Fig. 5.9.1. (a) Action of lubrication in the bearing, (b) Hydrodynamic
lubrication, (c) Elastohydrodynamic lubrication, (d) Boundary lubrication.
ii. Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication :
1. When the load acting on the bearings is very high, the material
itself deforms elastically [Fig. 5.9.1(c)] against the pressure built up
of the oil film. This type of lubrication called elastohydrodynamic
lubrication.
iii. Boundary Lubrication :
1. If the film thickness between the two surfaces in relative motion
becomes so thin that formation of hydrodynamic oil film is not
possible and the surface high spots or asperities penetrate this thin
film to make metal-to-metal contact then such lubrication is called
boundary lubrication [Fig. 5.9.1(d)].
2. Such a situation may arise due to too high load, too thin an oil or
insufficient supply of oil due to low speed of movement.
iv. Hydrostatic Lubrication: In this lubrication, a thin oil film resists its
instantaneous squeezing out under reversal of loads with relative slow
motions.
Que 5.10. Explain various lubrication systems used in IC engines
with neat sketches.
Answer
Various lubrication systems used in IC engines are as follows :
i. Mist Lubrication System :
1. This system is used for two stroke cycle engines. In two stroke engine,
as the charge is compressed in crankcase so it is not possible to have the
lubricating oil in the sump.
2. In this system, 2 to 3 percent lubricating oil is added in fuel tank.
3. The oil and fuel mixture is inducted through the carburetor.
4. The gasoline is vaporized and oil in the form of mist goes via crankcase
into the cylinder.
5. The oil which impinges on the crankcase walls lubricates the main and
connecting rod bearing and rest of the oil which pass on the cylinder
during charging and scavenging periods lubricates the piston, piston
rings and cylinder.
ii. Wet Sump Lubrication System :
1. In wet sump lubrication system, the bottom part of the crankcase known
as sump contains the lubricating oil.
2. From the sump lubricating oil is supplied to various part of the engine.
3. Following are the three types of wet sump lubricating system :
a. Splash System :
1. In Fig. 5.10.1, a splash system is shown. This type of system is used
in light duty engines.
Oil pressure gauge
Camshaft
Connecting rod bearing

Main bearing
Main
bearing
Lower oil pan Oil troughs
Oil strainer Oil pump

Fig. 5.10.1. Splash system.
2. The lubricating oil is charged into the bottom of the engine crankcase
and maintain at a predetermined level with the help of the pump.
3. This oil is stored into the oil troughs located under the big end of the
connecting rod.
4. When the connecting rod is at its lowest position, the big end dipped
into oil trough and splash the oil all over the interior of the crankcase,
piston and piston rings and exposed position of the cylinder.
5. After that, excess oil is supplied back to the sump.
b. Splash and Pressure System :
1. This system is the combination of splash and pressure system.
2. The main camshaft bearings are lubricated by oil under pressure,
pumped by an oil pump.
3. The other parts are lubricated by splash.
Oil pressure gauge
Cam shaft
Main bearing
Oil jet
directed at
dip on rod
Oil pump
Oil strainer
Fig. 5.10.2. Splash and pressure system.
c. Pressure Feed System :
1. This system is used for engines which are exposed to high load.
2. In this system, an oil pump is used for lubricating all part of cylinder.
3. Oil is delivered by pressure pump at pressure ranging from 1.5 to
4 bar. The oil under pressure is supplied to main bearings of
crankshaft and camshaft.
4. An oil hole is drilled in crankshaft bearing to supply the oil to big
end and small end bearing of the connecting rod.
5. The cylinder wall, piston, piston ring are lubricated by the oil spray.
Oil pressure gauge
Cam shaft Tappet and cam receive oil

thrown from connecting rod
Main
Connecting bearing
rod bearing
Header line
Oil pump
Oil strainer
Fig. 5.10.3. Pressure feed system.
iii. Dry Sump Lubrication System :
1. Dry sump lubricating system is used for high capacity engines.
2. In this system, a separate storage supply tank is used at outside the
engine cylinder block.
3. The lubricating oil is fed into the supply tank from the sump by mean of
the pump through the filter.
4. Oil from storage tank is pumped to the various part of the engine.
5. Oil dripping from the cylinder and bearing into the sump is removed by
a scavenging pump which is further supplied to the storage tank through
filter.
Vent
Pressure
To bearing relief valve
Oil cooler
Supply tank
Oil pump
Engine crankcase
Filter by-pass
pressure relief valve
Dry sump
Filter
Strainer
Scavenging pump
Fig. 5.10.4. Dry sump lubrication system.
Que 5.11. What are the different types of lubricants ?
Answer
Different types of lubricants are given below :
A. Oils : There are the various lubricating oils which are discussed as
below :
i. Mineral Lubricating Oils : These are obtained from the residual
mass left during crude petroleum distillation.
ii. Fatty Oils : The fatty oils exhibit poor keeping quality and undergo
decomposition. Fatty oils however, exhibit more oiliness than
mineral oils of the same viscosity.
iii. Synthetic Lubricants : These are called synthetic because they
are not obtained directly from petroleum.
B. Grease :
1. Lubricating grease is a solid to semi-solid dispersion of a thickening
agent in liquid lubricant.
2. Greases are normally used under condition of lubrication for which oil is
not suitable or convenient. Greases perform better than oils under
conditions requiring :
i. High bearing loads and shock loads.
ii. Slow journal speed.
iii. Temperature extremes.
iv. A seal against external contaminants.
v. Large bearing clearances.
Que 5.12. Enlist and discuss the important properties of a

lubricant which affect engine performance.
Answer
Properties of lubricant which affect the engine performance are :
i. Viscosity : It is the ability of the oil to resist internal deformation due to
mechanical stresses and hence it is a measure of the ability of the oil film
to carry a load.
ii. Viscosity Index : The rate of change of viscosity with temperature is
called viscosity index.
iii. Pour Point : It is the lowest temperature at which the lubricating oil
will pour. It is an indication of its ability to move at low temperatures.
iv. Stability : It is the ability of oil to resist oxidation that would yield acids,
lacquers and sludge. It demands low temperature (under 90 °C) operation
and the removal of all hot areas from contact with the oil.
v. Flash Point : The flash point of an oil is the lowest temperature that
allows inflammable vapours to be formed.
vi. Fire Point : It is the lowest temperature at which the oil will burn
continuously.
vii. Specific Gravity : It is a measure of density of oil. It varies in between
0.85 to 0.96.
viii. Corrosiveness : Oil should be free from corrosive property.
ix. Oiliness : This is the property which enables oil to spread over and
adhere to the surface of the bearing.
Que 5.13. State the functions of lubricants in IC engine. Also
describe different types of lubrication system used in IC engine.
Answer
A. Functions of Lubricants :
1. To reduce the friction between the parts having relative motion.
2. To cool the surfaces by carrying away the heat generated due to friction.
3. To clean the engine part by washing away the carbon and metal particles.
4. To form a good seal between piston rings and cylinder walls.
5. To reduce the wear of moving engine part.
B. Types of Lubrication System : Refer Q. 5.10, Page 5–13F, Unit-5.
Que 5.14. What is crankcase ventilation and its types ?
Answer
A. Crankcase Ventilation :
1. A crankcase ventilation system is a one way passage for gases to escape
in a controlled manner from the crankcase of an internal combustion
engine.
Carburetor Air cleaner
Air intake
Fresh air line
PCV
Valve
Combustion
chamber
Blow-by gases
Fig. 5.14.1. Crankcase ventilation system.

2. There are two main reasons due to which we have to adopt the crankcase
ventilation :
i. To remove the various contaminants such as water, gasoline, blow-
by gases etc., that enter into crankcase and that may cause sludge
and corrode metal part.
ii. To relieve any pressure build-up in the crankcase that may cause
leakage of the crankshaft seal.
B. Types of Crankcase Ventilation : There are two type of ventilation
system :
i. Open System :
1. In this system, fresh air supply is inducted into the crankcase during
the compression stroke.
2. The entering air picks up the contaminants and discharges them to
atmosphere during expansion stroke.
ii. Closed System :
1. In this system, the fresh air supply is taken to the crankcase from
the carburetor.
2. Air cleaner and the breather outlets are connected to the intake
manifold through a PVC valve to ensure the burning of all the
crankcase gases in the combustion chamber.
PART-3
Ignition System in SI Engine : Ignition System Requirements,
Magneto and Battery Ignition Systems, Ignition Timing and
Spark Plug, Electronic Ignition.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Ignition System : It is that part of the electrical system which carries
the electrical current to spark plug where the spark necessary to
ignite the fuel-air mixture in the combustion chamber is produced.
Types of Ignition System used in SI Engines :
1. Battery ignition system,
2. Magneto ignition system, and
3. Electronic ignition system.
Ignition Timing : It is the correct instant for the introduction of
spark near the end of compression stroke in the cycle.
Spark Plug : The function of the spark plug is to provide a gap in
the combustion chamber for the discharge of a high voltage electric
pulse that will ignite the air-fuel mixture at the desired point in the
cycle.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.15. Why is an ignition system needed in SI engine ? Sketch

the constructional layout of a battery ignition system and explain
its working.
Answer
A. Need of Ignition System in SI Engine : In SI engine, compression
ratio is lower and self ignition temperature of the gasoline is higher. So,
for igniting the mixture for initiation of combustion, an ignition system
is must.
B. Constructional Layout of Battery Ignition Systems :
1. In battery ignition system, we generally used the battery of 6 V or 12 V.
2. The ignition system has to transfer the normal battery voltage of 6 V or
12 V to 20,000 V or 25,000 V for ignition of spark between the electrodes
of spark plug.
3. In Fig. 5.15.1, ignition system for a 4 stroke, 4 cylinder spark ignition
engine is shown. It has the following component :
S
Ignition coil Distributor
2
P 4 1
R1 Ballast Rotor
Ignition 3
SW 1
switch
C
Cam
Battery
Contact breaker
SW 2
C : Condenser, P : Prim ary coil, S : S econd ary coil;

R1 : Ballast resistance, SW1 : Ignition switch; SW2 : Contact breaker
Fig. 5.15.1. Circuit diagram for a conventional spark ignition system.
i. Battery :
1. Battery is used for obtaining the electrical energy.
2. Battery is a device which stores the electrical energy in the form of
chemical energy.
ii. Ignition Switch :
1. Ignition switch is used to turn ON and OFF the ignition system.
2. Battery is connected to primary winding of the ignition coil through
ignition switch and ballast resistor.
iii. Ignition Coil :
1. Function of the ignition coil is to set up the voltage of battery (6 V or
12 V) into high voltage.
2. It is made of the two coil of insulated wire, wound on a laminated soft
iron core. Inner coil is the secondary coil while upper coil is primary coil.
iv. Contact Breaker : This is a mechanical device which is used for making
and breaking the primary circuit of the ignition coil.
v. Condenser : The function of the condenser is to absorb and store this
inductive flow of current.
vi. Distributor : The function of the distributor is to distribute the ignition
surges to the individual spark plug in orderly sequence and at the correct
time.
vii. Spark Plug : It is used for generating the spark between the two
electrodes of the spark plug and ignite the combustible mixture within
the combustion chamber.
B. Working of Battery Ignition System :
1. When the ignition switch is closed, a primary current will flow through
the primary winding of coil from the battery.
2. This current produce a magnetic field in the soft iron core placed within
the secondary winding of coil.
3. When breaker point is open, current flow through condenser and it is
charged. As the condenser gets charged, primary current falls and
magnetic field collapses.
4. Collapse of field induces a voltage in the primary winding which charges
condenser to a voltage which is much higher than the voltage of battery.
5. The condenser then discharge into the battery and reverse the direction
of primary current and magnetic field.
6. So, rapid collapse and reversing the direction of magnetic field induce a
very high voltage in the secondary winding which has much more turn
than the primary winding.
7. The high secondary voltage is led to proper spark plug by means of
distributor and a spark occurs between the electrodes of spark plug.
Que 5.16. Describe high tension magneto ignition system with a
neat sketch. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
1. The magneto ignition system is similar in principle to the battery system
except that the magnetic field in the core of the primary and secondary
windings is produced by a rotating permanent magnet.
2. As the magnet turns, the field is produced from a positive maximum to
a negative maximum and back again.
3. As this magnetic field falls from a positive maximum value, a voltage
and current are induced in the primary winding.
4. The primary current produces a magnetic field of its own which keeps
the total magnetic field surrounding the primary and secondary windings
approximately constant.
5. When the permanent magnet has turned enough so that its contribution
to the total field is strongly negative, the breaker points are opened and
the magnetic field about the secondary winding suddenly goes from a
high positive value to a high negative value.
6. This induces a high voltage in the secondary winding which is led to the
proper spark plug by the distributor.
Spark
plug
Capacitor
Cam Ignition coil Distributor

Breaker points
Fig. 5.16.1. High tension magneto ignition system.
Que 5.17. Compare the battery ignition system and magneto

ignition system.
Answer
S. No. Battery Ignition System Magneto Ignition System

1. Battery is essential part of the No battery is required.
system. When the batte ry is
discharged, the re is starting
problem.
2. More maintenance due to battery. Less maintenance.
3. Primary current is o btaine d Required current is generated
through battery. by magneto.
4. Even at low speed, good spark is During starting, spark quality
obtained. is poor.
5. Occupy more space. Occupy less space.
6. Mainly used in cars and light Used in bikes, scooters, and
commercial vehicle. racing cars.
Que 5.18. Define ignition timing and write down the factors
affecting it.
Answer
A. Ignition Timing :
1. Ignition timing is the correct instant for the introduction of spark near
the end of compression stroke in the cycle. The ignition timing is fixed to
obtain maximum power from the engine.
2. The correct instant for the introduction of a spark is mainly determined
by the ignition lag.
B. Factors Affecting Ignition Timing :
2. Engine speed,
3. Mixture strength,
4. Combustion chamber design,
5. Throttle opening,
6. Engine temperature, and
7. Type of fuel.
Que 5.19. What is the main function of a spark plug ? Draw a neat
sketch and explain its various parts. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
A. Function of Spark Plug :
1. The main function of a spark plug is to conduct the high potential from
the ignition system into the combustion chamber.
2. It provides the proper gap across which spark is produced by applying
high voltage to ignite the fuel in the combustion chamber.
B. Construction of Spark Plug :
Terminal
Stud
Cement
Ceramic insulator
Centre electrode
Sillment seals
Rust resistant shell
Attached gasket
Reach Internal gasket
Core nose
Earth or side wire
Spark gap
Fig. 5.19.1. Construction of a typical spark plug.
i. Terminal : It is provided to connect the spark plug to the ignition

system.
ii. Insulator : Its major function is to provide mechanical support and
electrical insulation for the central electrode. It is generally made of
ceramic materials.
iii. Centre Electrode : It is connected to the terminal through an internal
wire and used to reduce the emission generated from the sparking.
iv. Seals : These are required to ensure there is no leakage from the
combustion chamber.
v. Metal Case/Shell : These withstands the torque of lightening the
plug, serves to remove heat from the insulator and pass it on to the
cylinder head and acts as the ground for the sparks passing through
the central electrode to the side electrode.
vi. Earth Electrode : These are provided to increase heat conduction.
These are made from high nickel steel.
vii. Gasket : An internal gasket is used to make the insulator pressure
tight in the body and for making the joint between the combustion
chamber and the shell body, an external gasket is used.
Que 5.20. Describe the electronic ignition system in detail.
Answer
A. Electronic Ignition System : There are two types of electronic ignition
systems as follows :
i. Transistorised Coil Ignition System (TCI System) :
1. Circuit diagram of TCI system is shown in Fig. 5.20.1.
2. In this type of system, the contact breaker and the cam assembly of
conventional system is replaced by a magnetic pulse generating system
which detects the position of the distributor shaft and send electrical
pulse to an electronic control module.
S
High voltage
Ignition coil to distributor
P
I R 1 Ballast resistance
Ignition
switch E Emitter
1/
Transistor
B R2
Battery Cam
SW2
Contact
breaker
Fig. 5.20.1. Transistorised Coil Ignition System.

3. A transistor is used in this circuit due to its ability to control much larger
current in the collector circuit as compare to the base circuit which
make transistor a suitable replacement for the breaker point and
condenser.
a. Advantages over Conventional Ignition System :
1. Reduced wear of components.
2. Reduced maintenance.
3. Increased reliability.
4. Increased spark plug life.
ii. Capacitive Discharge Ignition System (CDI System) :
1. A circuit diagram of CDI system is shown in Fig. 5.20.2.
300/250 V RC Energy storing

capacitor
High
voltage
SCR
DC to DC triggering SCR
converter circuit
–
P S
Battery
+
Ignition coil
Fig. 5.20.2. Condenser discharge ignition system.
2. In this system a capacitor is used instead of ignition coil for storage of

energy.
3. It is charged to a high voltage by means of a transformer and at the
moment of ignition discharged by a thyristor through the primary circuit
which generate a high voltage pulse in the secondary circuit to fire the
spark plug.
a. Advantages Over Conventional Ignition System :
1. The capacitor can store the energy several thousand times
than the conventional system, this permit the high output
voltage even at high spark rates.
2. Due to low internal resistance, faster voltage rise is obtained.
3. In CDI system, at low speed low current is drawn from battery
and at high speed high current is drawn. Unlike the
conventional system, high current is drawn at even low speed.
Que 5.21. Make comparison between TCI and CDI ignition system.
Answer
Difference between TCI and CDI are as follows :
S. No. Transistor Assisted Capacitor Discharge
1. These use a very small current This system contains a capacitor
through the points to switch a system that sends a small
power transistor ON and OFF amount of voltage into a coil and
and the power transisto r the coil acts like a transformer
supplies a normal 12 volts to the and magnifies the power of the
coil. voltage.
2. It provides faster switching than This provides a thinner but
sparking points so coil much hotter spark which will
performance is little better. light a weak or rich mixture, so
we get easier starting, and also
slightly better economy, and the
plugs last longer.
3. Simple circuit, hence cheaper. Circuit is complex, he nce
expensive.
4. It provides improved HT voltage Mechanically operated contact
and more accurate timing, but breakers does not exists hence
most of the limitations of the the system is highly efficient.
mechanically operated contact
breakers still exist.
Que 5.22. Discuss in detail the comparison between the various

ignition systems of an automobile.
Answer
S. No. Battery Coil Magneto Ignition Pulse Generator

Ignition System System
1. Battery is must. It No battery needed. It No battery needed,
consists of primary uses a magneto which instead a pulse
and secondary is a self contained generator is used to
circuits. In primary device, generates generate an
circuit, current current, steps it up to alternating voltage
flows from the a high voltage and and that controls the
battery, and steps up distributes it to the make and break of
into high voltage due various cylinders of the the current build up
to electrical engine at the correct in the primary
induction. time. winding of the
ignition coil.
2. A go od spark is During starting, Quality of spark is
available at spark quality of spark is low in starting.
plug even at low poor due to low speed.
speed.
3. Impossible to start No such difficulty. No such difficulty.
engine when
battery is
discharged.
4. Efficiency o f the The intensity o f Efficiency improves
system falls with rise spark rises with with engine speed.
in engine speed. engine speed.
5. Mostly employed in Used in motorcycles, Used in racing cars.
gasoline cars, buses scooters, high speed
and trucks. engines.
PART-4
Recent Trends in IC Engine : Lean Burn Engine, Stratified
Charge Spark Ignition Engine, Homogeneous Charge Spark
Ignition Engine, GDI.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
GDI : It is a technology used to improve specific power of the engine,
which in turn improves fuel economy.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.23. Write short note on lean burn engine.
Answer
1. Lean burn engines use an air-fuel mixture with more air than is required
to burn all of the fuel. The extra air dilutes the mixture and reduces the
flame temperature, thus reducing engine out NOx emissions and exhaust
temperatures.
2. Because of reduced heat losses and various thermodynamic advantages,
lean burn engines are generally 10 to 20 percent more efficient than
stoichiometric engines.
3. Without turbocharging, however, the power output of a lean burn engine
is less than that of a stoichiometric engine. With turbocharging the
situation is reversed.
4. Because lean mixtures knock less readily, lean burn engines can be
designed for higher levels of turbocharger boost than stoichiometric
engines and thus can achieve higher power output.
5. The lower temperatures experienced in these engines also contribute to
longer engine life and reliability. For these reasons, most heavy duty
natural gas engines are of the lean burn design.
Que 5.24. What do you mean by stratified charge engine ?
Answer
1. It is an engine which is mid-way between the homogeneous charge
spark ignition engine and the heterogeneous charge compression ignition
engine.
2. Stratified charge engine which combines the advantages of both petrol
and diesel engines and at the same time avoids as far as possible their
disadvantages.
3. Charge stratification means providing different fuel-air mixture strengths
at various places in the combustion chamber.
4. That is, the whole fuel-air mixture is distributed in layers or stratas of
different mixture strengths across the combustion chamber while the
overall mixture is rather lean.
5. Thus, the stratified charge engine is usually defined as a spark ignition
internal combustion engine in which the mixture in the zone of spark
plug is very much richer than that in the rest of the combustion chamber.
Que 5.25. What are the general characteristics of stratified charge

engine ?
Answer
Following are some general characteristics of stratified charge engine :
1. All types of stratified charge engines have good part load efficiency
while the full load performance is either equivalent to the petrol engine
or slightly inferior.
2. Almost all stratification processes have inherent in them some degree
of knock resistance, smooth combustion, and multi-fuel capability.
Depending upon the particular design, it can operate on low octane
gasoline or a range of quality down to diesel fuel and kerosene.
3. The volumetric efficiency of the unthrottled engines is higher than that
of the carburetted engines.
4. The exhaust emission characteristics of most of the stratification schemes
are good.
Que 5.26. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of

stratified charge engines.
Answer
A. Advantages of Stratified Charge Engine :
1. It can tolerate a wide quality of fuels.
2. It has low exhaust emission levels.
3. It can be manufactured by the existing technology.
B. Disadvantages of Stratified Charge Engine :
1. Charge stratification results in reduced power for a given engine size.
2. It has a higher weight than that of a conventional engine.
3. Its manufacture is more complex and hence, its manufacturing cost is
higher.
4. Its reliability is yet to be well established.
Que 5.27. What is homogeneous charge compression ignition

(HCCI) ? Also write advantages and disadvantages of HCCI.
Answer
A. Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) :
1. Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is a form of internal
combustion in which well-mixed fuel and oxidizer are compressed to the
point of auto-ignition.
2. As in other forms of combustion, this exothermic reaction releases energy
that can be transformed in an engine into work and heat.
3. HCCI combines characteristics of conventional gasoline engine and diesel
engines. Gasoline engines combine homogeneous charge (HC) with
spark ignition (SI), abbreviated as HCSI.
4. As in HCSI, HCCI injects fuel during the intake stroke. However, rather
than using an electric discharge (spark) to ignite a portion of the mixture,
HCCI raises density and temperature by compression until the entire
mixture reacts spontaneously.
B. Advantages of HCCI :
1. Since HCCI engines are fuel lean, they can operate at diesel like
compression ratios (>15), thus achieving 30% higher efficiencies than
conventional SI gasoline engines.
2. HCCI engines can operate on gasoline, diesel fuel, and most alternative
fuels.
3. HCCI avoids throttle losses, which further improves efficiency.
C. Disadvantages of HCCI :
1. High heat release and pressure rise rates contribute to engine wear.
2. Autoignition is difficult to control, unlike the ignition event in SI and
diesel engines, which are controlled by spark plugs and in cylinder fuel
injectors, respectively.
3. HCCI engines have a small power range, constrained at low loads by
lean flammability limits and high loads by in cylinder pressure restrictions.
Que 5.28. What do you mean by GDI ?
Answer
1. Gasoline direct injection (GDI), also known as petrol direct injection
(PDI) is a mixture formation system for internal combustion engines
that run on gasoline.
2. Gasoline direct injection engines generate the air-fuel mixture in the
combustion chamber.
3. During the induction stroke, only the combustion air flows through the
open intake valve.
4. The fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber by special fuel
injectors.
5. The use of GDI can help increase engine efficiency and specific power
output as well as reduce exhaust emissions.

Q. 1. Explain the different types of cooling systems.

Ans. Refer Q. 5.1.
Q. 2. Explain the working of thermosyphon cooling system with

neat sketch.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.3.
Q. 3. Explain various lubrication systems used in IC engines

with neat sketches.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.10.
Q. 4. What is crankcase ventilation and its types ?

Ans. Refer Q. 5.14.
Q. 5. Why is an ignition system needed in SI engine ? Sketch the
constructional layout of a battery ignition system and
explain its working.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.15.
Q. 6. What is the main function of a spark plug ? Draw a neat

sketch and explain its various parts.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.19.
Q. 7. Describe the electronic ignition system in detail.

Ans. Refer Q. 5.20.
Q. 8. Discuss in detail the comparison between the various

ignition systems of an automobile.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.22.
Q. 9. What do you mean by stratified charge engine ?

Ans. Refer Q. 5.24.
Q. 10. What is homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) ?

Also write advantages and disadvantages of HCCI.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.27.

IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants SQ–1 F (ME-Sem-5)
1 Introduction to
IC Engines
(2 Marks Questions)
1.1. Write the formula for efficiency of Otto and diesel cycle.
Ans.
A. Efficiency of Otto Cycle :
1
= 1–
r  1
B. Efficiency of Diesel Cycle :
1    1 
= 1–
 r   1    1 
1.2. State two differences between two stroke and four stroke
engines. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
OR
Differentiate between two stroke and four stroke engines.
Ans.
S. No. Two Stroke Engine Four Stroke Engine
1. Cycle is completed in two Cycle is completed in four stroke of
stroke of the piston or one the piston or two revolution of the
2. It contains ports. It contains valves.
1.3. Define compression ratio. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02

Ans. Compression ratio is defined as the ratio of the volume at beginning
of compression to the volume at the end of compression.
2 Marks Questions SQ–2 F (ME-Sem-5)
vs  vc
r=
vc
1.4. Compare SI and CI engine with respect to compression
ratio and ignition. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
S. No. Description SI Engine CI Engine
1. Compression 6 to 10. 16 to 20.

ratio
air.
1.5. Draw actual p-v diagram for four stroke engine.

Ans.
A. Actual p-v Diagram of a Four Stroke Otto Engine :
3
Pressure
Exhaust 4 Atmospheric
5
Suction 1 line
Volume
B. Actual p-v Diagram of Four Stroke Diesel Cycle :
3
2
Pressure
5
Suction 1 line
Volume
1.6. Draw p-v and T-s diagram for air standard Ericsson cycle.
Ans.
p
T
QS
3 Is 3
2 ex ot h 4
pa e r Constant
n s ma Constant
Iso pre
pressure
co
io l pressure
n
th ssi
m
er
m on
4 2
al
1 1
QR
v s
(a) ( b)
Fig. 1.6.1. Ericsson cycle.
1.7. What is mean effective pressure ?

Ans. Mean effective pressure is defined as the average pressure inside
the cylinders of an internal combustion engine based on the
calculated power output.
1.8. Compute bmep of four cylinder 2 stroke engine, 100 mm

bore, 125 mm stroke when it develops a torque of 490 Nm.
Ans.
Given : D = 100 mm, L = 125 mm, Tb = 490 Nm

To Find : Brake mean effective pressure (bmep).
1. We know that,
2 NTb p LANK  10
BP = = bm
60  1000 6

pbm  0.125   0.1  0.1  1  10
2    490 4
=
60  1000 6
( K = 1, for 2 stroke engine)
pbm = 31.36 N/m2
1.9. What do you mean by blow by losses ?

Ans. Blow by loss is the phenomenon of leakage of combustion products
past the piston and piston rings from the cylinder to the crankcase.
1.10. Give the value of compression ratio for Otto cycle, Diesel
cycle and Dual cycle. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
Ans.
1. Compression ratio for Otto cycle is 6 to 10.
2. Compression ratio for Diesel cycle is 16 to 20.
3. Compression ratio for Dual cycle is 12 to 16.
1.11. Draw p-v and T-s diagram for Otto, diesel and dual cycle.
Ans.
A. p-v and T-s Diagram for Otto Cycle :
p T v = Constant
3 3
Qin
Qin
2 4 2 4
Qout
Qout
1 1
v = Constant
v s
Fig. 1.11.1.
B. p-v and T-s Diagram for Diesel Cycle :
p Q1 T
3
2 3
Constant
Reversible pressure
adiabatic
 Qin
pv = C
4
2
4 Qout
Q2 1 Constant
1 volume
v s
Fig. 1.11.2.
C. p-v and T-s Diagram for Dual Cycle :
Constant pressure
QS 4
3
T
p 2 5
se 2
5
I
nt e
ro
pic
QR
vo l um
pro 1 t a nt
ce ss 1 C on s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 1.11.3. Dual cycle.

2 Combustion
(2 Marks Questions)
2.1. What do you mean by combustion ?

Ans. It is defined as a relatively rapid chemical combination of hydrogen
and carbon in the fuel with the oxygen in the air resulting in
liberation of energy in the form of heat.
2.2. What are the necessary conditions for combustion to take
place ?
Ans. Following conditions are necessary for combustion to take place :
1. A combustible mixture.
2. Some means to initiate combustion.
3. Stabilization and propagation of flame in the combustion chamber.
2.3. Define ignition delay. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02

OR
Explain delay period in CI engine.
Ans. It is also called as preparatory phase during which some fuel has
been already admitted but has not yet ignited. This period is counted
from the start of injection to the point where the pressure time
curve separates from the motoring curve indicated as start of
combustion.
2.4. What do you mean by performance number ?

Ans. It is defined as the ratio of the knock limited indicated mean effective
pressure of test fuel to knock limited indicated means effective
pressure of iso-octane.
Knock limited indicated of test fuel
PN =
Mean effective pressure of iso- octane
2.5. Mention different types of combustion chamber used in SI

engines. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Types of combustion chamber used in SI engines are as follows :
1. T-head combustion chamber,
2. L-head combustion chamber,
3. I-head combustion chamber, and
4. F-head combustion chamber.
2.6. What is the cause for diesel smoke ?
Ans. The cause of diesel smoke is incomplete burning of fuel inside the
combustio n chamber. Two main re asons for incomplete
combustion are incorrect air-fuel ratio and improper mixing.
2.7. What are the factors affecting combustion in CI engine ?

Ans. The factors affecting combustion in CI engine are as follow :
1. Ignition quality of fuel,
3. Intake temperature, and
4. Engine speed.
2.8. Write on swirl and squish. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. Swirl : It is an organized air movement which is provided to produce
high relative velocity between the fuel droplet and air for proper
mixing of fuel and air in short time.
Squish : As the piston move toward TDC the volume of gas mixture
at the outer radius of cylinder is forced radially inward as this outer
volume is reduced to zero. This radial inward motion of the gas
mixture is called squish.
2.9. What are the types of combustion chamber used in CI

engines ?
Ans. Types of combustion chamber used in CI engines are :
1. Open or direct injection combustion chamber,
2. Turbulent chamber,
3. Precombustion chamber, and
4. Energy cell.
2.10. What are the methods of controlling diesel knock ?

Ans. Following are the methods of controlling diesel knock :
1. High charge temperature,
2. High fuel temperature,
3. Good turbulence,
4. A fuel with a short induction period, and
5. Turbocharger.
2.11. What is the effect of compression ratio on the knocking in

SI engine ?
Ans. Both pressure and temperature at the end of compression stroke
increase with increase of compression ratio, hence tendency to
knock will increase.
2.12. What is swirl ratio ?
Ans. It is the ratio of air rotational speed to the crankshaft rotational
speed.
2.13. Why should the surface to volume ratio of a combustion

chamber be minimum ?
Ans.
1. The larger this ratio for a combustion chamber, the higher will be
the heat losses and cooler will be the walls of the combustion
chamber, due to which higher will be the exhaust gas hydrocarbon
concentration.
2. Therefore, to minimize the formation of hydrocarbons, the surface
to volume ratio should be minimum.
2.14. Define the term tumble.

Ans. It is defined as secondary rotational flow generated by squish motion
known as tumble.
2.15. What is equivalence ratio ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. Equivalence ratio is the ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to stoichiometric
fuel-air ratio. It is denoted by .
Actual fuel- air ratio
=
Stoichiometric fuel- air ratio
2.16. Explain stoichiometric air-fuel ratio.

Ans. Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is a mixture of air and fuel that contains
just sufficient amount of oxygen for complete combustion of the
fuel.

3 Carburetion and
Fuel Injection
(2 Marks Questions)
3.1. What do you mean by carburetion ?

Ans. The process of preparing a combustible fuel-air mixture outside the
SI engine cylinder is called carburetion.
3.2. What is carburetor ?
Ans. It is a device which atomises the fuel and mixes it with air.
3.3. Mention types of carburetors.

Ans. Types of carburetors are as follows :
1. Open choke type, and
2. Constant vacuum type.
3.4. Why a rich mixture is required for maximum power ?

Ans. The maximum energy is released when slightly excess fuel is used
because all the oxygen present in the cylinder is utilized. More rich
mixture than this is not helpful because it will result in poor
3.5. What are the functions of a fuel injection system ?
Ans. The main functions of a fuel injection system are :
1. Filter the fuel,
2. Meter the correct quantity of fuel to be injected,
3. Control the rate of fuel injection, and
4. Atomize the fuel into fine particles.
3.6. Why is float chamber vented to the atmosphere ?

Ans. The float chamber is vented to the atmosphere through a small
hole in the cover, so that the pressure on the surface of the fuel
remains constant and equal to that of the atmosphere.
3.7. Mention various types of MPFI system.

Ans. Types of MPFI system are as follows :
1. Port injection system.
2. Throttle body injection system.
3.8. What is scavenging in two stroke cycle engine ?

Ans. In two stroke cycle engine inlet air must be input at a pressure
greater than atmospheric pressure, this high pressure air enters
the cylinder and pushes most of the remaining exhaust residual
out of the still open exhaust port. This is called scavenging.
3.9. Can simple plain tube carburetor use at higher altitude ? If

yes and no then why ? AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
Ans. No, simple plain tube carburetor cannot be used at high altitude
because at high altitude density of air decreases and it becomes
difficult to produce a rich air-fuel mixture. So it must be equipped
with other devices to produce a rich air-fuel mixture. It is not possible
to use simple carburetor alone at high altitude.
3.10. State various types of injection system.

Ans. Types of injection system are as follows :
1. Air injection.
2. Solid injection :
i. Individual pump and injector,
ii. Common rails system, and
iii. Distributor system.
3.11. What is the function of fuel pump ?

Ans. The function of fuel pump is to deliver accurately metered quantity
of fuel under pressure at correct instant to the injector fitted on
each cylinder.
3.12. What is the function of fuel injector ?

Ans. The main function of fuel injector is to atomize the fuel into the fine
droplet which increases the surface area of the fuel droplet resulting
in better mixing and hence better combustion.
3.13. Define injection timing.

Ans. Injection timing is defined as the timing at which the injection of
the fuel takes place inside the inlet manifold is called injection
timing.
3.14. What do you mean by turbocharger ?

Ans. Turbocharger is centrifugal compressor driven by the exhaust gas
turbines.
3.15. What are the types of turbocharging ?
Ans. Following are the types of turbocharging :
1. Constant Pressure Turbocharging.
2. Pulse Turbocharging.
3. Pulse Converter.
4. Two-Stage Turbocharger.
5. Miller Turbocharging.

4 Engine Emission
and Control
(2 Marks Questions)
4.1. What are the major pollutants in exhaust emission ?

Ans. Major pollutants in exhaust emission are as follows :
1. Carbon monoxide (CO),
2. Hydrocarbons (HC), and
3. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
4.2. What is catalytic converter ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. It is a device which is placed in the vehicle exhaust system to reduce
HC and CO components by oxidising catalyst and NO components
by reducing catalyst.
4.3. Write the name of various fuels used in IC engines.
Ans. Following fuels are used in IC engines :
1. Solid fuel : Powdered coal.
2. Liquid fuel : Gasoline and diesel.
3. Gaseous fuel : Coal gas.
4.4. What is octane and cetane number ?
OR
Explain octane number and cetane no. in brief.
Ans. Octane Number : It is defined as the percentage by volume of
iso-octane in a mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane, which
exactly matches the knocking intensity of fuel in a standard engine
under a set of standard operating conditions.
Cetane Number : It is defined as the percentage by volume of
normal cetane in a mixture of normal cetane and -methyl
naphthalene which has same ignition characteristics as the test
fuel when combustion is carried out in a standard engine under
specified operating conditions.
4.5. What is motor octane no. and research octane no. ?
Ans. Motor Octane Number : It describes the behaviour of the fuel in
the engine at high temperatures and speeds.
Research Octane Number : It describes the behaviour of the fuel
in the engine at lower temperatures and speeds.
4.6. List the use of LPG as SI engine fuel.

Ans. LPG is widely used in buses, trucks and cars.
4.7. Define emission.

Ans. The term emission refers to the products of combustion that are
formed inside the engine cylinders and are emitted through the
exhaust system of an automobile into the atmosphere as long as
engine is running.
4.8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of CNG ?

Ans.
A. Advantages of CNG :
1. Economical.
2. Reduces harmful engine emission.
B. Disadvantages of CNG :
1. Low volumetric efficiency.
2. Large pressure required for storage.
4.9. Explain fuel quality standards.

Ans. The fuel quality standards regulate the quality of fuel supplied and
are an important safeguard for both consumers and the
environment. The standards aim to reduce vehicle emissions that
affect our air quality and contribute to health and environmental
problems.
4.10. What is the significance of octane no. and cetane no. for the
different fuels ? AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
Ans. Significance of Octane Number : At higher octane number, the
engine can be supercharged to high output without detonation.
Significance of Cetane Number : Higher the cetane number of
the fuel lesser is the propensity for diesel knock.
4.11. Differentiate between 2 way catalytic converter and 3 way

catalytic converter. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
Ans.
S. No. 2 Way Catalytic Converter 3 Way Catalytic Converter
1. It is used to control only CO It is used to control CO and HC
and HC emission by oxidation. by oxidation as well as reduction.
4.12. What are the alternate fuels for IC engines ?

Ans. Following are the alternate fuels for IC engines :
1. LPG, 2. CNG,
3. Biogas, and 4. Coal gas.

5 Engine Cooling and

Lubrication
(2 Marks Questions)
5.1. Differentiate among flash point temperature, fire point

temperature and self ignition temperature.
Ans.
S. No. Flash Point Fire Point Self Ignition
Temperature Temperature Temperature
1. It is the lowest It is the lowest It is the lowest
temperature at which tempe rature at tempe rature at
the lubricating oil will which the oil will which fuel will ignite
flash when a small burn continuously. itself without the
flame is passed across presence of a spark.
its surface.
5.2. How ignition system is necessary in IC engine ?

Ans. For igniting the mixture for initiation of combustion, ignition system
is necessary.
5.3. Write the different types of cooling system.

Ans. Types of cooling systems are as follows :
1. Air cooling system, and
2. Water cooling system.
5.4. What is the purpose of engine cooling ?

Ans. Engine cooling is done to keep the temperature of the engine low
in order to avoid the loss of volumetric efficiency and to avoid
danger of engine failure.
5.5. What is the significance of flash and fire points of a

lubricant ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Flash Point : It is defined as the lowest temperature at which the
lubricating oil will flash when a small flame is passed across its
surface.
Fire Point : Fire point is the lowest temperature at which the oil
will burn continuously.
5.6. What is the function of radiator ?

Ans. The function of radiator is to reject the coolant heat to the outside
air.
5.7. Write down the names of different types of radiator matrices.

Ans. Following are the different radiator matrices :
1. Honeycomb block type,
2. Ribbon-cellular type,
3. Tube and fin type, and
4. Tube and corrugated fin type.
5.8. Write the importance of fan in the radiator.

Ans. A fan is provided to maintain the required air flow across the radiator
matrix and to bring down the temperature of the water.
5.9. Write the name of ignition systems.

Ans. Following are the name of ignition systems :
1. Battery ignition system,
2. Magneto ignition system, and
3. Electronic ignition system.
5.10. What is engine friction ?

Ans. Engine friction is defined as the difference between the indicated
horse power and the brake horse power available at the output
shaft.
5.11. What are the disadvantages of overcooling ?

Ans. Following are the disadvantages of overcooling :
1. There is a chance of corrosion of engine part.
2. At very low temperature, starting of engine becomes difficult.
3. If engine is over cooled, some of the heat which could be used to
expand the gases will be lost.
5.12. What are the disadvantages of undercooling ?

Ans. Following are the disadvantages of undercooling :
a. Due to undercooling, size of piston may expand that will seize the
motion of piston inside the cylinder.
b. Undercooling may evaporate the lubricant.
5.13. Why additives are added in lubricants ?
Ans. Additives are added to improve the combustion performance of
fuels arising due to knock and surface ignition.
5.14. By what process crude oil is separated into gasoline,

kerosene and fuel oil ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Crude oil is separated into gasoline, kerosene and fuel oil by
fractional distillation process.

IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants SP–1 F (ME-Sem-5)
B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2015-16
IC ENGINES AND COMPRESSORS
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100
Section – A
1. Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. State two differences between two stroke and four stroke
engines.
b Write the name of various fuels used in IC engines.
c. What is octane and cetane number ?
d. Mention different types of combustion chamber used in SI

engines.
e. What is the difference between reciprocating and

centrifugal compressor ?
f. Write the formula for efficiency of Otto and diesel cycle.
g. Draw p-v and T-s diagram for air standard Ericsson cycle.
h. What are the major pollutants in exhaust emission ?
i. State various types of injection system.
j. What do you mean by blow by losses ?
Section-B
Attempt any five questions from this section. (10 × 5 = 50)

2. Compare Otto, diesel and dual cycles for the
a. Same compression ratio and heat input, and
b. Same maximum pressure and temperature.
3. a. Write short notes on surging and stalling.

Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–2 F (ME-Sem-5)
b. Write short notes on diesel knock and its control.
4. Following data relates to 4 cylinders, 2 stroke petrol engine.

Air/Fuel ratio by weight 16 : 1, calorific value of the fuel
= 45200 kJ/kg, mechanical efficiency = 82 %, air standard
efficiency = 52 %, relative efficiency = 70 %, volumetric
efficiency = 78 %, stroke / bore ratio = 1.25, suction
condition : 1 bar, 25 °C, speed = 24000 rpm, power at brakes
of 72 kW. Calculate :
ii. Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc).
iii. Bore and stroke.
5. Derive an expression for the efficiency of Dual cycle with

6. Why engine cooling is necessary ? Explain the working of

7. Prove that for two stage compressors, the work done on

one kg of air is minimum with perfect intercooling when
the intermediate pressure is geometric mean of the suction
and delivery pressures.
pi = pd ps
Where, ps = Suction pressure.
pd = Delivery pressure.
8. What are the advantages of supercharging ? Explain the

effect of altitude on power output.
9. What is the main function of a spark plug ? Draw a neat

Section-C
Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)

10. a. How are the injection system classified ? Describe them
briefly. Why the air injection system is not used now a
days ?
b. Explain the stages of combustion in an IC engine.
11. a. Explain the construction and working of a root blower

and axial flow compressor with a neat sketch.
b. Sketch and explain working principle of typical thermostat
used in engine cooling system.
12. a. What do you mean by combustion ? List and explain

various stages of combustion in IC engines.
b. Discuss the effect of following :

i. Effect of engine speed and load on flame propagation in SI
engine.
ii. Effect of spark timing, engine load and compression ratio

on detonation in SI engine.

SOLUTION OF PAPER (2015-16)
Section – A
1. Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
a. State two differences between two stroke and four stroke
engines.
Ans.
b Write the name of various fuels used in IC engines.

Ans. Following fuels are used in IC engines :
1. Solid fuel : Powdered coal.
2. Liquid fuel : Gasoline and diesel.
3. Gaseous fuel : Coal gas.
c. What is octane and cetane number ?

d. Mention different types of combustion chamber used in SI

engines.
Ans. Types of combustion chamber used in SI engines are as follows :
1. T-head combustion chamber,
2. L-head combustion chamber,
3. I-head combustion chamber, and
4. F-head combustion chamber.
e. What is the difference between reciprocating and

centrifugal compressor ?
Ans. This questions is out of syllabus from session 2020-21.
f. Write the formula for efficiency of Otto and diesel cycle.
Ans.
A. Efficiency of Otto Cycle :
1
= 1–
r  1
B. Efficiency of Diesel Cycle :
1    1 
= 1–
 r   1    1 
g. Draw p-v and T-s diagram for air standard Ericsson cycle.
Ans.
p
T
QS
3 Is 3
2 e x ot h 4
pa e r Constant
n s ma Constant
I so p r e
pressure
co
io l pressure
n
th ssi
m
er
m on
4 2
al
1 1
QR
v s
(a) ( b)
Fig. 1. Ericsson cycle.
h. What are the major pollutants in exhaust emission ?

Ans. Major pollutants in exhaust emission are as follows :
1. Carbon monoxide (CO),
2. Hydrocarbons (HC), and
3. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
i. State various types of injection system.

Ans. Types of injection system are as follows :
1. Air injection.
2. Solid injection :
i. Individual pump and injector,
ii. Common rails system, and
iii. Distributor system.
j. What do you mean by blow by losses ?

Ans. Blow by loss is the phenomenon of leakage of combustion products
past the piston and piston rings from the cylinder to the crankcase.
Section-B
Attempt any five questions from this section. (10 × 5 = 50)

2. Compare Otto, diesel and dual cycles for the
a. Same compression ratio and heat input, and
b. Same maximum pressure and temperature.
Ans.
a. Same Compression Ratio and Heat Input :
1. For the same compression ratio and heat input Otto, diesel and
dual cycle are represented in Fig. 2 on the p-v and T-s diagram as :
Otto cycle : 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1
Diesel cycle : 1 – 2 – 3 – 4– 1
Dual cycle : 1 – 2 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1
Area 5-2-3-6 =Area 5-2-3-6 = Area 5-2-2-3-6.
3. This represents the heat input. So every cycle has same heat input
for same compression ratio which is represented by 1  2.
3 2 3
2 3
2
p 2 3 T
4 4
4 4 4
4
1 1
Constant volume
Isentropic process
v 5 s 6 6 6
(a) (b )
Fig. 2. Same compression ratio and heat input.
b. Same Maximum Pressure and Temperature :
2 3
Constant 3
pressure
2
nt
p T 2 st a
Is e 2 C on m e
nt r u
opi 4 vol
cp 4
ro c
ess 1 1
Constant volume
v s 6 5
( a) (b )
Fig. 3. Same maximum pressure and temperature.
1. In Fig. 3, Otto and diesel cycle are shown on p-v and T-s diagram
as :
QR
Otto = 1 
Qs
QR
Diesel = 1 
Qs
QS > QS
3. a. Write short notes on surging and stalling.

Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2020-21.
b. Write short notes on diesel knock and its control.

Ans.
A. Diesel Knock :
1. Diesel knock is the sound produced by the very rapid rate of
pressure rise during the early part of the uncontrolled second
phase of combustion.
will be released almost immediately, this correspondingly produces
the abnormally high rate of pressure rise, which is mainly
responsible for rough and noisy combustion process under these
condition.
B. Diesel Knock Control :
turbulence.
4. Following data relates to 4 cylinders, 2 stroke petrol engine.

Air/Fuel ratio by weight 16 : 1, calorific value of the fuel
= 45200 kJ/kg, mechanical efficiency = 82 %, air standard
efficiency = 52 %, relative efficiency = 70 %, volumetric
efficiency = 78 %, stroke / bore ratio = 1.25, suction
condition : 1 bar, 25 °C, speed = 24000 rpm, power at brakes
of 72 kW. Calculate :
ii. Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc).
iii. Bore and stroke.
Ans.
Given : No. of cylinders = 4, Air/fuel ratio = 16 : 1, C = 45200 kJ/
kg, mech = 82 %, air = 52 %, rel = 70 %, vol = 78 %, Stroke/bore
ratio = 1.25, pressure = 1 bar, Temperature = 25 °C, Speed = 2400
rpm, Brake power = 72 kW
1. We know that,
1
air = 1 
r  1
1
0.52 = 1  (1.4  1) ( For air,  = 1.4)
r
r0.4 = 2.083
r = 6.26
rel = th
air
th = 0.52 × 0.70 = 0.364
BP
mf C
BP
 mf =
thC
72
=
0.364  45200
mf = 4.376 × 10– 3 kg/sec
= 15.75 kg/hr
mf
BP
15.75
= = 0.21875 kg/kW-hr
72
ma 16
5.  =
mf 1
ma = 16 mf = 16 × 4.376 × 10–3 kg/sec
ma = 70.016 × 10–3 kg/sec
ma
vol =
aVs Nn
70.016  10 3
0.78 =
 2400
1.15   D2 L  4
4 60
2 –3
D L = 0.6211 × 10
1.25 D3 = 0.6211 × 10–3 [ L = 1.25 D]
D = 0.0792 m = 79.2 mm
L = 1.25 D
5. Derive an expression for the efficiency of Dual cycle with

Ans.
addition takes place at constant volume (2-3) and rest of the part
takes place at constant pressure (3-4) as shown in Fig. 4(a).
3. This cycle is called dual cycle because it has the features of both
Otto cycle and diesel cycle.
Constant pressure
QS 4
3
T
p 2 5
se 2
5
I
nt e
m
ro QR ol u
pic v
pro 1 t a nt
ce ss 1 C on s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 4. Dual cycle.
4. For dual cycle,
Total heat supplied =Heat supplied at constant volume (2-3) + Heat
= Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp(T4 – T3)
Heat rejection =Heat rejected at constant volume in process
(5-1)
= Cv(T5 – T1)
=
Total heat supplied
Cv (T3  T2 )  C p (T4  T3 )  Cv (T5  T1 )
=
Cv (T3  T2 )  C p (T4  T3 )
= 1
(T5  T1 )  C p 
    ...(1)
(T3  T2 )   (T4  T3 )  Cv 
 1
v 
6. We know that,T2 = T1  1   T1 r  1
 v2 
p  1
T3 = T2 3  T1 r  ( = Pressure ratio = p3/p2)
p2
v4
v3
 1  1
v  v 
Also, T5 = T4  4   T1 r  1   4 
 v5   v5 
v4 v vv vv
 = 4  4 3  4 2 ( v5 = v1 and v2 = v3)
v5 v1 v3v1 v3 v1
v4 
 =
v5 r
7. Substituting all these values in eq. (1), we get
 1
v 
T1 r   1  4   T1
 v5 
 = 1
(T1 r   1  T1 r   1 )   (T1 r   1  T1 r   1)
1     1 
= 1   
r  1  (  1)    (  1) 
6. Why engine cooling is necessary ? Explain the working of

Ans.
A. Necessity of Engine Cooling :
Cooling system is provided on an engine due to following reasons :
1. Expansion of piston in cylinder may seize the piston.
2. High temperature may reduce the strength of piston and cylinder
liner.
3. Overheated cylinder may lead to pre-ignition of the charge in cone
of ignition engines.
4. Physical and chemical changes may occur in lubricating oil which
may cause sticking of piston rings and excessive wear of cylinder.
5. If the cylinder head temperature is high, then volumetric efficiency
and power output of engine is reduced.
B. Working of Thermosyphon Cooling System :
1. A thermosyphon cooling system is shown in Fig. 5.
Upper hose
Upper tank
connection
Radiator core
Cylinder water
jacket Lower hose
Fig. 5. Thermosyphon cooling system.

4. Top of the radiator is connected to the top of water jacket and
bottom of radiator is connected to the bottom of the water jacket.
6. The air flow can take place due to vehicle motion or a fan can be
provided for the purpose.
7. The main drawback of this system is that the circulation of water
will start only after engine become hot e nough to start
thermosyphon action.
7. Prove that for two stage compressors, the work done on

one kg of air is minimum with perfect intercooling when
the intermediate pressure is geometric mean of the suction
and delivery pressures.
pi = pd ps
Where, ps = Suction pressure.
pd = Delivery pressure.
8. What are the advantages of supercharging ? Explain the

effect of altitude on power output.
9. What is the main function of a spark plug ? Draw a neat

Ans.
A. Function of Spark Plug :
1. The main function of a spark plug is to conduct the high potential
from the ignition system into the combustion chamber.
2. It provides the proper gap across which spark is produced by
applying high voltage to ignite the fuel in the combustion chamber.
B. Construction of Spark Plug :
Terminal
Stud
Cement
Ceramic insulator
Centre electrode
Sillment seals
Rust resistant shell
Attached gasket
Reach Internal gasket
Core nose
Earth or side wire
Spark gap
Fig. 6. Construction of a typical spark plug.

i. Terminal : It is provided to connect the spark plug to the ignition
system.
ii. Insulator : Its major function is to provide mechanical support
and electrical insulation for the central electrode. It is generally
made of ceramic materials.
iii. Centre Electrode : It is connected to the terminal through an
internal wire and used to reduce the emission generated from the
sparking.
iv. Seals : These are required to ensure there is no leakage from the
combustion chamber.
v. Metal Case/Shell : These withstands the torque of lightening
the plug, serves to remove heat from the insulator and pass it on
to the cylinder head and acts as the ground for the sparks passing
through the central electrode to the side electrode.
vi. Earth Electrode : These are provided to increase heat conduction.
These are made from high nickel steel.
vii. Gasket : An internal gasket is used to make the insulator pressure
tight in the body and for making the joint between the combustion
chamber and the shell body, an external gasket is used.
Section-C
Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)

10. a. How are the injection system classified ? Describe them
briefly. Why the air injection system is not used now a
days ?
Ans.
A. Classification of Injection System : There are two type of
injection system :
compressed air.
2. The fuel is metered and pumped to the fuel valve by a camshaft
driven fuel pump.
3. The fuel valve is opened by means of a mechanical linkage operated
by the camshaft which controls the timing of injection.
4. Fuel valve is also connected to a high pressure air line fed by
multistage compressor.
5. When the fuel valve is opened the high pressure carries the fuel
and sprays it in the form of droplet into the combustion chamber.
HP air
Cylinder
Mechanical
HP HP linkage
fuel fuel cylinder
LP fuel

air
compressor
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of an air injection system.
B. Reason for not using the Air Injection System : Air injection
system is not used nowadays because in air injection system, a
multistage compressor is used which increases the size and weight
of the engine and reduce the brake power output.
b. Explain the stages of combustion in an IC engine.

Ans.
A. Stages of Combustion in CI Engine : Combustion phenomenon
in CI engine can be explained in the following stages :
1. During this phase the fuel is injected, but it has not been ignited.
This is a sort of preparatory phase.
2. Ignition delay is counted from the start of injection to the point
where p- curve separates from the pure air compression curve.
a. Physical Delay :
b. Chemical Delay :
90
80
70
1 2 3 4
Pressure, bar
60
50
Injection starts B
40 Motoring
30
20 Injection
10
Atmospheric
0
120 100 80 60 40 20 TDC 20 40 60 80 100 120
Fig. 8. Stages of combustion in the CI engine.
fuel droplets have accumulated in fuel cylinder and they are ready
to ignite.
2. Stage II starts from point B, and ends at the maximum pressure
point of p- curve.
1. At the end of second stage of combustion, the temperature and
pressure are so high that the fuel droplets injected in the third
stage burn almost as they enter and any further pressure rise can
be controlled by purely mechanical means, i.e., by the injection
rate.
cycle temperature.
3. The heat evolved by the end of controlled combustion is about 70 to
80 percent.
1. The combustion continues even after the fuel injection is over,
because of poor distribution of fuel particles. This burning may
continue in the expansion stroke upto 70 to 80 degree of crank
travel from TDC. This continued burning called the after burning.
B. Stages of Combustion in SI Engine : Combustion phenomenon
in SI engine can be described in following three stages :
1. Ignition lag is the time lag between the first ignition of fuel and
beginning of the main phase of combustion.
Pressure
c
Expansion
Compression b
d
a TDC
0° 180° 360°
Crank angle
Fig. 9. Theoretical p- diagram.
2. A is the point of spark, stage I is assumed to be beginning at this
moment.
temperature is increased by heat transfer from the flame and by
certain chemical reactions.
5. Point B is obtained as the point where p- curve for combustion
process depart from the normal motoring curve.
6. In motoring test, the spark plug is deactivated and engine is driven
by a motor. So, the pressure variation is the same as if there was no
combustion process.
30 I II III
Pressure, bar C
20
I = Ignition lag
10
B
A
Motoring
(Non-firing)
80 60 40 20 8 TDC 20 40 60 80
Crank angle, 
Fig. 10. Stage of combustion in SI engine.
since it has absorbed heat from the flame and chemical reaction
have also increased the temperature of mixture.
2. Here the flame propagates rapidly thus consuming the mixture
and releasing energy which manifest itself in the increased
temperature and pressure.
2. Because of the reassociation reaction some energy releases some
charge which could not burn during second stage, also burn in this
stage.
11. a. Explain the construction and working of a root blower

and axial flow compressor with a neat sketch.
b. Sketch and explain working principle of typical thermostat

used in engine cooling system.
Ans.
temperature rise, increasing or restricting the flow of water from
engine to the radiator.
4. Hence when the normal temperature of the engine has been
reached the valve open and circulation of water commences.
Main valve
Out
Pressure
relief valve
By pass
Bellows
Water
In
Fig. 11. Thermostat.
5. When the unit is closed the gas condenses and so the pressure
falls.
6. The bellows collapse and the thermostat seats on its seat and
circulation around thermostat stops.
7. When the thermostat valve is not open and the engine is running
the water being pumped rises in pressure and causes the pressure
relief valve to open.
12. a. What do you mean by combustion ? List and explain

various stages of combustion in IC engines.
Ans.
A. Combustion : It is defined as a relatively rapid chemical
combination of hydrogen and carbon in the fuel with the oxygen in
the air resulting in liberation of energy in the form of heat.
B. Stages of Combustion in CI Engine : Combustion phenomenon
in CI engine can be explained in the following stages :
a. Physical Delay :
b. Chemical Delay :
90
80
70
1 2 3 4
Pressure, bar
60
50
Injection starts B
40 Motoring
30
20 Injection
10
Atmospheric
0
120 100 80 60 40 20 TDC 20 40 60 80 100 120
to ignite.
rate.
cycle temperature.
80 percent.
C. Stages of Combustion in SI Engine : Combustion phenomenon
in SI engine can be described in following three stages :
Pressure
c
Expansion
Compression b
d
a TDC
0° 180° 360°
Crank angle
moment.
30 I II III
C
Pressure, bar
20
I = Ignition lag
10
B
A
Motoring
(Non-firing)
80 60 40 20 8 TDC 20 40 60 80
Crank angle, 
combustion process.
stage.
b. Discuss the effect of following :

i. Effect of engine speed and load on flame propagation in SI
engine.
Ans. Effect of engine speed and load on flame propagation are as follows :
i. Compression Ratio : High compression ratio results in increased
temperature and pressure, hence increases the flame speed.
ii. Ambient Pressure and Temperature : Flame speed is increased
as the inlet temperature and pressure are increased.
iii. Air-fuel Ratio : Maximum flame velocity occurs when mixture
strength is 10 % more than the stoichiometric ratio. When mixture
is made leaner the flame speed is decreased.
iv. Turbulence : As turbulence increases, the flame speed increases
because of better mixing of charge but excessive turbulence is
harmful since it increases the heat losses to surrounding thereby
lowering the temperature of mixture.
v. Engine Load : Temperature and pressure within the cylinder
increases as the load is increased. So, flame speed increases as load
increases.
vi. Engine Speed : A decrease in the engine speed decreases the
turbulence of the mixture resulting in reduced flame speed.
ii. Effect of spark timing, engine load and compression ratio

on detonation in SI engine.
Ans. Effect of spark timing, engine load and compression ratio on
detonation in SI engine are as follows :
ii. Induction Pressure : Increase of pressure decreases the self-
ignition temperature and the induction period. Knock will tend to
occur at full throttle.
iii. Engine Speed : Low engine speeds will give low turbulence and
low flame velocities (combustion period is constant in angle) and
knock may occur at low speed.
iv. Ignition Timing : Advanced ignition timing increases peak
pressure and promotes knock.
v. Mixture Strength : Optimum mixture strength gives high
vii. Combustion Chamber Design : Poor design gives long flame
paths, poor turbulence and insufficient cooling all of which promote
knock.
viii. Cylinder Cooling : Poor cooling raises the mixture temperature
and promotes knock.

B. Tech.
Section – A
Note : Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
a. Define compression ratio.
b. Compare SI and CI engine with respect to compression

ratio and ignition.
c. Why a rich mixture is required for maximum power ?
d. What is supercharging in a IC engine ?
e. Define ignition delay.
f. What is the cause for diesel smoke ?
g. List the use of LPG as SI engine fuel.
h. What is the significance of flash and fire points of a

lubricant ?
i. Differentiate between single stage and multistage air

compressor.
j. Define volumetric efficiency.
Section – B
Note : Attempt any five questions of this section. (10 × 5 = 50)

2. An amount of a perfect gas has initial condition of volume
1 m3, pressure 1 bar and temperature 18 °C. It undergoes
compression being 50 bar and the volume after constant
pressure expansion being 0.1 m3. Calculate the temperature
at the major point of the cycle and evaluate the thermal
efficiency of diesel cycle.
3. Briefly explain with a neat sketch the operation of a simple
float type carburettor.
4. Describe high tension magneto ignition system with a neat

sketch.
5. Explain the stages of combustion in a CI engine.
6. How are the injection system classified ? Describe them

briefly.
7. A six cylinder, 4 s troke SI engine having a piston

displacement of 700 cm3 per cylinder developed 78 kW at
3200 rpm and consumed 27 kg of petrol per hour. The calorific
value of petrol is 44 MJ/kg. Estimate
i. Volumetric efficiency of the engine if the air fuel ratio is 12
and intake air is at 0.9 bar, 32 °C,
ii. Brake thermal efficiency, and
iii. Braking torque.
8. A single stage single acting reciprocating air compressor

has a bore of 200 mm and a stroke of 300 mm. It receives air
at 1 bar and 20°C delivered it at 5.5 bar. If the compression
follows the pv1.3 = C and clearance volume is 5 % of stroke
volume, determine :
i. Mean effective pressure.
ii. Power to drive the compressor, if it runs at 500 rpm.
9. Describe with a neat sketch the working principle of vane

blower.
Section – C
Note : Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)
10. a. Explain the significance of fuel air cycle. (5)
b. Compare the following : (10)

i. Two stroke and four stroke engine.
ii. Otto, diesel and dual cycle.
11. a. Explain the stages of combustion in SI Engine. (7)

b. Sketch some important designs of open combustion
chamber for CI engines. (8)
12. Discuss engine cooling and lubrication systems in detail

with required sketches. (15)

Section – A
Note : Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
a. Define compression ratio.

Ans. Compression ratio is defined as the ratio of the volume at beginning
of compression to the volume at the end of compression.
vs  vc
r=
vc
b. Compare SI and CI engine with respect to compression

ratio and ignition.
Ans.
S. No. Description SI Engine CI Engine
1. Compression 6 to 10. 16 to 20.

ratio
air.
c. Why a rich mixture is required for maximum power ?

Ans. The maximum energy is released when slightly excess fuel is used
because all the oxygen present in the cylinder is utilized. More rich
mixture than this is not helpful because it will result in poor
d. What is supercharging in a IC engine ?

e. Define ignition delay.

combustion.
f. What is the cause for diesel smoke ?

Ans. The cause of diesel smoke is incomplete burning of fuel inside the
combustio n chamber. Two main re asons for incomplete
combustion are incorrect air-fuel ratio and improper mixing.
g. List the use of LPG as SI engine fuel.

Ans. LPG is widely used in buses, trucks and cars.
h. What is the significance of flash and fire points of a

lubricant ?
Ans. Flash Point : It is defined as the lowest temperature at which the
lubricating oil will flash when a small flame is passed across its
surface.
Fire Point : Fire point is the lowest temperature at which the oil
will burn continuously.
i. Differentiate between single stage and multistage air

compressor.
j. Define volumetric efficiency.

Section – B
Note : Attempt any five questions of this section. (10 × 5 = 50)

2. An amount of a perfect gas has initial condition of volume
1 m3, pressure 1 bar and temperature 18 °C. It undergoes
compression being 50 bar and the volume after constant
pressure expansion being 0.1 m3. Calculate the temperature
at the major point of the cycle and evaluate the thermal
efficiency of diesel cycle.
Ans.
Given : T1 = 18 + 273 = 291 K, p = 1 bar, p2 = 50 bar, v1 = 1 m3,
v3 = 0.1 m3
To Find : i. Temperatures at major point of the cycle.
ii. Thermal efficiency of diesel cycle.
Data Assume :  = 1.4 for gas.
1. For the isentropic compression,
(   1) / 
T2  p2 
=  p 
T1 1
 T2 = 291 × (50/1)(1.4 – 1)/1.4

= 889.9 K
p1v1 pv
2. Now = 2 2
T1 T2
11 50  v2
=
291 889.9
 v2 = 0.0612 m3
p2v2 pv
3. Also = 3 3 , and p2 = p3
T2 T3
v3 0.1
 T3 = T2 × = 889.9 × = 1454 K
v2 0.0612
4. For the isentropic expansion,
 1
T4 v 
=  3
T3  v4 
1.4  1
 0.1 
 T4 = 1454  = 578.9 K
 1.0 
Heat supplied  Heat rejected Q
5. thermal = 1 r
Heat supplied Qs
Cv (T4  T1 ) (578.9  291)
= 1– =1–
C p (T3  T2 ) 1.4 (1454  889.9)
 Cp 
= 0.635 or 63.5 %    C 
v
3. Briefly explain with a neat sketch the operation of a simple

float type carburettor.
Ans.
1. A simple float type carburetor is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a float
chamber with needle valve, nozzle with metering orifice, venturi
and throttle valve.
designed level, float comes lower and thereby opens the needle of
the valve to supply more fuel from fuel tank.
4. When the level is reached, the float move upward and closes the
valve.
1. During the suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi. Venturi
is a tube of decreasing cross-section which reaches a minimum at
the throat.
2. When air flows through the venturi, its velocity increases and
pressure decreases in the throat. This pressure is below the
atmospheric pressure but the pressure of fuel in float chamber is
atmospheric.
Throttle valve
Fuel from
Vent Strainer pump
Needle
Venturi valve
h
Float
Nozzle
(discharge jet)

Choke Air inlet
Fig. 1. A simple float type carburetor.
3. So, fuel is fed through the discharge jet in venturi, where air is
flowing during suction stroke. Thus, mixture of air and fuel is
prepared in carburetor. This mixture is supplied to the cylinder.
4. Describe high tension magneto ignition system with a neat

sketch.
Ans.
1. The magneto ignition system is similar in principle to the battery
system except that the magnetic field in the core of the primary and
secondary windings is produced by a rotating permanent magnet.
2. As the magnet turns, the field is produced from a positive maximum
to a negative maximum and back again.
4. The primary current produces a magnetic field of its own which
keeps the total magnetic field surrounding the primary and
secondary windings approximately constant.
5. When the permanent magnet has turned enough so that its
contribution to the total field is strongly negative, the breaker points
are opened and the magnetic field about the secondary winding
suddenly goes from a high positive value to a high negative value.
6. This induces a high voltage in the secondary winding which is led to
the proper spark plug by the distributor.
Spark
plug
Capacitor
Distributor
Cam Ignition coil
Breaker points
Fig. 2. High tension magneto ignition system.
5. Explain the stages of combustion in a CI engine.

Ans. Combustion phenomenon in CI engine can be explained in the
following stages :
a. Physical Delay :
b. Chemical Delay :
90
80
70
1 2 3 4
Pressure, bar
60
50
Injection starts B
40 Motoring
30
20 Injection
10
Atmospheric
0
120 100 80 60 40 20 TDC 20 40 60 80 100 120
to ignite.
rate.
cycle temperature.
80 percent.
6. How are the injection system classified ? Describe them

briefly.
Ans. There are two type of injection system :
compressed air.
driven fuel pump.
HP air
Cylinder
Mechanical
HP HP linkage
fuel fuel cylinder
LP fuel

air
compressor
7. A six cylinder, 4 s troke SI engine having a piston

displacement of 700 cm3 per cylinder developed 78 kW at
3200 rpm and consumed 27 kg of petrol per hour. The calorific
value of petrol is 44 MJ/kg. Estimate
i. Volumetric efficiency of the engine if the air fuel ratio is 12
and intake air is at 0.9 bar, 32 °C,
ii. Brake thermal efficiency, and
iii. Braking torque.
Ans.
Given : n = 6, BP = 78 kW, mf = 27 kg/h, C = 44 × 103 kJ/kg,
N = 3200 rpm, Piston displacement = 700 cm3
1. Intake air pressure, p = 0.9 × 102 kPa and temperature, T = 305 K

ma
Also = 12

mf
 12  27
 ma = kg/s
3600

ma = 0.09 kg/s
p 0.9  100
2. a =  [ R = 0.287]
RT 0.287  305
a = 1.028 kg/m3
 2 N 3200
3. Vactual = D L n = 700 × 10 – 6 × ×6
4 120 120

ma 0.09  106  120
4. vol. = =
aVactual 1.028  700  3200  6
vol. = 78.16 %
BP 78
5. bth = = × 3600 = 0.236 or 23.6 %

mf C 27  44  103
6. We know that,
2NT
BP =
120  103
78  120  103
Brake torque, T = = 465.528 N-m
2    3200
8. A single stage single acting reciprocating air compressor

has a bore of 200 mm and a stroke of 300 mm. It receives air
at 1 bar and 20°C delivered it at 5.5 bar. If the compression
follows the pv1.3 = C and clearance volume is 5 % of stroke
volume, determine :
i. Mean effective pressure.
ii. Power to drive the compressor, if it runs at 500 rpm.
9. Describe with a neat sketch the working principle of vane

blower.
Section – C
Note : Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)
10. a. Explain the significance of fuel air cycle. (5)
Ans.
1. The air standard cycle shows the general effect of only compression
ratio on engine efficiency whereas the fuel-air cycle may be
calculated for various fuel air ratios, inlet pressures and
temperatures.
2. A good estimate of the power to be expected from the actual engine
can be made from fuel-air cycle analysis.
3. With the help of fuel-air cycle analysis, peak pressures and exhaust
temperatures can be very closely approximated which affect the
engine structure and design.
4. The effect of many engine variables can be understood better by
fuel-air cycle analysis.
b. Compare the following : (10)

i. Two stroke and four stroke engine.
Ans.
S. No. Four Stroke Engine Two Stroke Engine
1. Cycle is completed in four Cycle is completed in two stroke
stro ke o f piston o r two of the piston or one revolution of
2. Turning moment is not so More uniform turning moment
uniform and hence heavier and hence lighter flywheel is
flywheel is needed. needed.
two revolutio ns, po we r revolution, power produced for
produced for same size of same size of engine is more.
engine is small.
two revolutions, lesser cooling revolution, greater cooling and
is required. lubrication required.
5. It contains valves. It contains ports.
6. Greater volumetric efficiency. Less volumetric efficiency.
7. Higher thermal efficiency. Lower thermal efficiency.
ii. Otto, diesel and dual cycle.

Ans. Comparison between these cycles is done on the basis of following
point :
1. For the same compression ratio and heat addition Otto, diesel and
Otto cycle : 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1
Diesel cycle : 1 – 2 – 3 – 4– 1
Dual cycle : 1 – 2 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1
Area 5-2-3-6 = Area 5-2-3-′6′ = Area 5-2-2-′′3-′′6′′.
3 2 3
2 3
2
p 2 3 T
4 4
4 4 4
4
1 1
Constant volume
Isentropic process
v 5 s 6 6 6
(a) (b )
Fig. 5. Same compression ration and heat input.
1. In Fig. 6, Otto and diesel cycle are shown. Efficiency of both the
cycle is given as,
Q
Otto = 1  R
QS
QR
Diesel = 1 
QS
2. QS is heat supplied in Otto cycle and equal to the area under the
curve 2  3 on T-s diagram.
3. QS is heat supplied in diesel cycle and equal to the area under the
curve 2  3 on T-s diagram.
QS > QS
5. So, efficiency of Otto cycle is greater than that of diesel cycle and
we can conclude that,
3
3
3'
2 3'
p T
2 4
4
1 1 e
olum
Con s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 6. Same compression ratio and heat rejection.
iii. Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection
:
2 3
Constant 3
pressure
2 t
n
p T 2 st a
Is e 2 C on m e
nt r u
opi 4 vol
cp 4
ro c
ess 1 1
Constant volume
v s 6 5
( a) (b )
Fig. 7. Same peak pressure, temperature and heat rejection.
as :
QR
Otto = 1 
Qs
QR
Diesel = 1 
Qs
QS > QS
1. In Fig. 8, Otto and Diesel cycle are shown on p-v and T-s diagram
as :
2. From Fig. 8(b), it is clear that
3. So, diesel cycle will be more efficient, but one should make note
that cycle having more efficiency have more expansion. So, diesel
cycle efficiency is more and Otto cycle efficiency is least.
Diesel> Dual > Otto
2 3
3 3
process pressure
p T 2
4
4 2
Isentropic 2 4
process 1 4
Constant 1
volume
v 5 s 6 6
( a) (b )
Fig. 8. Same maximum pressure and heat input.
11. a. Explain the stages of combustion in SI Engine. (7)

Ans. Combustion phenomenon in SI engine can be described in following
three stages :
moment.
Pressure
c
Expansion
Compression b
d
a TDC
0° 180° 360°
Crank angle
combustion process.
30 I II III
C
Pressure, bar
20
I = Ignition lag
10
B
A
Motoring
(Non-firing)
80 60 40 20 8 TDC 20 40 60 80
Crank angle, 
stage.
b. Sketch some important designs of open combustion

chamber for CI engines. (8)
Ans.
1. Open combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion
space is essentially a single cavity with little restrictions from one
part of the chamber to the other and hence no large difference in
pressure between parts of the chamber during combustion.
classified as :

Fig. 11. Open combustion chambers.
12. Discuss engine cooling and lubrication systems in detail

with required sketches. (15)
Ans.
A. Engine Cooling Systems : Following are the types of cooling
system :
i. Air Cooling System :
1. In this system, a current of air is made to pass over the outside of
cylinder whose outer area is increased by providing the fins.
2. Fins are extended surface to increase the heat transfer rate between
the two medium. Generally one medium is metal surface and other
is air.
Cooling fins between walls
Cooling fins
Fig. 12. Cooling fins on an engine cylinder.

3. Since heat transfer coefficient between the metal surface and air is
low so heat transfer between these medium is also low. For
increasing the heat transfer rate, the surface area has to be increased
by providing the fins.
4. Since, the heat is dissipated gradually, so temperature of fin
decreases from roots to its tip.
5. Temperature difference between the tip and ambient air is less
than that at the root, so heat transfer rate at tip of the fin is also less
than that at the root. Due to this reason, fins are generally made of
gradually decreasing cross-section.
ii. Water Cooling System :
1. In this system, water is used for cooling purpose. A schematic
diagram of water cooling system is shown in Fig. 13.
Filler cap
Thermostat valve
House pipe
Upper Water jackets around the cylinder
tank Cylinders
Fan
By pass
pipe
Radiator
tubes
Lower
Water pump
tank
Drain tap
Fig. 13. Water cooling system.
2. A water jacket is provided around the cylinder wall and cylinder
head ports in which water is circulated for extracting the heat from
engine part.
3. The water becomes heated in its passage through the jacket and is
cooled by means of air cooled radiator system.
4. For ease of cold starting, some antifreeze solutions are added to
water.
B. Lubrication Systems : Various lubrication systems used in IC
engines are as follows :
1. This system is used for two stroke cycle engines. In two stroke
engine, as the charge is compressed in crankcase so it is not possible
to have the lubricating oil in the sump.
4. The gasoline is vaporized and oil in the form of mist goes via
crankcase into the cylinder.
5. The oil which impinges on the crankcase walls lubricates the main
and connecting rod bearing and rest of the oil which pass on the
cylinder during charging and scavenging periods lubricates the
piston, piston rings and cylinder.
1. In wet sump lubrication system, the bottom part of the crankcase
known as sump contains the lubricating oil.
2. From the sump lubricating oil is supplied to various part of the
engine.
a. Splash System :
1. In Fig. 14, a splash system is shown. This type of system is used in
light duty engines.
Oil pressure gauge
Camshaft

Main bearing
Main
bearing

Fig. 14. Splash system.
connecting rod.
Oil pressure gauge
Cam shaft
Main bearing
Oil jet
directed at
dip on rod
Oil pump
Oil strainer
Fig. 15. Splash and pressure system.
Oil pressure gauge

Main
Connecting bearing
rod bearing
Header line
Oil pump
Oil strainer
Fig. 16. Pressure feed system.
3. The lubricating oil is fed into the supply tank from the sump by
mean of the pump through the filter.
5. Oil dripping from the cylinder and bearing into the sump is removed
by a scavenging pump which is further supplied to the storage tank
through filter.
Vent
Pressure
Oil cooler
Supply tank
Oil pump
Engine crankcase
Filter by-pass
Dry sump
Filter
Strainer
Scavenging pump
Fig. 17. Dry sump lubrication system.

B. Tech.
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data, then choose
suitably.
Section-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 10 = 20)

a. What is degree of reaction ?
b. What is motor octane no. and research octane no. ?
c. Write on swirl and squish.
d. Draw actual p-v diagram for four stroke engine.
e. What is equivalence ratio ?
f. Compute bmep of four cylinder, 2 stroke engine, 100 mm
g. By what process crude oil is separated into gasoline,
kerosene and fuel oil ?
h. Why additives are added in lubricants ?
i. What is catalytic convertor ?
j. What is mean effective pressure ?
Section-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)

a. Show that for max work/kg of air in Otto cycle for a given
upper and lower temperature of T3 and T1, the temperature
at the end of compression T2 and at the end of expansion T4
are equal and are given by T2 = T4 = (T1 T3)1/2.
b. What are the types of combustion chamber used in CI

engines ?
c. Explain ignition lag in SI engine. Discuss the effect of engine

d. Compare the Otto and diesel cycle for same maximum
pressure and heat input & same compression ratio and heat
rejection.
e. Prove that mean effective pressure = (th × p)/(r – 1)( – 1).
Section-C
3. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. What do you understand by surging and stalling in an axial
flow compressor ?
b. Explain the working of thermosyphon cooling system with

neat sketch.

a. Discuss the effect of gasoline volatility on cold starting,
hot starting, warm up and vapour lock. What is the
performance number and diesel index ?
b. Write short notes on—root blowers with diagram. Exhaust

blow down.

a. What is crankcase ventilation and its types ?
b. Explain biogas plant with proper diagram.

a. Describe the operation of any two types of modern fuel
b. Prove that in case of reciprocating compressor the condition

for minimum work per kg of air delivered by its two stage
with inter cooling is achieved when intermediate pressure
is geometric mean of suction pressure and final delivery
pressure.

a. Explain Willan’s line and Morse test.
b. Derive an expression for mean effective pressure for diesel

cycle.

suitably.
Section-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 10 = 20)

a. What is degree of reaction ?
b. What is motor octane no. and research octane no. ?

Ans. Motor Octane Number : It describes the behaviour of the fuel in
the engine at high temperatures and speeds.
Research Octane Number : It describes the behaviour of the fuel
in the engine at lower temperatures and speeds.
c. Write on swirl and squish.

Ans. Swirl : It is an organized air movement which is provided to produce
high relative velocity between the fuel droplet and air for proper
mixing of fuel and air in short time.
Squish : As the piston move toward TDC the volume of gas mixture
at the outer radius of cylinder is forced radially inward as this outer
volume is reduced to zero. This radial inward motion of the gas
mixture is called squish.
d. Draw actual p-v diagram for four stroke engine.

Ans.
A. Actual p-v Diagram of a Four Stroke Otto Engine :
3
Pressure
5
Suction 1 line
Volume
Fig. 1.
B. Actual p-v Diagram of Four Stroke Diesel Cycle :
3
2
Pressure
5
Suction 1 line
Volume
Fig. 2.
e. What is equivalence ratio ?

Ans. Equivalence ratio is the ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to stoichiometric
fuel-air ratio. It is denoted by .
Actual fuel- air ratio
=
Stoichiometric fuel- air ratio
f. Compute bmep of four cylinder, 2 stroke engine, 100 mm

Ans.
Given : D = 100 mm, L = 125 mm, Tb = 490 Nm

To Find : Brake mean effective pressure (bmep).
1. We know that,
2 NTb p LANK  10
BP = = bm
60  1000 6

pbm  0.125   0.1  0.1  1  10
2    490 4
=
60  1000 6
( K = 1, for 2 stroke engine)
pbm = 31.36 N/m2
g. By what process crude oil is separated into gasoline,

kerosene and fuel oil ?
Ans. Crude oil is separated into gasoline, kerosene and fuel oil by
fractional distillation process.
h. Why additives are added in lubricants ?
Ans. Additives are added to improve the combustion performance of
fuels arising due to knock and surface ignition.
i. What is catalytic convertor ?

Ans. It is a device which is placed in the vehicle exhaust system to reduce
HC and CO components by oxidising catalyst and NO components
by reducing catalyst.
j. What is mean effective pressure ?

Ans. Mean effective pressure is defined as the average pressure inside
the cylinders of an internal combustion engine based on the
calculated power output.
Section-B

a. Show that for max work/kg of air in Otto cycle for a given
upper and lower temperature of T3 and T1, the temperature
at the end of compression T2 and at the end of expansion T4
are equal and are given by T2 = T4 = (T1 T3)1/2.
Ans.
 T 
W = Cv T3  T1 (r ) 1  31  T1 
 (r ) 
dW  (   1)T3 
= Cv   T1 (   1) (r)   2  
dr  r
T
– ( – 1) T1(r) – 2 + ( – 1) 3 = 0
r
T
( – 1) T1(r) – 2 = ( – 1) 3
r
T
(r)2 – 2 = 3
T1
1/2 (  1)
T 
r =  3 ...(1)
 T1 
3. Since, T2 = T1(r)–1
Substituting the value of r from eq. (1) in the above equation, we
get
 T 1/2 (   1) (   1) 1/2
T2 = T1  3  T 
    T1  3   T1T3
 T1    T1 
T3 T3
T4 = (   1)
 1/2
 T3T1
 T  1/2 (   1)   T3 
 3    T 
 T1   1
 T2 = T4  (T1T3 )1/2
b. What are the types of combustion chamber used in CI

engines ?
Ans. Combustion chambers for CI engine are of following types :
1. It is defined as one in which the combustion space is essentially a
single cavity with little restrictions from one part of the chamber to
the other and hence no large difference in pressure between parts
of the chamber during combustion.
classified as :

Fig. 4. Turbulent chamber.

1. In the turbulent chamber the upward moving piston forces all the
air at a greater velocity into a small anti chamber, thus imparting a
rotary motion to the air passing the pintle type nozzle.
2. As the fuel is injected into the rotating air, it is partially mixed with
this air and commences to burn.
gases force the burning and unburned fuel and air mixtures back
into the main chamber, again imparting high turbulence and further
assisting combustion.
1. It consists of pre combustion chamber or anti chamber connected
to the main chamber through a number of very small holes contains
20 to 30 percent of the clearance volume.
2. The fuel is injected into pre chamber in such a manner that bulk of
it reaches the neighbourhood of the orifice separating the two
chambers.
3. The combustion is initiated in the pre chamber and the resulting
pressure rise forces the flaming droplets together with some air
and their combustion products to rush out at high velocity through
the small holes, thus both creating strong secondary turbulence
and distributing them throughout the air in the main combustion
chamber where bulk of combustion takes place.
Nozzle
Pre chamber
Orifice
Piston
Fig. 5. Pre combustion chamber.
exhaust valves
Cylinder
head
Cylinder
Piston
Fig. 6. Lanova air-cell combustion chamber.

2. In this chamber, clearance volume is divided into two parts, one is
main cylinder and other is energy cell or air-cell.
3. The energy cell has two chambers which are separated from each
other and from the main chamber by narrow orifice.
i. Short delay period.
ii. Smooth running.
iii. Easy starting.
c. Explain ignition lag in SI engine. Discuss the effect of engine
Ans.
A. Ingition Lag in SI Engine :
2. Ignition lag is the time interval in the process of chemical reaction
during which molecules get heated upto self ignition temperature
get ignited and produce a self propagating nucleus of flame.
3. The ignition lag is generally expressed in terms of crank angle.
4. Period of ignition lag is shown in path (a – b).
Pressure
c
Expansion
Compression b
d
a TDC
0° 180° 360°
Crank angle
B. Effect of Engine Variables on Ignition Lag :
i. Fuel : The higher the self-ignition temperature of the fuel used,
the longer the ignition lag.
ii. Mixture Ratio : The ignition lag is minimum for a mixture ratio
that gives the maximum temperature. This air fuel ratio is slightly
richer than the stoichiometric ratio.
iii. Initial Temperature and Pressure : Ignition lag decreases with
increase in temperature and pressure at the time of spark.
iv. Advancing the Spark or Electrode Gap : Advancing the spark
means giving the spark earlier than the present point. Advancing
the spark reduces the ignition lag since the piston compresses the
burning gases.
d. Compare the Otto and diesel cycle for same maximum

pressure and heat input & same compression ratio and heat
rejection.
point :
i. Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input :
as :
2 3
3 3
process pressure
p T 2
4
4 2
Isentropic 2 4
process 1 4
1
Constant
volume
v 5 s 6 6
( a) (b )
cycle is given as,
Q
Otto = 1  R
QS
QR
Diesel = 1 
QS
QS > QS
3
3
3'
2 3'
p T
2 4
4
1 1 e
olum
Isentropic process
o n s tant v
C
v s
(a) (b )
e. Prove that mean effective pressure = (th × p)/(r – 1)( – 1).

Ans. [Note : The given proof can be proved for Otto, diesel and
dual cycle. We are proving it only for Otto cycle.]
1. The p-v and T-s diagram for Otto cycle are shown in Fig. 10.
2. The mean effective pressure (pm) is given by,
 P1v1  1 
   1 (r  1) (  1) 
pm =  
(v1  v2 )
p1v1 p1v1
[(r  1  1) (  1)] [(r  1  1) (  1)]
 1  1
= =
v  1
v1  1 v1  1  
r  r
p T v = Constant
3 3
Qin
Qin
2 4 2 4
Qout
Qout
1 1
v = Constant
v s
(a) Otto cycle on p-v diagram. ( b) Otto cycle on T- s diagram.
Fig. 10.
p r [(r 1  1) (  1)]
= 1
(   1) ( r  1)
p1 r r 1 th (  1)  1 
=   th  1    1 
(   1) (r  1)  r 
p 
th p1 r   3 1
 p2   p3 p4 
=     
(  1) ( r  1)  p2 p1 
 p  p2 
th p2  3
 p2    p2 
=  r  
(  1) ( r  1)  p1 
th p
pm =
(   1) (r  1)
Section-C

a. What do you understand by surging and stalling in an axial
flow compressor ?
b. Explain the working of thermosyphon cooling system with

neat sketch.
Ans.
A. Working of Thermosyphon Cooling System :
1. A thermosyphon cooling system is shown in Fig. 11.
4. Top of the radiator is connected to the top of water jacket and
bottom of radiator is connected to the bottom of the water jacket.
6. The air flow can take place due to vehicle motion or a fan can be
provided for the purpose.
7. The main drawback of this system is that the circulation of water
will start only after engine become hot e nough to start
thermosyphon action.
Upper hose
Upper tank
connection
Radiator core
Cylinder water
jacket Lower hose
Fig. 11. Thermosyphon cooling system.

a. Discuss the effect of gasoline volatility on cold starting,
hot starting, warm up and vapour lock. What is the
performance number and diesel index ?
Ans.
A. Effects of Gasoline Volatility : Following are the important aspect
of volatility :
i. Cold Starting :
1. In order to start an engine, a combustible mixture rich enough to
ignite easily at starting temperatures must be supplied near the
spark plug. The approximate limits of inflammability of air-gasoline
vapour mixture are about 8 : 1 for fuel rich mixture and 20 : 1 for
lean mixture. A mixture ratio of 12 : 1 which is the fastest burning
mixture is most suitable for starting.
2. From the standpoint of fuel, the problem of cold starting is largely
one of getting sufficient fuel evaporation a more volatile fuel is
desirable.
240
Winter
200 Summer
Temperature (°C)
160
120
80
40
0
20 40 60 80 100
Volume evaporated (%)
Fig. 12. Typical distillation curves of gasoline.
ii. Hot Starting :
1. Hot starting is given on the other side of the distillation curve.
2. If the front end volatility of the fuel is made excessively low to give
good cold starting, the amount of fuel evaporating and so going into
the intake manifold under hot shut down conditions is high and the
mixture formed is too rich to ignite causing hot starting problem.
iii. Warm Up :
1. As the engine warm up, the temperature increase to the operating
temperature, low distillation temperature are desirable for best
warm up throughout the range of distillation curve.
iv. Vapour Lock :
1. When the rate of vapourization is too great it can upset the
carburetor metering or even stop the fuel flow to the engine by
setting up a vapour lock in fuel passage.
2. This characteristics demand the presence of relatively high boiling
temperature hydrocarbon throughout the distillation range.
B. Performance Number :
1. To express the rating of the fuel, which have octane number more
than 100, performance number is used.
2. It is the ratio of knock limited indicated mean effective pressure
(klimep) of test fuel to knock limited indicated mean effective
pressure of iso-octane.
Klimep of test fuel
Performance number (PN) =
Klimep of iso-octane
C. Diesel Index :
1. The diesel index is a cheap method of predicting ignition quality.
2. The diesel index gives an indication of the ignition quality obtained
from certain physical characteristics of the fuel as opposed to an
actual determination in a test engine.
3. It is given as,
API gravity (deg)
Diesel index (DI) = Aniline point (°F) ×
100
b. Write short notes on—root blowers with diagram. Exhaust

blow down.

a. What is crankcase ventilation and its types ?
Ans.
A. Crankcase Ventilation :
1. A crankcase ventilation system is a one way passage for gases to
escape in a controlled manner from the crankcase of an internal
combustion engine.
Carburetor Air cleaner Air intake
Fresh air line
PCV
Valve
Combustion
chamber
Blow-by gases
Fig. 13. Crankcase ventilation system.

2. There are two main reasons due to which we have to adopt the
crankcase ventilation :
i. To remove the various contaminants such as water, gasoline, blow-
by gases etc., that enter into crankcase and that may cause sludge
and corrode metal part.
ii. To relieve any pressure build-up in the crankcase that may cause
leakage of the crankshaft seal.
B. Types of Crankcase Ventilation : There are two type of
ventilation system :
i. Open System :
1. In this system, fresh air supply is inducted into the crankcase during
the compression stroke.
2. The entering air picks up the contaminants and discharges them to
atmosphere during expansion stroke.
ii. Closed System :
1. In this system, the fresh air supply is taken to the crankcase from
the carburetor.
2. Air cleaner and the breather outlets are connected to the intake
manifold through a PVC valve to ensure the burning of all the
crankcase gases in the combustion chamber.
b. Explain biogas plant with proper diagram.

Ans. Biogas plants are basically of two types :
i. Floating Gas Holder Type Biogas Plant :
1. This has a well shaped digester tank which is placed under the
ground and made up of bricks.
2. In digester tank, over the dung slurry, an inverted steel drum
floats to hold the biogas produced.
3. The gas holder can move which is controlled by a pipe and the gas
outlet is regulated by a valve.
4. This digester tank has a partition wall and one side of it receives the
dung-water mixture through inlet pipe while the other side
discharges the spent slurry through the outlet pipe.
Slurry Mixing Floating
(Cattle dung tank Biogas Overflow
biogas holder
+ Water) supply outlet tank
Ground
level
Outlet Spent
Inlet
pipe slurry
pipe
Underground
digester tank
Fig. 14. Floating gas holder type biogas plant.

ii. Fixed Dome Type Biogas Plant :
1. The structure is almost similar to floating gas holder type biogas
plant, but instead of a steel gas holder, there is a dome shaped roof
made of cement and bricks.
2. Instead of partitioning there is a single unit in main digester but it
has inlet and outlet chambers.
Mixing
tank Slurry Fixed
dome Biogas supply
outlet
Slab cover
Overflow tank
Ground level
Biogas
Inlet Spent
chamber slurry
Outlet
chamber
Underground
digester tank
Fig. 15. Fixed dome type biogas plant.

a. Describe the operation of any two types of modern fuel
Ans.
A. Operation of Any Two Types of Modern Fuel Injection
System :
i. Individual Pump and Nozzle System :
1. A schematic diagram of pump is shown in Fig. 16.
2. In this system, each cylinder is provided with one pump and one
injector.
3. In this arrangement a separate metering and compression pump is
provided for each cylinder.
4. The high pressure pump plunger produces the fuel pressure,
necessary to open the injector valve at the correct time.
HP
fuel
LP fuel
Distributor
Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of individual pump and

injector or jerk pump system.
ii. Common Rail System :
1. In this, a high pressure pump supplies fuel, under high pressure to
a fuel header.
2. High pressure in the header forces the fuel to each of the nozzle
located in the cylinder.
3. At proper time, a mechanically operated valve allows the fuel to
enter the proper cylinder through the nozzle.
4. The amount of fuel entering the cylinder is regulated by varying
the length of the push rod stroke.
Accumulator
HP fuel

Fig. 17. Schematic diagram of common rail system.
B. Working of Pintle Nozzle and Pintaux Nozzle :
i. Pintle Nozzle :
1. The spindle is provided with a projection called pintle which
protrudes through the mouth of the nozzle body.
2. This size and shape of the pintle can be varied according to the
requirement.
3. It is operated between 8-10 MPa pressure and spray cone angle is
generally 60°.
4. This type of nozzle is used to avoid the weak injection and dribbling.
Fig. 18. Pintle nozzle.

ii. Pintaux Nozzle :
1. It is a type of pintle nozzle provided with an auxiliary hole drilled in
nozzle body.
2. It injects a small amount of fuel through this additional hole in the
upstream direction before main injection.
3. The needle valve does not lift fully at low speeds and most of the
fuel is injected through the auxiliary hole.
4. Main advantage of this nozzle is that it has good cold starting
performance.
Nozzle valve
Nozzle body
Auxiliary hole
Fig. 19. Pintaux nozzle.
b. Prove that in case of reciprocating compressor the condition

for minimum work per kg of air delivered by its two stage
with inter cooling is achieved when intermediate pressure
pressure.

a. Explain Willan’s line and Morse test.
Ans.
A. Willan’s Line Method :
1. In this method gross fuel consumption vs. brake power (BP) at a
constant speed is plotted.
Fuel consumption
Power BP
loss
Fig. 20. Willan’s line method.
B. Morse Test :
value.
5. The difference in the output is a measure of the indicated power of
the cut out cylinder. Thus, we can find the indicated power for each
cylinder added to find the total IP of the cylinder.
b. Derive an expression for mean effective pressure for diesel

cycle.
Ans.
1. The net work output for a diesel cycle is given by,
p3v3 – p4 v4 p2v2 – p1v1
W = p2 (v3 – v2 )  –
 –1  –1
p3v2 – p4 rv2 p2v2 – p1 rv2
= p2v2 ( – 1)  –
 –1  –1
 v3 v1 
 v   and v  r, v4  v1 , vr  rv2 
 2 2 
 p ( – 1) ( – 1)  p3 – p4 r – ( p2 – p1 r) 
= v2  2 
  –1 
  p4   p1  
 p2 ( – 1) (  – 1)  p3   – p r – p2  1 – p r  
 
= v2  3 2 
  –1 
p2v2[(  1)(  1)     r 1    (1  r 1   )]
=
 –1
 p  v      
 4   3       r   
 p3  v4   r 
p1v1 r   1 [(  1)(   1)     r 1    (1  r1   )]
=
 1
 p  v  v 
 2   1  or p2  p1 r  and 1  r or v2  v1 r  1 
 p1  v2  v2 
p1v1r (  –1) [  ( – 1) – r (1–  ) ( – 1)]
=
 –1
 r – 1
2. Swept volume = v1 
 r 
3. The expression for mean effective pressure can be obtained as,
p1v1r (  –1)[  ( – 1) – ( – 1)]
pm =
 r – 1
(  – 1)v1 
 r 
p1 r  [  ( – 1) – r (1   ) ( – 1)]
=
( – 1) (r – 1)

B. Tech.

suitably.
Section-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief : (2 × 7 = 14)

a. Differentiate between two stroke and four stroke engines.
b. Draw p-v and T-s diagram for Otto, diesel and dual cycle.
c. Explain stoichiometric air fuel ratio.
d. What are the alternate fuels for IC engines ?
e. Explain delay period in CI engine.
f. Explain octane number and cetane no. in brief.
g. Differentiate between reciprocating and rotary air

compressor.
Section-B

a. Derive the efficiency of dual cycle.
b. With the help of a neat sketch explain the working principle

of simple carburetor.
c. Explain the types of combustion chamber design in CI

engine.
d. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of supercharger.

Also explain its types.
e. Following data relates to 4 cylinders, 4 stroke petrol engine.

Air/Fuel ratio by weight 16 : 1, Calorific value of the
fuel = 45200 kJ/kg, Mechanical efficiency = 82 %. Air standard
efficiency = 52 %, Relative efficiency = 70 %, Volumetric
efficiency = 78 %, Stroke/bore ratio = 1.25, Suction condition
= 1 bar, 25 °C, Speed 2400 rpm, Power at brakes 72 kW.
Calculate (i) Compression ratio (ii) Brake specific fuel
consumption (iii) Bore and stroke.
Section-C

a. Compare Otto, diesel and dual cycle for the
ii. Same peak pressure and heat input.
b. Fuel s upplied to an SI engine has calorific value

42000 kJ/kg. The pressure in the cylinder at 30 % and 70 % of
the compression stroke are 1.3 bar and 2.6 bar respectively.
Assuming that compression follows the law pv1.3 = Constant.
Find the compression ratio. If the relative efficiency of the
engine compared with the air standard efficiency is 50 %.
Calculate the fuel consumption in kg/kWh.

a. Explain normal and abnormal combustion in SI engine.
Also explain factors affecting knocking in SI engine.
b. Compare battery and magneto ignition system. Sketch the

constructional layout of battery ignition system in details.

a. Explain the stages of combustion on p- diagram in CI
engine.
b. Classify fuel injection system. Why the air injection system

is not used now a days ? Also explain common rail fuel
injection system with diagram.

a. Describe advantages and disadvantages of air and water
cooling. Explain thermostat cooling system with diagram.
b. Explain the Willan’s line and Morse test in detail.

a. Explain the advantages of multistage compression with
help of p-v and T-s diagram. Derive optimum pressure ratio
for two stage compressor and also find minimum work of
compression.
b. A two stage air compressor compresses air from 17 °C and
1 bar to 65 bar. The air is cooled in the intercooler to 30 °C
and intermediate pressure is steady at 7.7 bar. The low
pressure cylinder is 10 cm in diameter and the stroke for
both cylinders is 11.25 cm. Assuming a compression law of
pv1.3 = constant, and that the volume of air at atmospheric
conditions drawn in per stroke is equal to the low pressure
cylinder swept volume, find the power of the compressor
while running at 250 rpm. Find also the diameter of HP
cylinder.

suitably.
Section-A

a. Differentiate between two stroke and four stroke engines.
Ans.
b. Draw p-v and T-s diagram for Otto, diesel and dual cycle.
Ans.
A. p-v and T-s Diagram for Otto Cycle :
p T v = Constant
3 3
Qin
Qin
2 4 2 4
Qout
Qout
1 1
v = Constant
v s
Fig. 1.
B. p-v and T-s Diagram for Diesel Cycle :
p Q1 T
3
2 3
Constant
Reversible pressure
adiabatic Qin

pv = C
4
2
4 Qout
Q2 1 Constant
1 volume
v s
Fig. 2.
C. p-v and T-s Diagram for Dual Cycle :
Constant pressure
QS 4
3
T
p 2 5
se 2
5
I
nt e
ro
pic
QR
vo l um
pro 1 t a nt
ce ss 1 C on s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 3. Dual cycle.
c. Explain stoichiometric air fuel ratio.

Ans. Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is a mixture of air and fuel that contains
just sufficient amount of oxygen for complete combustion of the
fuel.
d. What are the alternate fuels for IC engines ?

Ans. Following are the alternate fuels for IC engines :
1. LPG, 2. CNG,
3. Biogas, and 4. Coal gas.
e. Explain delay period in CI engine.

combustion.
f. Explain octane number and cetane no. in brief.
g. Differentiate between reciprocating and rotary air

compressor.
Section-B

a. Derive the efficiency of dual cycle.
Ans.
addition takes place at constant volume (2-3) and rest of the part
takes place at constant pressure (3-4) as shown in Fig. 4(a).
3. This cycle is called dual cycle because it has the features of both
Otto cycle and diesel cycle.
Constant pressure
QS 4
3
T
p 2 5
se 2
5
I
nt e
ro
pic
QR
vo l um
pro 1 t a nt
ce ss 1 C on s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 4. Dual cycle.
4. For dual cycle,
Total heat supplied =Heat supplied at constant volume (2-3) + Heat
= Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp(T4 – T3)
Heat rejection =Heat rejected at constant volume in process
(5-1)
= Cv(T5 – T1)
=
Total heat supplied
Cv (T3  T2 )  C p (T4  T3 )  Cv (T5  T1 )
=
Cv (T3  T2 )  C p (T4  T3 )
= 1
(T5  T1 )  C p 
    ...(1)
(T3  T2 )   (T4  T3 )  Cv 
 1
v 
6. We know that, T2 = T1  1   T1 r  1
 v2 
p  1
T3 = T2 3  T1 r  ( = Pressure ratio = p3/p2)
p2
v4
v3
 1  1
v  v 
Also, T5 = T4  4   T1 r  1   4 
 v5   v5 
v4 v vv vv
 = 4  4 3  4 2 ( v5 = v1 and v2 = v3)
v5 v1 v3v1 v3 v1
v4 
 =
v5 r
7. Substituting all these values in eq. (1), we get
 1
v 
T1 r   1  4   T1
 v5 
 = 1
(T1 r   1  T1 r   1 )   (T1 r   1  T1 r   1)
1     1 
= 1   
r  1  (  1)    (  1) 
b. With the help of a neat sketch explain the working principle

of simple carburetor.
Ans.
1. A simple float type carburetor is shown in Fig. 5. It consists of a float
chamber with needle valve, nozzle with metering orifice, venturi
and throttle valve.
valve.
Throttle valve
Fuel from
Vent Strainer pump
Needle
Venturi valve
h
Float
Nozzle
(discharge jet)

Choke Air inlet
the throat.
atmospheric.
c. Explain the types of combustion chamber design in CI

engine.
Ans. Combustion chambers for CI engine are of following types :
1. It is defined as one in which the combustion space is essentially a
single cavity with little restrictions from one part of the chamber to
the other and hence no large difference in pressure between parts
of the chamber during combustion.
classified as :

Fig. 7. Turbulent chamber.

1. In the turbulent chamber the upward moving piston forces all the
air at a greater velocity into a small anti chamber, thus imparting a
rotary motion to the air passing the pintle type nozzle.
2. As the fuel is injected into the rotating air, it is partially mixed with
this air and commences to burn.
gases force the burning and unburned fuel and air mixtures back
into the main chamber, again imparting high turbulence and further
assisting combustion.
1. It consists of pre combustion chamber or anti chamber connected
to the main chamber through a number of very small holes contains
20 to 30 percent of the clearance volume.
2. The fuel is injected into pre chamber in such a manner that bulk of
it reaches the neighbourhood of the orifice separating the two
chambers.
3. The combustion is initiated in the pre chamber and the resulting
pressure rise forces the flaming droplets together with some air
and their combustion products to rush out at high velocity through
the small holes, thus both creating strong secondary turbulence
and distributing them throughout the air in the main combustion
chamber where bulk of combustion takes place.
Nozzle
Pre chamber
Orifice
Piston
Fig. 8. Pre combustion chamber.
2. In this chamber, clearance volume is divided into two parts, one is
main cylinder and other is energy cell or air-cell.
3. The energy cell has two chambers which are separated from each
other and from the main chamber by narrow orifice.
i. Short delay period. ii. Smooth running.
iii. Easy starting.
exhaust valves
Cylinder
head
Cylinder
Piston
Fig. 9. Lanova air-cell combustion chamber.

d. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of supercharger.
Also explain its types.
e. Following data relates to 4 cylinders, 4 stroke petrol engine.
Air/Fuel ratio by weight 16 : 1, Calorific value of the
fuel = 45200 kJ/kg, Mechanical efficiency = 82 %. Air standard
efficiency = 52 %, Relative efficiency = 70 %, Volumetric
efficiency = 78 %, Stroke/bore ratio = 1.25, Suction condition
= 1 bar, 25 °C, Speed 2400 rpm, Power at brakes 72 kW.
Calculate (i) Compression ratio (ii) Brake specific fuel
consumption (iii) Bore and stroke.
Ans.
Given : No. of cylinders = 4, Air/fuel ratio = 16 : 1, C = 45200 kJ/
kg, mech = 82 %, air = 52 %, rel = 70 %, vol = 78 %, Stroke/bore
ratio = 1.25, pressure = 1 bar, Temperature = 25 °C, Speed = 2400
rpm, Brake power = 72 kW
1. We know that,
1
air = 1 
r  1
1
0.52 = 1  (1.4  1) ( For air,  = 1.4)
r
r0.4 = 2.083
r = 6.26
rel = th
air
th = 0.52 × 0.70 = 0.364
BP
mf C
BP
 mf =
thC
72
=
0.364  45200
mf = 4.376 × 10– 3 kg/sec
= 15.75 kg/hr
mf
BP
15.75
= = 0.21875 kg/kW-hr
72
ma 16
5.  =
mf 1
ma = 16 mf = 16 × 4.376 × 10–3 kg/sec
ma = 70.016 × 10–3 kg/sec
ma
vol =
aVs Nn
70.016  10 3
0.78 =
 2400
1.15   D2 L  4
4 60
2
D L = 0.6211 × 10 –3
1.25 D3 = 0.6211 × 10–3 [ L = 1.25 D]

D = 0.0792 m = 79.2 mm
L = 1.25 D
Section-C

a. Compare Otto, diesel and dual cycle for the
ii. Same peak pressure and heat input.
point :
i. Same Compression Ratio and Heat Input :
Otto cycle : 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1
Diesel cycle : 1 – 2 – 3 – 4– 1
Dual cycle : 1 – 2 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1
Area 5-2-3-6 =Area 5-2-3-6 = Area 5-2-2-3-6.
3 2 3
2 3
2
p 2 3 T
4 4
4 4 4
4
1 1
Constant volume
Isentropic process
v 5 s 6 6 6
(a) (b )
ii. Same Peak Pressure and Heat Input :
as :
2 3
3 3
process pressure
p T 2
4
4 2
Isentropic 2 4
process 1 4
1
Constant
volume
v 5 s 6 6
( a) (b )
Fig. 11. Same peak pressure and heat input.
b. Fuel s upplied to an SI engine has calorific value

42000 kJ/kg. The pressure in the cylinder at 30 % and 70 % of
the compression stroke are 1.3 bar and 2.6 bar respectively.
Assuming that compression follows the law pv1.3 = Constant.
Find the compression ratio. If the relative efficiency of the
engine compared with the air standard efficiency is 50 %.
Calculate the fuel consumption in kg/kWh.
Ans.
Given : C = 42000 kJ/kg, p1 = 1.3 bar, p2 = 2.6 bar,
Relative efficiency = 0.5
To Find : 1. Compression ratio, and
2. Fuel consumption.
v2 = 1
v1 = 1 + 0.7(r – 1) = 0.7r + 0.3
v2 = 1 + 0.3(r – 1) = 0.3r + 0.7
1 1
v1  p n
=  2  =  2.6  = 1.7
1.3
v2  p1   1.3 
p
p2
2.6
1.3
p1
v 2 v 1
70 % 30 % v
Fig. 12.
0.7 r  0.3
= 1.7
0.3r  0.7
r = 4.68
1 1
2. Air standard efficiency = 1 – =1– = 0.46 = 46 %
r  1 4.680.4
Indicated thermal efficiency
3. Relative efficiency =
Air standard efficiency
ith = 0.5 × 0.46 = 0.23
IP
4. Now, ith =

Cm

Where m is in kg/s

m 1
= = 1.035 × 10 – 4 kg/kWs
IP 42000  0.23
= 1.035 × 10 – 4 × 3600 kg/kWh
So, fuel consumption = 0.373 kg/kWh

a. Explain normal and abnormal combustion in SI engine.
Also explain factors affecting knocking in SI engine.
Ans.
A. Normal Combustion and Abnormal Combustion :
1. In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark travels
across the combustion chamber in a fairly uniform manner.
2. Under certain operating conditions the combustion deviates from
its normal course leading to loss of performance and possible damage
to the engine.
3. This type of combustion may be termed as an abnormal combustion
or knocking combustion.
B. Factors Affecting Knocking :
knock.
and promotes knock.
b. Compare battery and magneto ignition system. Sketch the

constructional layout of battery ignition system in details.
Ans.
A. Comparison of Battery and Magneto Ignition System :
S. No. Battery Ignition System Magneto Ignition System
1. Battery is essential part of the No battery is required.
system. When the batte ry is
discharged, the re is starting
problem.
2. More maintenance due to battery. Less maintenance.
3. Primary current is o btaine d Required current is generated
through battery. by magneto.
4. Even at low speed, good spark is During starting, spark quality
obtained. is poor.
5. Occupy more space. Occupy less space.
6. Mainly used in cars and light Used in bikes, scooters, and
commercial vehicle. racing cars.
B. Constructional Layout of Battery Ignition System :

1. In battery ignition system, we generally used the battery of 6 V or
12 V.
2. The ignition system has to transfer the normal battery voltage of 6
V or 12 V to 20,000 V or 25,000 V for ignition of spark between the
electrodes of spark plug.
3. In Fig. 13, ignition system for a 4 stroke, 4 cylinder spark ignition
S
P 2
4 1
R1 Ballast Rotor
Ignition 3
SW 1
switch
C
Cam
Battery
Contact breaker
SW 2
C : Condenser, P : Primary coil, S : S econd ary coil;

Fig. 13. Circuit diagram for a conventional spark ignition system.
i. Battery :
chemical energy.
2. It is made of the two coil of insulated wire, wound on a laminated
soft iron core. Inner coil is the secondary coil while upper coil is
primary coil.
iv. Contact Breaker : This is a mechanical device which is used for
making and breaking the primary circuit of the ignition coil.
v. Condenser : The function of the condenser is to absorb and store
this inductive flow of current.
vi. Distributor : The function of the distributor is to distribute the
ignition surges to the individual spark plug in orderly sequence and
at the correct time.
electrodes of the spark plug and ignite the combustible mixture
within the combustion chamber.

a. Explain the stages of combustion on p- diagram in CI
engine.
Ans. Combustion phenomenon in CI engine can be explained in the
following stages :
a. Physical Delay :
b. Chemical Delay :
90
80
70
1 2 3 4
Pressure, bar
60
50
Injection starts B
40 Motoring
30
20 Injection
10
Atmospheric
0
120 100 80 60 40 20 TDC 20 40 60 80 100 120
to ignite.
rate.
cycle temperature.
80 percent.
b. Classify fuel injection system. Why the air injection system

is not used now a days ? Also explain common rail fuel
injection system with diagram.
Ans.
A. Classification of Injection System : There are two type of
injection system :
compressed air.
driven fuel pump.
HP air
Cylinder
Mechanical
HP HP linkage
fuel fuel cylinder
LP fuel

air
compressor
B. Reason for not using the Air Injection System : Air injection
system is not used nowadays because in air injection system, a
multistage compressor is used which increases the size and weight
of the engine and reduce the brake power output.
C. Common Rail Fuel Injection System :
1. In this, a high pressure pump supplies fuel, under high pressure to
a fuel header.
2. High pressure in the header forces the fuel to each of the nozzle
located in the cylinder.
3. At proper time, a mechanically operated valve allows the fuel to
enter the proper cylinder through the nozzle.
4. The amount of fuel entering the cylinder is regulated by varying
the length of the push rod stroke.
Accumulator
HP fuel

Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of common rail system.

a. Describe advantages and disadvantages of air and water
cooling. Explain thermostat cooling system with diagram.
Ans.
A. Advantages of Air Cooling :
1. Direct transfer of heat from engine to air eliminates the use of
water.
2. Engine design become simpler.
3. No antifreeze solution is needed.
4. Small thermal losses.
5. Better warm-up performance.
6. Control of this cooling system is simpler than water cooling system.
7. Less carbon deposit due to high mean cylinder temperature.
B. Disadvantages of Air Cooling :
1. Lower volumetric efficiency.
2. Not useful for high output engine.
3. Greater noise due to use of air fan.
C. Advantages of Water Cooling :
1. Useful for high output engine.
2. This can be conveniently located wherever required.
3. Fuel consumption of high compression water cooled engine is lower.
4. Higher volumetric efficiency.
D. Disadvantages of Water Cooling :
1. Use of radiator increases the weight and also dimension of engine.
2. Require more maintenance.
3. More sensitive to climate. For ease of cold starting, antifreeze solution
are used.
4. Poor warm-up performance.
E. Thermostat Cooling System :
temperature rise, increasing or restricting the flow of water from
engine to the radiator.
4. Hence when the normal temperature of the engine has been
reached the valve open and circulation of water commences.
Main valve
Out
Pressure
relief valve
By pass
Bellows
Water
In
Fig. 17. Thermostat.
5. When the unit is closed the gas condenses and so the pressure
falls.
6. The bellows collapse and the thermostat seats on its seat and
circulation around thermostat stops.
7. When the thermostat valve is not open and the engine is running
the water being pumped rises in pressure and causes the pressure
relief valve to open.
b. Explain the Willan’s line and Morse test in detail.

Ans.
A. Willan’s Line Method :
1. In this method gross fuel consumption vs. brake power (BP) at a
constant speed is plotted.
Fuel consumption
Power BP
loss
Fig. 18. Willan’s line method.
B. Morse Test :
value.
5. The difference in the output is a measure of the indicated power of
the cut out cylinder. Thus, we can find the indicated power for each
cylinder added to find the total IP of the cylinder.
a. Explain the advantages of multistage compression with
help of p-v and T-s diagram. Derive optimum pressure ratio
for two stage compressor and also find minimum work of
compression.
b. A two stage air compressor compresses air from 17 °C and

1 bar to 65 bar. The air is cooled in the intercooler to 30 °C
and intermediate pressure is steady at 7.7 bar. The low
pressure cylinder is 10 cm in diameter and the stroke for
both cylinders is 11.25 cm. Assuming a compression law of
pv1.3 = constant, and that the volume of air at atmospheric
conditions drawn in per stroke is equal to the low pressure
cylinder swept volume, find the power of the compressor
while running at 250 rpm. Find also the diameter of HP
cylinder.

B. Tech.
suitably.
Section-A

a. Give the value of compression ratio for Otto cycle, Diesel
cycle and Dual cycle.
b. What do you mean by carburetion ?
c. Differentiate among flash point temperature, fire point

d. What is the significance of octane no. and cetane no. for the
different fuels ?
e. Can simple plain tube carburetor use at higher altitude ? If

yes and no then why ?
f. How ignition system is necessary in IC engine ?
g. Differentiate between 2 way catalytic convertor and 3 way

catalytic convertor.
Section-B

a. Sketch the Diesel cycle on p-v and T-s diagram and show in
b. Describe the phenomenon of detonation or knocking in CI

engine.
c. Explain the different factors affecting detonation in SI

engine.
d. In an air-standard Otto cycle, the compression ratio is 10.
The condition at the beginning of the compression process
is 100 kPa and 27 °C. Heat added at constant volume is
1500 kJ/kg, while 700 kJ/kg of heat is rejected during the
other constant volume process in the cycle. Specific gas
constant for air = 0.287 kJ/kgK.
Calculate :
e. A single cylinder and 4 stroke cycle IC engine when tested,

the following observations available : Area of indicator
diagram = 3 sq.cm, Length of indicator diagram = 4 cm,
Spring constant = 10 bar/cm, Speed of engine = 400 rpm,
Brake drum diameter = 120 cm, Dead weight on
brake = 380 N, Spring balance reading = 50 N, Fuel
consumption = 2.8 kg/hr, CV = 42000 kJ/kg, Cylinder
i. FP,
iii. bsfc, and
iv. Brake thermal efficiency.
Section-C

a. Compare the Otto, Diesel and Dual cycle.
b. Show that for an Otto cycle shown in figure T4 = T2 = T1 T3
for maximum work done.
Ignition
3
Po
adi a wer strok
Qadd batic
e x pa e
n s io n
2 C om
Pressure
adia p res 4
bat sio n s
ic c t
o m r ok e
pre
ssi o
n Qout
0 1
Intake stroke Exhaust stroke
Volume
Fig. 1.
a. What is the importance of ignition system in SI engine ?
Explain different type of ignition system used in IC engine.
b. Explain the construction and working of a s imple

carburetor. Also describe with suitable sketch the working
of choke and idling system in case of carburetor.

a. What are the different kinds of fuel used in IC engine ?
b. What is supercharging ? Give the type of supercharger.

Also explain the importance of supercharger in IC engine.

a. Discuss the valve timing diagram for 4 stroke SI engine.
b. State the functions of lubricants in IC engine. Also describe

different types of lubrication system used in IC engine.

a. What is single stage reciprocating compressor ? Explain it
with neat sketch. Also derive the expression for work input
required per cycle. Neglect the clearance volume.
b. i. Prove that in case of reciprocating compressor the condition

for minimum work per kg of air delivered by its two stages
with intercooling is achieved when intermediate pressure
pressure.
ii. A single acting reciprocating compressor (bore = 14 cm and

stroke = 10 cm) having 4 % clearance gives the following
data obtained from performance test. Suction pressure
is 0.1 bar gauge, suction temperature 20 °C, atmospheric
pressure 1 bar, discharge pressure 6 bar absolute, discharge
temperature 180 °C, speed 1200 rpm, shaft power 6.3 kW and
mass of air delivered 1.7 kg/minute. Calculate the volumetric
efficiency of the compressor.

suitably.
Section-A
a. Give the value of compression ratio for Otto cycle, Diesel
cycle and Dual cycle.
Ans.
1. Compression ratio for Otto cycle is 6 to 10.
2. Compression ratio for Diesel cycle is 16 to 20.
3. Compression ratio for Dual cycle is 12 to 16.
b. What do you mean by carburetion ?

Ans. The process of preparing a combustible fuel-air mixture outside the
SI engine cylinder is called carburetion.
c. Differentiate among flash point temperature, fire point

Ans.
S. No. Flash Point Fire Point Self Ignition
Temperature Temperature Temperature
1. It is the lowest It is the lowest It is the lowest
temperature at which tempe rature at tempe rature at
the lubricating oil will which the oil will which fuel will ignite
flash when a small burn continuously. itself without the
flame is passed across presence of a spark.
its surface.
d. What is the significance of octane no. and cetane no. for the
different fuels ?
Ans. Significance of Octane Number : At higher octane number, the
engine can be supercharged to high output without detonation.
Significance of Cetane Number : Higher the cetane number of
the fuel lesser is the propensity for diesel knock.
e. Can simple plain tube carburetor use at higher altitude ? If

yes and no then why ?
Ans. No, simple plain tube carburetor cannot be used at high altitude
because at high altitude density of air decreases and it becomes
difficult to produce a rich air-fuel mixture. So it must be equipped
with other devices to produce a rich air-fuel mixture. It is not possible
to use simple carburetor alone at high altitude.
f. How ignition system is necessary in IC engine ?

Ans. For igniting the mixture for initiation of combustion, ignition system
is necessary.
g. Differentiate between 2 way catalytic convertor and 3 way

catalytic convertor.
Ans.
S. No. 2 Way Catalytic Converter 3 Way Catalytic Converter
1. It is used to control only CO It is used to control CO and HC
and HC emission by oxidation. by oxidation as well as reduction.
Section-B

a. Sketch the Diesel cycle on p-v and T-s diagram and show in
Ans.
1. It is a constant pressure cycle which is mainly used in diesel engine.
p Q1 T
3
2 3
Constant
Reversible pressure
adiabatic Qin

pv = C
4
2
4 Qout
Q2 1 Constant
1 volume
v s
Fig. 1.
2. p-v and T-s diagram of diesel cycle are shown in Fig. 1(a) and (b)
respectively. This cycle consists of following processes :
i. Process (1-2) : It is isentropic compression process.
p1v1 = p2v2
ii. Process (2-3) : It is constant pressure process and heat is added at
constant pressure.
Qin = Cp(T3 – T2)
iii. Process (3-4) : It is isentropic expansion process.
p3v3 = p4v4
iv. Process (4-1) : It is constant volume process and heat is rejected at
constant volume.
3. Work done during the cycle,
W = Heat added – Heat rejected
= Cp(T3 – T2) – Cv(T4 – T1)
Work done
Heat input
C p (T3  T2 )  Cv (T4  T1 ) Cv (T4  T1 )
= = 1
C p (T3  T2 ) C p (T3  T2 )
T 
T1  4  1
 T1   Cp 
= 1 ...(1)
 T3   C   
T2   1 v
 T2 
5. For reversible isentropic compression and expansion processes,
 1
T1 v 
=  2 ...(2)
T2  v1 
 1
T4 v 
=  3 ...(3)
T3  v4 
6. For constant pressure heat addition,
T3 v
= 3 =  (cut-off ratio) ...(4)
T2 v2
7. From eq. (2) and eq. (3), we get
 1
 v3 
T4 T3  v4 
=  
T1 T2  v2 
 v 
1
8. For constant volume process,

v4 = v1
 1 
T4 v v  v 
 = 3  3  3 ...(5)
T1 v2  v2   v2 
9. Substituting these values in eq. (1), we get
  v3   
  v  – 1
1  2 
 = 1  1
v   v3 
  1  v –1 
 v2   2 
1    1 
= 1 
 r  1    1 
b. Describe the phenomenon of detonation or knocking in CI

engine.
Ans.
1. Diesel knock is the sound produced by the very rapid rate of
pressure rise during the early part of the uncontrolled second
phase of combustion.
will be released almost immediately, this correspondingly produces
the abnormally high rate of pressure rise, which is mainly
responsible for rough and noisy combustion process under these
condition.
turbulence.
c. Explain the different factors affecting detonation in SI

engine.
Ans.
knock.
and promotes knock.
d. In an air-standard Otto cycle, the compression ratio is 10.

The condition at the beginning of the compression process
is 100 kPa and 27 °C. Heat added at constant volume is
1500 kJ/kg, while 700 kJ/kg of heat is rejected during the
other constant volume process in the cycle. Specific gas
constant for air = 0.287 kJ/kgK.
Calculate :
Ans.
Given : r = 10, p1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 27 °C = 300 K, Qs = 1500 kJ/kg,
Qr = 700 kJ/kg, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.
1 1
th = 1   1
1 1.4  1
 0.6019 = 60.19 %
(r) (10)
[  = 1.4 For air]
v
2. Since, compression ratio, r = 1
v2
v1
= 10 ...(1)
v2
RT1 0.287  300
3. Also, v1 = 
p1 100
v1 = 0.861 m3/kg
4. Putting value of v1 in eq. (1), we get
v2 = 0.086 m3/kg
5. Swept volume,
vS = v1 – v2
= 0.861 – 0.086
= 0.775 m3/kg
6. Mean effective pressure,
Work done
pm =
Swept volume
Qs  Qr 1500  700
pm = 
vS 0.775
= 1032.25 kPa
e. A single cylinder and 4 stroke cycle IC engine when tested,
the following observations available : Area of indicator
diagram = 3 sq.cm, Length of indicator diagram = 4 cm,
Spring constant = 10 bar/cm, Speed of engine = 400 rpm,
Brake drum diameter = 120 cm, Dead weight on
brake = 380 N, Spring balance reading = 50 N, Fuel
consumption = 2.8 kg/hr, CV = 42000 kJ/kg, Cylinder
i. FP,
iii. bsfc, and
iv. Brake thermal efficiency.
Ans.
Given : A = 3 cm2, Spring constant = 10 bar/cm, Length of indicator
diagram = 4 cm, N = 400 rpm, W = 380 N, S = 50 N, Db = 120 cm
 f = 2.8 kg/h, CV = 42000 kJ/kg, D = 16 cm = 0.16 m,
= 1.2 m, m
L = 20 cm = 0.2 m, n = 1, k = 1/2 for 4 stroke cycle.
1. Indicated mean effective pressure,
Area of indicator diagram × Spring constant
pmi =
Length of indicator diagram
3  10
= = 7.5 bar
4
2. Indicated power,
npmi LANk  10
IP =
6
1
1  7.5  0.2  ( / 4)  0.162  400   10
= 2
6
= 10.05 kW.
3. Brake power,
(W  S)  Db N (380  50)  1.2  400
BP = 
60  1000 60  1000
= 8.294 kW
4. Also, FP = IP – BP = 10.05 – 8.294 = 1.756 kW
5. Mechanical efficiency,
BP 8.294
mech =  = 82.53 %
IP 10.05
6. Brake specific fuel consumption,
bsfc = Fuel consumption per BP hour
2.8
= = 0.3376 kg/ BP hour.
8.294
7. Brake thermal efficiency,
BP 8.294
bth = 
 f CV
m 2.8
 42000
3600
= 0.2539 or 25.39 %.
Section-C

a. Compare the Otto, Diesel and Dual cycle.
point :
Otto cycle : 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1
Diesel cycle : 1 – 2 – 3 – 4– 1
Dual cycle : 1 – 2 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1
Area 5-2-3-6 =Area 5-2-3-6 = Area 5-2-2-3-6.
3 2 3
2 3
2
p 2 3 T
4 4
4 4 4
4
1 1
Constant volume
Isentropic process
v 5 s 6 6 6
(a) (b )
cycle is given as,
Q
Otto = 1  R
QS
QR
Diesel = 1 
QS
QS > QS
3
3
3'
2 3'
p T
2 4
4
1 1 e
olum
Con s
v s
(a) (b )
iii. Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection
:
2 3
Constant 3
pressure
2
nt
p T 2 st a
Is e 2 C on m e
nt r u
opi 4 vol
cp 4
ro c
ess 1 1
Constant volume
v 5 s 6
( a) (b )
Fig. 4. Same peak pressure, temperature and heat rejection.
as :
QR
Otto = 1 
Qs
QR
Diesel = 1 
Qs
QS > QS
as :
2 3
3 3
process pressure
p T 2
4
4 2
Isentropic 2 4
process 1 4
1
Constant
volume
v 5 s 6 6
( a) (b )
b. Show that for an Otto cycle shown in figure T4 = T2 = T1 T3

for maximum work done.
Ignition
3
Po
adi a wer strok
Qadd batic
e x pa e
n s io n
2 C om
Pressure
adia pre ssi 4

bat o
i c c n st r o
om k
pre e
ssi o
n Qout
0 1
Intake stroke Exhaust stroke
Volume
Fig. 6.
Ans.
 T 
W = Cv T3  T1 (r ) 1  31  T1 
 (r ) 
dW  (   1)T3 
= Cv   T1 (   1) (r)   2  
dr  r
T
– ( – 1) T1(r) – 2 + ( – 1) 3 = 0
r
–2 T
( – 1) T1(r) = ( – 1) 3
r
2 – 2 T3
(r) =
T1
1/2 (  1)
T 
r =  3 ...(1)
 T1 
–1
3. Since, T2 = T1 (r)
Substituting the value of r from eq. (1) in the above equation, we
get
(   1)
 T 1/2 (   1)  T 
1/2
T2 = T1  3    T1  3   T1T3
 
 T1    T1 
T3 T3
T4 = (   1)
 1/2
 T3T1
 T  1/2 (   1)   T3 
 3    T 
 T1   1
 T2 = T4  (T1T3 )1/2

a. What is the importance of ignition system in SI engine ?
Explain different type of ignition system used in IC engine.
Ans.
A. Importance of Ignition System in SI Engine : In SI engine,
compression ratio is lower and self ignition temperature of the
gasoline is higher. So, for igniting the mixture for initiation of
combustion, an ignition system is must.
B. Types of Ignition System :
a. Battery Ignition Systems :
1. In battery ignition system, we generally used the battery of 6 V or
12 V.
2. The ignition system has to transfer the normal battery voltage of 6
V or 12 V to 20,000 V or 25,000 V for ignition of spark between the
electrodes of spark plug.
3. In Fig. 7, ignition system for a 4 stroke, 4 cylinder spark ignition
S
P 2
4 1
R1 Ballast Rotor
Ignition 3
SW 1
switch
C
Cam
Battery
Contact breaker
SW 2
C : Condenser, P : Primary coil, S : S econd ary coil;

Fig. 7. Circuit diagram for a conventional spark ignition system.
i. Battery :
chemical energy.
2. It is made of the two coil of insulated wire, wound on a laminated
soft iron core. Inner coil is the secondary coil while upper coil is
primary coil.
iv. Contact Breaker : This is a mechanical device which is used for
making and breaking the primary circuit of the ignition coil.
v. Condenser : The function of the condenser is to absorb and store
this inductive flow of current.
vi. Distributor : The function of the distributor is to distribute the
ignition surges to the individual spark plug in orderly sequence and
at the correct time.
electrodes of the spark plug and ignite the combustible mixture
within the combustion chamber.
b. Magneto Ignition System :
1. The magneto ignition system is similar in principle to the battery
system except that the magnetic field in the core of the primary and
secondary windings is produced by a rotating permanent magnet.
2. As the magnet turns, the field is produced from a positive maximum
to a negative maximum and back again.
4. The primary current produces a magnetic field of its own which
keeps the total magnetic field surrounding the primary and
secondary windings approximately constant.
5. When the permanent magnet has turned enough so that its
contribution to the total field is strongly negative, the breaker points
are opened and the magnetic field about the secondary winding
suddenly goes from a high positive value to a high negative value.
6. This induces a high voltage in the secondary winding which is led to
the proper spark plug by the distributor.
Spark
plug
Capacitor
Distributor
Cam Ignition coil
Breaker points
Fig. 8. High tension magneto igition system.

c. Electronic Ignition System : There are two types of electronic
ignition systems as follows :
i. Transistorised Coil Ignition System (TCI System) :
1. Circuit diagram of TCI system is shown in Fig. 9.
2. In this type of system, the contact breaker and the cam assembly of
conventional system is replaced by a magnetic pulse generating
system which detects the position of the distributor shaft and send
electrical pulse to an electronic control module.
S
High voltage
Ignition coil to distributor
P
I R 1 Ballast resistance
Ignition
switch E Emitter
1/
Transistor
B R2
Battery Cam
SW2
Contact
breaker
Fig. 9. Transistorised coil ignition system.

3. A transistor is used in this circuit due to its ability to control much
larger current in the collector circuit as compare to the base circuit
which make transistor a suitable replacement for the breaker point
and condenser.
ii. Capacitive Discharge Ignition System (CDI System) :
1. A circuit diagram of CDI system is shown in Fig. 10.
300/250 V RC Energy storing
capacitor
High
voltage
SCR
DC to DC triggering SCR
converter circuit
–
P S
Battery
+
Ignition coil
Fig. 10. Condenser discharge ignition system.

2. In this system a capacitor is used instead of ignition coil for storage
of energy.
3. It is charged to a high voltage by means of a transformer and at the
moment of ignition discharged by a thyristor through the primary
circuit which generate a high voltage pulse in the secondary circuit
to fire the spark plug.
b. Explain the construction and working of a s imple

carburetor. Also describe with suitable sketch the working
of choke and idling system in case of carburetor.
Ans.
A. Construction of a simple float type carburetor :
1. A simple float type carburetor is shown in Fig. 11. It consists of a
float chamber with needle valve, nozzle with metering orifice, venturi
and throttle valve.
valve.
the throat.
Throttle valve
Fuel from
Vent Strainer pump
Needle
Venturi valve
h
Float
Nozzle
(discharge jet)

Choke Air inlet
atmospheric.
C. Idling System :
1. Fig. 12 shows an idling system.
2. It consists of a small fuel line from the float chamber to a point on
the engine side of the throttle; this line contains a fixed fuel orifice.
To engine
Throttle valve
almost closed Fuel line
Air bleed
Idle adjust
Idle jet
Venturi
Float
chamber
Air
Fig. 12. Idling system.
3. When throttle is practically closed, the full manifold suction operates
on the outlet to this jet. Besides local suction is increased due to
very high velocity past the throttle valve. Fuel therefore can be
lifted by the additional height upto the discharge point, but this
occurs only at very low rates of air flow.
4. When the throttle is opened, the main jet gradually takes over and
the idle jet eventually becomes ineffective.
5. The idle adjust (a needle valve controlling the air bleed, which is
manually operated) regulates the desired A/F ratio for the idling
jet.
D. Choke :
1. A choke is simply butterfly valve located between the entrance to
the carburetor and the venturi throat as shown in Fig. 13.
2. When the choke is partly closed, large pressure drop occurs at the
venturi throat, would normally result from the amount of air passing
through the venturi throat.
3. The very large carburetor depression at the throat inducts large
amount of fuel from the main nozzle and provides a very rich
mixture so that the ratio of the evaporated fuel to air in the cylinder
is within the combustible limits.
Fuel-air mixture
to engine
Throttle
Venturi
Float
chamber
Choke
Air
Fig. 13. Choke valve with spring loaded by-pass.

a. What are the different kinds of fuel used in IC engine ?
Ans. Following are the different types of fuels used in IC engine :
i. Solid Fuel :
1. Solid fuel find little application in IC engine because of the handling
the fuel and disposing off the ash after the combustion.
2. Example : Powdered coal and saw dust.
ii. Liquid Fuel :
1. Liquid fuel is the derivative of the liquid petroleum.
2. Liquid fuel is widely used in IC engine.
3. The three principle commercial types of liquid fuels are benzyl,
alcohol and petroleum products.
4. But gasoline (petrol), diesel, kerosene are main fuel used for IC
engine.
5. The main reason for use of liquid fuel is their high heating value,
excellent performance, ease of storing and ease of transportation.
iii. Gaseous Fuel :
1. Gaseous fuel are considered as ideal fuel and pose very few problem
while using in IC engine but storage and handling problem restrict
their use in IC engine.
2. Example : Blast furnace gas, coal gas, natural gas and coke oven
gas.
b. What is supercharging ? Give the type of supercharger.

Also explain the importance of supercharger in IC engine.
a. Discuss the valve timing diagram for 4 stroke SI engine.
Ans.
1. Fig. 14 shows the theoretical valve timing diagram for four stroke
SI engine. In which energy stroke is shown by the angle of 180° of
crankshaft rotation.
TDC
EVC
Ignition
IVO
Compression
Expansion
Exhaust
IVC Suction
EVO
BDC
Fig. 14. Theoretical valve timing diagram (four stroke SI engine).

2. But it is difficult to open and close the valve so instantaneously.
3. Due to this reason actual valve timing diagram is different from the
theoretical valve timing diagram. Actual valve timing diagram is
shown in Fig. 15.
TDC
EVC
IVO
10°
Compression
20°
Expansion
Exhaust
Suction
35°
35° 35°
IVC
EVO
BDC
Fig. 15. Actual valve timing diagram (four stroke SI engine).
4. The inlet valve is opened 10° to 30° in advance of the TDC position
to enable the fresh charge to enter the cylinder and to escape the
burnt gases into atmosphere.
5. Suction of the charge continue upto 30° to 40° after the BDC at this
point inlet valve is closed and compression process starts.
6. The spark plug produces the spark 30° to 40° before TDC, so fuel
gets more time to burn. The pressure becomes maximum at 10°
past the TDC.
7. The exhaust valve is open at 30° to 60° before BDC and burnt gases
driven out of the cylinder during upward motion of the piston.
8. After that exhaust valve closes at 10° past the TDC.
b. State the functions of lubricants in IC engine. Also describe

different types of lubrication system used in IC engine.
Ans.
A. Functions of Lubricants :
1. To reduce the friction between the parts having relative motion.
2. To cool the surfaces by carrying away the heat generated due to
friction.
3. To clean the engine part by washing away the carbon and metal
particles.
4. To form a good seal between piston rings and cylinder walls.
5. To reduce the wear of moving engine part.
B. Types of Lubrication System : Various lubrication systems used
in IC engines are as follows :
1. This system is used for two stroke cycle engines. In two stroke
engine, as the charge is compressed in crankcase so it is not possible
to have the lubricating oil in the sump.
4. The gasoline is vaporized and oil in the form of mist goes via
crankcase into the cylinder.
5. The oil which impinges on the crankcase walls lubricates the main
and connecting rod bearing and rest of the oil which pass on the
cylinder during charging and scavenging periods lubricates the
piston, piston rings and cylinder.
1. In wet sump lubrication system, the bottom part of the crankcase
known as sump contains the lubricating oil.
2. From the sump lubricating oil is supplied to various part of the
engine.
a. Splash System :
1. In Fig. 16, a splash system is shown. This type of system is used in
light duty engines.
Oil pressure gauge
Camshaft

Main bearing
Main
bearing

Fig. 16. Splash system.
connecting rod.
Oil pressure gauge
Cam shaft
Main bearing
Oil jet
directed at
dip on rod
Oil pump
Oil strainer
Fig. 17. Splash and pressure system.
Oil pressure gauge

Main
Connecting bearing
rod bearing
Header line
Oil pump
Oil strainer
Fig. 18. Pressure feed system.
3. The lubricating oil is fed into the supply tank from the sump by
mean of the pump through the filter.
5. Oil dripping from the cylinder and bearing into the sump is removed
by a scavenging pump which is further supplied to the storage tank
through filter.
Vent
Pressure
Oil cooler
Supply tank
Oil pump
Engine crankcase
Filter by-pass
Dry sump
Filter
Strainer
Scavenging pump
Fig. 19. Dry sump lubrication system.

a. What is single stage reciprocating compressor ? Explain it
with neat sketch. Also derive the expression for work input
required per cycle. Neglect the clearance volume.
b. i. Prove that in case of reciprocating compressor the condition

for minimum work per kg of air delivered by its two stages
with intercooling is achieved when intermediate pressure
pressure.
ii. A single acting reciprocating compressor (bore = 14 cm and

stroke = 10 cm) having 4 % clearance gives the following
data obtained from performance test. Suction pressure
is 0.1 bar gauge, suction temperature 20 °C, atmospheric
pressure 1 bar, discharge pressure 6 bar absolute, discharge
temperature 180 °C, speed 1200 rpm, shaft power 6.3 kW and
mass of air delivered 1.7 kg/minute. Calculate the volumetric
efficiency of the compressor.

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IC ENGINE FUEL & LUBRICATION

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Phone : 0120 - 4160479

© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Information contained in this work is derived from sources

IC Engine Fuel & Lubrication (ME : Sem-5)

Price: Rs. 70/- only

Printed Version : e-Book.

UNIT-1 : INTRODUCTION TO IC ENGINES (1–1 F to 1–37 F)

SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1 F to SQ-17 F)

SOLVED PAPERS (2015-16 TO 2019-20) (SP-1 F to SP-16 F)

Part-2 : Valve Timing Diagram, Valve .............. 1–8F to 1–12F

Part-3 : Thermodynamic Analysis of Air ......... 1–13F to 1–28F

Part-4 : Testing and Performance : ................. 1–28F to 1–36F

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. Classify the internal combustion engine.

Que 1.2. Describe the basic terminology used in internal

Top dead centre Clearance volume, v c

Crankcase Crank pin

Fig. 1.2.1. Parts and terminology of IC engine.

Que 1.3. Differentiate between four stroke and two stroke

S. No. Four Stroke Engine Two Stroke Engine

Fig. 1.4.1. Two stroke engine.

Que 1.6. Explain the working of a four stroke compression

Suction Compression Working Exhaust

Que 1.7. Compare the SI and CI engine.

S. No. Description SI engine CI engine

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Fig. 1.9.1. Theoretical valve timing diagram (four stroke SI engine).

2. But it is difficult to open and close the valve so instantaneously.

Que 1.10. Explain in brief about on overhead type valve

Push rod Spring collet

Valve seat insert

Que 1.11. What do you mean by pushrod type valve mechanism ?

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.12. Derive an expression for air standard efficiency of Otto

p1v1  p3v3 p4 v4 p2v2 

and are given by T2 = T4 = (T1 T3)1/2. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

8. For constant volume process,

Que 1.16. Derive an expression for mean effective pressure for

diesel cycle. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Que 1.17. Derive an expression for the efficiency of dual cycle

with p-v and T-s diagram. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Que 1.18. Prove that mean effective pressure = (th × p)/(r–1)(–1).

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

p1r [(r 1  1) (  1)]

Que 1.19. Compare the Otto, diesel and dual cycle.

AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Que 1.20. An amount of a perfect gas has initial condition of

Given : T1 = 18 + 273 = 291 K, p = 1 bar, p2 = 50 bar, v1 = 1 m3,

 T2 = 291 × (50/1)(1.4 – 1)/1.4

Que 1.21. Explain the significance of fuel-air cycle.

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 05

Que 1.22. In an air-standard Otto cycle, the compression ratio is

Que 1.23. Discuss the factors considered for fuel-air cycle.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.25. Discuss the performance parameters of an engine.

Where, mf = Mass of fuel used in kg/s