IC Engine Fuel & Lubrication Quantumk
IC Engine Fuel & Lubrication Quantumk
IC Engine Fuel & Lubrication Quantumk
in
1
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QUANTUM SERIES
For
B.Tech Students of Third Year
of All Engineering Colleges Affiliated to
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,
Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow
(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University)
By
Mohd Aazam Khan Hareesh Kumar
TM
Curriculum&EvaluationSchemeV&VIsemester Page22
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MECHANICALENGINEERING
Fuels:FuelsforSIandCIengine,ImportantqualitiesofSIandCIenginefuels,RatingofSIengineandCI
engine fuels, Dopes, Additives, Gaseous fuels, LPG, CNG, Biogas, Producer gas, Alternative fuels for IC
engines.
UNITͲV (9Hours)
Engine Cooling and Lubrication: Different cooling systems, Radiators and cooling fans, Engine friction,
Lubricationprinciple,Typeoflubrication,Lubricationoils,Crankcaseventilation.
Ignition System in SI Engine: Ignition system requirements, Magneto and battery ignition systems,
ignitiontimingandsparkplug,Electronicignition.
Recent trends in IC engine: Lean burn engine, Stratified charge spark ignition engine, Homogeneous
chargesparkignitionengine,GDI.
TextBooks
1. ACourseinInternationalCombustionEngines,byMathur&Sharma,DhanpatRai&Sons.
2. I.CEngine,byGaneshan,TataMcGrawHillPublishers.
ReferenceBooks
1. I.CEngineAnalysis&PracticebyE.FObert.
2. InternalCombustionEngineFundamentals,byJohnB.Heywood,TataMcgrawHillPublishers.
3. EngineEmission,byB.B.Pundir,NarosaPublication.
4. EngineeringFundamentalsofInternalCombustionEnginesbyW.W.Pulkrabek,PearsonEducation.
5. FundamentalsofInternalCombustionEnginebyGill,Smith,Ziurs,Oxford&IBHPublishingCO.
6. FundamentalsofInternalCombustionEnginesbyH.N.Gupta,PrenticeHallofIndia.
Curriculum&EvaluationSchemeV&VIsemester Page23
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 1–1 F (ME-Sem-5)
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1 Introduction to IC
Engines
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction to IC Engines : ................... 1–2F to 1–8F
Engine Classification and Basic
Terminology, Two and Four
Stroke Engines, SI and CI Engines
CONCEPT OUTLINE
IC Engines : The engines in which the combustion takes place
inside the engine or within the cylinder are known as internal
combustion engines.
Types of IC Engine Based on Ignition :
1. Spark Ignition (SI) engine.
2. Compression Ignition (CI) engine.
Two Stroke Engine : The engines in which cycle of operation
completes in two stroke of piston or one revolution of crankshaft
are known as two stroke engines.
Four Stroke Engine : The engines in which cycle of operation
completes in four stroke of piston or two revolution of crankshaft
are known as four stroke engines.
Questions-Answers
Answer
Internal combustion engine can be classified as follows :
i. According to Basic Engine Design :
1. Reciprocating engine, and
2. Rotary engine.
ii. According to Working Cycle :
1. Otto cycle engine, and
2. Diesel cycle engine.
iii. According to Number of Stroke :
1. Four stroke engine, and
2. Two stroke engine.
iv. According to Fuel Employed :
1. Gasoline or petrol engine,
2. Diesel engine,
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 1–3 F (ME-Sem-5)
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3. LPG engine, and
4. CNG engine.
v. According to Fuel Supply and Mixture Preparation :
1. Carbureted type : Fuel is supplied through carburetor.
2. Injection type : Fuel injected into inlet port or inlet manifold.
vi. According to Method of Ignition :
1. Battery ignition, and
2. Magneto ignition.
vii. According to Method of Cooling :
1. Water cooled engine, and
2. Air cooled engine.
viii. According to Cylinder Arrangement :
1. Inline engine,
2. V - engine, and
3. Radial engine.
Answer
Following basic terminology are used in internal combustion engine :
i. Cylinder Bore : It is the nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder.
It is represented by D or d.
ii. Piston Area : It is the area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder
bore.
iii. Stroke : It is the distance through which a working piston moves
between two successive reversals of its direction of motion. It is
represented by L.
iv. Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) : It is the dead centre when the piston is
nearest to the crankshaft or lowest position of the piston towards the
crank end side of cylinder.
v. Top Dead Centre (TDC) : It is the dead centre when the piston is
farthest from the crankshaft or top most position of the piston towards
cover end side of cylinder.
vi. Displacement Volume (or Piston Swept Volume) :
1. This is the volume swept by the piston moving from one dead centre to
other.
2. It is calculated as the product of piston area and stroke.
vs = Piston area (A) × Stroke (L)
Introduction to IC Engines 1–4 F (ME-Sem-5)
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vii. Clearance Volume : The volume contained in the cylinder above the
top of the piston when the piston is at top dead centre is called clearance
volume.
viii. Cylinder Volume :
1. The sum of swept volume and clearance volume is known as cylinder
volume, v = vs + vc
ix. Compression Ratio :
1. This is defined as the ratio of the volume at the beginning of compression
to the volume at the end of compression.
vc vs v
r= 1 s
vc vc
Bore
D
Cylinder head
Suction valve Exhaust valve
Intake or suction Exhaust manifold
manifold
Connecting rod
Crankshaft Crank
Que 1.4. Explain the working of two stroke engine with a suitable
sketch.
Answer
1. In two stroke engine, working is completed in two stroke of the piston
or in one revolution of the crank.
2. In a two stroke engine, suction is achieved by air compressed in crankcase
or blower. The induction of compressed air in the cylinder removes the
product of combustion. Thus no separate piston motions are required
for suction and exhaust.
3. The air or charge is suck through the spring loaded inlet valve during
the upward motion of piston in compression stroke.
4. After compression, ignition and expansion takes place in usual way.
During expansion stroke, the air in the crankcase is compressed.
5. Near the end of the expansion stroke the piston uncovers the exhaust
ports. The cylinder pressure drop to atmospheric temperature as the
combustion product leaves the cylinder.
6. Further downward motion of the piston uncovers the transfer ports,
thus allowing the slightly compressed air in the crankcase to enter the
cylinder space.
Introduction to IC Engines 1–6 F (ME-Sem-5)
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Spark plug
Deflector
Outlet port
Transfer
port
Inlet valve
Crank case
Que 1.5. Explain with suitable sketch, the working of four stroke
spark ignition engine.
Answer
Working of four stroke spark ignition engine is as follows :
i. Suction Stroke :
1. Suction stroke (Fig. 1.5.1) starts when the piston is at top dead centre
position and about to move toward bottom dead centre.
2. During this stroke, inlet valve is open and outlet valve is closed.
3. Due to the suction created by downward motion of the piston, charge
consists of mixture of air and fuel drawn into the cylinder.
4. At the end of suction stroke, both the inlet and outlet valves are closed.
ii. Compression Stroke :
1. The fresh charge taken into the cylinder during the suction stroke is
compressed during the return stroke of the piston.
2. In this stroke, both the inlet and outlet valves remain closed.
3. Just before the end of the compression stroke, mixture of air and fuel is
ignited with the help of spark plug.
4. Burning takes place when the piston is almost at top dead centre.
5. During the burning process, chemical energy of the charge is converted
into sensible energy and producing a temperature rise of about 2000 °C
and pressure is also increased.
iii. Expansion or Working Stroke :
1. Due to high pressure, burnt gases forces the piston towards the bottom
dead centre so power is obtained during this stroke.
2. Both pressure and temperature decreases during this stroke.
3. In this stroke, both the valves remain closed.
iv. Exhaust stroke :
1. In this stroke, inlet valve is closed and outlet valve is open.
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 1–7 F (ME-Sem-5)
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2. Piston moving from bottom dead centre to top dead centre and burnt
gases sweeps out from the cylinder.
3. This stroke is shown in Fig. 1.5.1.
Spark plug
(SP) SP SP SP
Air fuel Exhaust
mixture gases
IV EV
Inlet valve Gas
(IV)
Exhaust
valve Engine
(EV) cylinder
Connecting
rod (CR)
Crank
(C) Suction Compression Working Exhaust
stroke stroke stroke stroke
Fig. 1.5.1. Four stroke spark ignition engine.
Answer
The working operation for the four stroke CI engine is as follows :
i. Suction Stroke :
1. Only air is inducted during the suction stroke.
2. During this stroke inlet valve is open while outlet valve is closed.
ii. Compression Stroke :
1. Both the valves are closed during compression stroke.
2. Air drawn during the suction stroke is compressed to high temperature
and pressure.
iii. Expansion or Working Stroke :
1. During the beginning of this stroke, fuel is injected.
2. The rate of injection is such that the combustion maintains the pressure
constant.
3. After the injection of fuel, the products of combustion expand.
4. Both the valves are closed during this stroke.
iv. Exhaust Stroke :
1. In this stroke, the exhaust valve is open and inlet valve remains closed.
2. Burnt gases escape from the cylinder by upward motion of the piston.
Introduction to IC Engines 1–8 F (ME-Sem-5)
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Fuel injector (FI)
Air-fuel Exhaust
mixture gases
Gas
Inlet valve
(IV)
Exhaust
valve (EV) CR
Answer
PART-2
Valve Timing Diagram, Valve Mechanism : Push Rod Type,
Overhead Type (SOHC, DOHC).
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Valve Timing Diagram : It is the diagrammatic representation of
opening and closing of inlet and outlet valves.
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 1–9 F (ME-Sem-5)
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SOHC : When a single camshaft governs both intake and exhaust
valves, the setup is commonly known as single overhead camshaft
(SOHC).
DOHC : When there are two camshafts, one to push the inlet valve
and the other to push the ones which let the gases escape from the
cylinder after combustion, the setup is called dual overhead camshaft
(DOHC).
Questions-Answers
Que 1.8. Draw the valve timing diagram for four stroke CI engine
and port timing diagram for two stroke CI engine.
Answer
A. Valve Timing Diagram for Four Stroke CI Engine :
TDC
EVC
FVO 15°
FVC
IVO 15°
25° 25°
Compression
Suction
Expansion
Exhaust
30° 45°
IVC
EVO
BDC
Fig. 1.8.1.
Introduction to IC Engines 1–10 F (ME-Sem-5)
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B. Port Timing Diagram for Two Stroke CI Engine :
TDC Fuel Supply
10° 15°
Compression FIS FIC
Expansion
Scavenging
45° 45° Process
60° 60°
EPC EPO
TPC TPO
Exhaust
BDC
Fig. 1.8.2.
Que 1.9. Discuss the valve timing diagram for 4 stroke SI engine.
Answer
1. Fig. 1.9.1 shows the theoretical valve timing diagram for four stroke SI
engine. In which energy stroke is shown by the angle of 180° of
crankshaft rotation.
TDC
EVC
Ignition
IVO
Compression
Expansion
Exhaust
Suction
IVC
EVO
BDC
TDC
EVC
IVO
10°
Compression
20°
Expansion
Exhaust
Suction
35°
35° 35°
IVC
EVO
BDC
Fig. 1.9.2. Actual valve timing diagram
(four stroke SI engine).
4. The inlet valve is opened 10° to 30° in advance of the TDC position to
enable the fresh charge to enter the cylinder and to escape the burnt
gases into atmosphere.
5. Suction of the charge continue upto 30° to 40° after the BDC at this
point inlet valve is closed and compression process starts.
6. The spark plug produces the spark 30° to 40° before TDC, so fuel gets
more time to burn. The pressure becomes maximum at 10° past the
TDC.
7. The exhaust valve is open at 30° to 60° before BDC and burnt gases
driven out of the cylinder during upward motion of the piston.
8. After that exhaust valve closes at 10° past the TDC.
Answer
1. In this valve mechanism, a push rod and a rocker arm, to push the
valve against the spring pressure are required.
2. The rocker arm rotates about the rocker arm shaft under the force
exerted by the push rod.
Introduction to IC Engines 1–12 F (ME-Sem-5)
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3. The clearance in this valve mechanism is kept between the rocker arm
and the valve stem. This can be adjusted by the screw adjuster also.
4. A suitable gear train or chain is provided to convert the drive from
crankshaft to camshaft.
5. In high speed engines, the frequency of vibration of the valve spring
coincides with the normal operating frequency of the valve hence
leads to resonance and increasing the surging effect.
Rocker Arm
Valve spring retainer
+
Valve spring
Cam follower
Cam
Valve guide
Camshaft
Valve stem
Valve head
Fig. 1.10.1.
Answer
1. In a piston engine configuration where the valves are overhead but the
camshaft is not, informally called push rod engine or I-head engine, the
camshaft is placed within the cylinder block (usually beside and slightly
above the crankshaft in a straight engine or directly above the
crankshaft), and uses push rods or rods to actuate rocker arms above
the cylinder head to actuate the valves.
2. Lifters or tappets are located in the engine block between the camshaft
and push rods.
3. Components of push rod mechanism are :
i. Push rod,
ii. Rocker arm,
iii. Valve, and
iv. Cam.
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 1–13 F (ME-Sem-5)
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PART-3
Thermodynamic Analysis of Air Standard Cycles : Otto Cycle,
Diesel Cycle, Dual Cycle, Comparison of Otto, Diesel and
Dual Cycles, Fuel Air Cycle, Factors Affecting the Fuel Air
Cycle, Actual Cycle.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Air Standard Cycle : These are defined as the cycles using a
perfect gas as the working medium. These are also known as ideal
cycle.
Fuel Air Cycle : The theoretical cycle based on the actual properties
of the cylindrical gases is called fuel air cycle.
Actual Cycle : The cycle obtained by subtracting all the losses from
fuel air cycle is known as actual cycle.
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. It is a constant volume cycle which is mainly used in petrol engine.
2. p-v and T-s diagrams are shown in Fig. 1.12.1(a) and (b) respectively.
3. This cycle consists of four processes :
p T v = Constant
3 3
Qin
Qin
2 4 2 4
Qout
Qout
1 1
v = Constant
v s
(a) p -v diagram. (b) T-s diagram.
Fig. 1.12.1.
Introduction to IC Engines 1–14 F (ME-Sem-5)
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i. Process (1-2) :
1. It is isentropic compression.
2. Ratio of v1 and v2 is known as compression ratio and it is denoted
by r,
v1
r=
v2
Where, v1 = Volume at start of compression, and
v2 = Volume at end of compression.
3. Now, p1v1 = p2v2
v
p2 = p1 1 = p1r
v2
ii. Process (2-3) : It is heat addition process. Heat is added during this
process at constant volume.
Qin = Cv(T3 – T2)
iii. Process (3-4) : It is isentropic expansion.
p3v3 = p4v4
v
p4 = p3 3
v4
p3 v4 v1
= r
r v3 v2
iv. Process (4-1) : It is heat rejection process. Heat is rejected during this
process at constant volume.
Qout = Cv(T4 – T1)
4 Work done (W) = Heat added – Heat rejected
= Cv(T3 – T2) – Cv(T4 – T1)
Work done
5. Thermal efficiency, =
Heat input
Cv (T3 T2 ) Cv (T4 T1 )
=
Cv (T3 T2 )
(T3 T2 ) (T4 T1 )
=
(T3 T2 )
T4 T1
= 1 ...(1.12.1)
T3 T2
6. Since, process 1-2 and 3-4 are adiabatic, so
1
T2 v
= 1
T1 v2
= (r)– 1
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 1–15 F (ME-Sem-5)
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T2 = T1 (r)– 1
1
T3 v
And, = 4
T4 v3
= (r)– 1
T3 = T4 (r)– 1
7. Putting these values in eq. (1.12.1), we have
T4 T1
= 1–
T4 (r ) 1 T1 (r) 1
T4 T1
= 1
(T4 T1 )r 1
1
= 1
r 1
Que 1.13. Derive an expression for mean effective pressure for
Otto cycle.
Answer
1. The net work output for an Otto cycle can be expressed as,
p3v3 p4 v4 p2v2 p1v1
W=
1 1
p2 p
2. We know that, = 3 = r
p1 p4
p3 p
= 4 = (say)
p2 p1
Also, v1 = rv2 and v4 = rv3
Answer
1. The work done per kg of fluid in the cycle is given by,
T
W = Cv T3 T1 (r ) 1 31 T1
( r )
2. Differentiating W with respect to r and equating to zero,
dW ( 1)T3
= Cv T1 ( 1) (r) 2
dr r
T
– ( – 1) T1(r) – 2 + ( – 1) 3 = 0
r
T
( – 1) T1(r) – 2 = ( – 1) 3
r
T
(r)2 – 2 = 3
T1
1/2 ( 1)
T
r = 3 ...(1.14.1)
T1
3. Since, T2 = T1 (r) –1
Substituting the value of r from eq. (1.14.1) in the above equation, we
get
( 1)
T 1/2 ( 1) T
1/2
T2 = T1 3 T1 3 T1T3
T1 T1
4. Similarly, T4 = T3/(r)–1
T3 T3
T4 = ( 1)
1/2
T3T1
T 1/2 ( 1) T3
3 T
T1 1
T2 = T4 (T1T3 )1/2
Que 1.15. Sketch the Diesel cycle on p-v and T-s diagram and show
in the relevant diagram, the heat supplied and work done in various
processes. Also derive the efficiency expression.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 1–17 F (ME-Sem-5)
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Answer
1. It is a constant pressure cycle which is mainly used in diesel engine.
p Q1 T
3
2 3
Constant
Reversible pressure
adiabatic
Qin
pv = C
4
2
4 Qout
Q2 1 Constant
1 volume
v s
(a) p-v diagram. (b) T-s diagram.
Fig. 1.15.1.
2. p-v and T-s diagram of diesel cycle are shown in Fig. 1.15.1(a) and (b)
respectively. This cycle consists of following processes :
i. Process (1-2) : It is isentropic compression process.
p1v1 = p2v2
ii. Process (2-3) : It is constant pressure process and heat is added at
constant pressure.
Qin = Cp(T3 – T2)
iii. Process (3-4) : It is isentropic expansion process.
p3v3 = p4v4
iv. Process (4-1) : It is constant volume process and heat is rejected at
constant volume.
Qout = Cv(T4 – T1)
3. Work done during the cycle,
W = Heat added – Heat rejected
= Cp(T3 – T2) – Cv(T4 – T1)
Work done
4. Thermal efficiency, =
Heat input
C p (T3 T2 ) Cv (T4 T1 ) Cv (T4 T1 )
= = 1
C p (T3 T2 ) C p (T3 T2 )
T
T1 4 1
T1 Cp
= 1 ...(1.15.1)
T3 C
T2 1 v
T2
5. For reversible isentropic compression and expansion processes,
Introduction to IC Engines 1–18 F (ME-Sem-5)
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1
T1 v
= 2 ...(1.15.2)
T2 v1
1
T4 v
= 3 ...(1.15.3)
T3 v4
6. For constant pressure heat addition,
T3 v
= 3 = (cut-off ratio) ...(1.15.4)
T2 v2
7. From eq. (1.15.2) and eq. (1.15.3), we get
1
v3
T4 T3 v4
=
T1 T2 v2
v
1
1 1
= 1
r 1 1
Answer
1. The net work output for a diesel cycle is given by,
p3v3 – p4 v4 p2v2 – p1v1
W = p2 (v3 – v2 ) –
–1 –1
p3v2 – p4 rv2 p2v2 – p1 rv2
= p2v2 ( – 1) –
–1 –1
v3 v1
v and v r, v4 v1 , vr rv2
2 2
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 1–19 F (ME-Sem-5)
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p ( – 1) ( – 1) p3 – p4 r – ( p2 – p1 r)
= v2 2
–1
p4 p
p2 ( – 1) ( – 1) p3 – p r – p2 1 – 1 r
p2
= v2 3
–1
p2v2[( 1)( 1) r 1 (1 r 1 )]
=
–1
p v
4 3 r
p v r
3 4
p1v1 r 1 [( 1)( 1) r 1 (1 r1 )]
=
1
p v v
2 1 or p2 p1 r and 1 r or v2 v1 r 1
p v v
1 2 2
p1v1r ( –1) [ ( – 1) – r (1– ) ( – 1)]
=
–1
r – 1
2. Swept volume = v1
r
3. The expression for mean effective pressure can be obtained as,
p1v1r ( –1)[ ( – 1) – ( – 1)]
pm =
r – 1
( – 1)v1
r
p1 r [ ( – 1) – r (1 ) ( – 1)]
=
( – 1) (r – 1)
Answer
1. Dual cycle is most suitable for high speed engine. Some part of heat
addition takes place at constant volume (2-3) and rest of the part takes
place at constant pressure (3-4) as shown in Fig. 1.17.1(a).
2. Heat rejection takes place in process (5-1) at constant volume.
3. This cycle is called dual cycle because it has the features of both Otto
cycle and diesel cycle.
Introduction to IC Engines 1–20 F (ME-Sem-5)
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3 QS 4 Constant volume
Constant pressure
QS 4
3
T
p 2 5
se 2
5
I
nt e
m
ro QR ol u
pic v
pro 1 t a nt
ce ss 1 C on s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 1.17.1. Dual cycle.
4. For dual cycle,
Total heat supplied = Heat supplied at constant volume (2-3) + Heat
supplied at constant pressure (3-4)
= Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp(T4 – T3)
Heat rejection = Heat rejected at constant volume in process
(5-1)
= Cv(T5 – T1)
5. Thermal efficiency,
Total heat supplied Heat rejected
=
Total heat supplied
Cv (T3 T2 ) C p (T4 T3 ) Cv (T5 T1 )
=
Cv (T3 T2 ) C p (T4 T3 )
= 1
(T5 T1 ) C p
...(1.17.1)
(T3 T2 ) (T4 T3 ) Cv
1
v
6. We know that, T2 = T1 1 T1 r 1
v2
(r = Compression ratio = v1/v2)
p3
T3 = T2 T1 r 1 ( = Pressure ratio = p3/p2)
p2
v4
T4 = T3 = T1 r 1 ( = Cut-off ratio = v4/v3)
v3
1 1
v v
Also, T5 = T4 4 T1 r 1 4
v5 v5
v4 v vv vv
= 4 4 3 4 2 ( v5 = v1 and v2 = v3)
v5 v1 v3v1 v3 v1
v4
=
v5 r
7. Substituting all these values in eq. (1.17.1), we get
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 1–21 F (ME-Sem-5)
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1
v
T1 r 1 4 T1
v5
= 1
(T1 r 1 T1 r 1 ) (T1 r 1 T1 r 1)
1 1
= 1 1
r ( 1) ( 1)
Answer
[Note : The given proof can be proved for Otto, diesel and dual
cycle. We are proving it only for Otto cycle.]
1. The p-v and T-s diagram for Otto cycle are shown in Fig. 1.18.1.
2. The mean effective pressure (pm) is given by,
P1v1 1
1 (r 1) ( 1)
pm =
(v1 v2 )
p1v1 p1v1
[(r 1 1) ( 1)] [(r 1 1) ( 1)]
1 1
= =
v 1
v1 1 v1 1
r r
p T v = Constant
3 3
Qin
Qin
2 4 2 4
Qout
Qout
1 1
v = Constant
v s
(a) Otto cycle on p-v diagram. ( b) Otto cycle on T- s diagram.
Fig. 1.18.1.
p1 r r 1 th ( 1) 1
= th 1 1
( 1) (r 1) r
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p
th p1 r 3 1
p2 p3 p4
=
( 1) ( r 1)
p2 p1
p p2
th p2 3
p2 p2
= r p
( 1) ( r 1) 1
th p
pm =
( 1) (r 1)
Answer
Comparison between these cycles is done on the basis of following point :
i. Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition :
1. For the same compression ratio and heat addition Otto, diesel and dual
cycle are represented in Fig. 1.19.1 on the p-v and T-s diagram as :
Otto cycle : 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1
Diesel cycle : 1 – 2 – 3 – 4– 1
Dual cycle : 1 – 2 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1
2. Now from the T-s diagram, it is clear that,
Area 5-2-3-6 = Area 5-2-3-6 = Area 5-2-2-3-6.
3. This represents the heat input. So every cycle has same heat input for
same compression ratio which is represented by 1 2.
4. So, Otto cycle has highest efficiency. Diesel cycle has least efficiency
while dual cycle has efficiency between diesel and Otto cycles.
Otto > Dual > Diesel
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 1–23 F (ME-Sem-5)
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3 Constant pressure 3
3 2 3
2 3
2
p 2 3 T
4 4
4 4 4
4
1 1
Constant volume
Isentropic process
v 5 s 6 6 6
(a) (b )
Fig. 1.19.1. Same compression ratio and heat input.
ii. Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection :
1. In Fig. 1.19.2, Otto and diesel cycle are shown. Efficiency of both the
cycle is given as,
Q
Otto = 1 R
QS
QR
Diesel = 1
QS
2. QS is heat supplied in Otto cycle and equal to the area under the curve
2 3 on T-s diagram.
3. QS is heat supplied in diesel cycle and equal to the area under the curve
2 3 on T-s diagram.
4. From T-s diagram, it is clear that,
QS > QS
(Heat supplied)Otto cyle > (Heat supplied) Diesel cycle
3
3
3'
2 3'
p T
2 4
4
1 1 e
olum
Isentropic process tant v
Con s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 1.19.2. Same compression ratio and heat rejection.
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5. So, efficiency of Otto cycle is greater than that of diesel cycle and we can
conclude that,
Otto > Dual > Diesel
iii. Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection :
2 3
Constant 3
pressure
2
nt
p T 2 st a
Is e 2 C on m e
nt r u
opi 4 vol
cp 4
ro c
ess 1 1
Constant volume
v 5 s 6
( a) (b )
Fig. 1.19.3. Same peak pressure, temperature and heat rejection.
1. In Fig. 1.19.3, Otto and diesel cycle are shown on p-v and T-s diagram
as :
Otto cycle : 1-2-3-4
Diesel cycle : 1-2-3-4
2. Efficiency of Otto and diesel cycle is given as,
QR
Otto = 1
Qs
QR
Diesel = 1
Qs
3. From the T-s diagram, it is clear that
QS > QS
(Heat supplied)Diesel > (Heat supplied)Otto
4. So, diesel cycle efficiency is greater than Otto cycle.
5. From above analysis, we can conclude that
Diesel > Dual > Otto
iv. Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input :
1. In Fig. 1.19.4, Otto and Diesel cycle are shown on p-v and T-s diagram
as :
Otto cycle : 1-2-3-4-1
Diesel cycle : 1-2-3-4-1
2. From Fig. 1.19.4(b), it is clear that
(Heat rejection)Otto > (Heat rejection)Diesel
3. So, diesel cycle will be more efficient, but one should make note that
cycle having more efficiency have more expansion. So, diesel cycle
efficiency is more and Otto cycle efficiency is least.
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4. From this analysis, we can conclude that
Diesel > Dual > Otto
2 3
3 3
Isentropic Constant 3
process pressure
p T 2
4
4 2
Isentropic 2 4
process 1 4
1 Constant
volume
v 5 s 6 6
( a) (b )
Fig. 1.19.4. Same maximum pressure and heat input.
Answer
Answer
1. The air standard cycle shows the general effect of only compression
ratio on engine efficiency whereas the fuel-air cycle may be calculated
for various fuel air ratios, inlet pressures and temperatures.
2. A good estimate of the power to be expected from the actual engine can
be made from fuel-air cycle analysis.
3. With the help of fuel-air cycle analysis, peak pressures and exhaust
temperatures can be very closely approximated which affect the engine
structure and design.
4. The effect of many engine variables can be understood better by fuel-air
cycle analysis.
Answer
Given : r = 10, p1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 27 °C = 300 K, Qs = 1500 kJ/kg,
Qr = 700 kJ/kg, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.
1. Thermal efficiency,
1 1
th = 1 1
1 1.4 1
0.6019 = 60.19 %
(r) (10)
[ = 1.4 For air]
v1
2. Since, compression ratio, r =
v2
v1
= 10 ...(1.22.1)
v2
RT1 0.287 300
3. Also, v1 =
p1 100
v1 = 0.861 m3/kg
4. Putting value of v1 in eq. (1.22.1), we get
v2 = 0.086 m3/kg
5. Swept volume,
vS = v1 – v2
= 0.861 – 0.086
= 0.775 m3/kg
6. Mean effective pressure,
Work done
pm =
Swept volume
Qs Qr 1500 700
pm =
vS 0.775
= 1032.25 kPa
Answer
Following are the factor consider for fuel-air cycle :
1. The actual composition of cylinder gases. During the operation of engine
the fuel-air ratio changes due to which the relative amounts of CO2,
water vapour etc., also change.
2. Increase of specific heats of gases with temperature increase,
subsequently the value also changes.
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3. Since the fuel-air mixture does not completely combine chemically at
high temperatures (above 1600 K), therefore, at equilibrium condition
gases like CO2, H2, and O2 may be present.
4. The variation in the number of molecules in the cylinder as the
temperature and pressure change.
Que 1.24. What are the causes of deviation of actual cycles from
air standard cycle or fuel-air cycle ?
Answer
Following are the some causes that deviate actual cycles from air
standard cycle or fuel-air cycle :
1. The change in chemical composition of the working substance.
2. The variation of specific heats with temperature.
3. The change in the composition, temperature and actual amount of fresh
charge because of the residual gases.
4. The progressive combustion rather than the instantaneous combustion.
5. The heat transfer to and from the working medium.
6. The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e., loss of work on the expansion
stroke due to early opening of the exhaust valve.
7. Gas leakage, fluid friction etc., in actual engines.
PART-4
Testing and Performance : Performance Parameters, Basic
Measurements, Blow by Measurement, Testing of SI
and CI Engines.
Questions-Answers
Answer
i. Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (pmi) :
1. It can be defined as theoretical constant pressure exerted (which can be
imagined) during each power stroke of the engine to produce a work
output equal to the indicated power.
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Net work of cycle
pmi =
Stroke volume
ii. Indicated Power (IP) :
1. It is the power developed inside engine cylinder and for 4-stroke engine,
it is expressed as
100 pmi LANx
IP = kW
60 2
2
Where, pmi is in bar, L is in m, A is in m , x is the number of cylinder.
2. For 2-stroke engine, IP will be just double.
iii. Brake Power (BP) :
1. The brake power is the useful power available at the crankshaft or
clutch shaft.
2 NT
BP = kW
60 10 3
and BP = IP – FP
iv. Friction Power (FP) : The difference between indicated power and
brake power is called frictional power.
FP = IP – BP
v. Thermal efficiency : It is the ratio of indicated work done to energy
supplied by the fuel.
vi. Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ith) :
IP IP
1. It is expressed as :ith =
qA mf LCV
Answer
1. We know that,
1
air = 1
r 1
1
0.52 = 1 (1.4 1) ( For air, = 1.4)
r
r0.4 = 2.083
r = 6.26
2. Relative efficiency,
rel = th
air
th = air × rel
th = 0.52 × 0.70 = 0.364
BP
3. Brake thermal efficiency bth =
mf C
BP
mf =
thC
72
=
0.364 45200
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mf = 4.376 × 10– 3 kg/sec
= 15.75 kg/hr
mf
4. Brake specific fuel consumption, bsfc =
BP
15.75
= = 0.21875 kg/kW-hr
72
ma 16
5. =
mf 1
ma = 16 mf = 16 × 4.376 × 10–3 kg/sec
ma = 70.016 × 10–3 kg/sec
6. Volumetric efficiency,
ma
vol =
aVs Nn
70.016 10 3
0.78 =
2400
1.15 D2 L 4
4 60
D2L = 0.6211 × 10 –3
Answer
12 27
ma = kg/s
3600
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ma = 0.09 kg/s
p 0.9 100
2. a = [ R = 0.287]
RT 0.287 305
a = 1.028 kg/m3
2 N 3200
3. Vactual = D L n = 700 × 10 – 6 × ×6
4 120 120
ma 0.09 106 120
4. vol. = =
aVactual 1.028 700 3200 6
vol. = 78.16 %
BP 78
5. bth = = × 3600 = 0.236 or 23.6 %
mf C 27 44 103
2NT
6. We know that, BP =
120 103
78 120 103
Brake torque, T= = 465.528 N-m
2 3200
Answer
70 % 30 % v
Fig. 1.28.1.
1 1
v1 p n
= 2 = 2.6 = 1.7
1.3
v2 p
1 1.3
0.7 r 0.3
= 1.7
0.3r 0.7
r = 4.68
1 1
2. Air standard efficiency = 1 – 1 = 1 – = 0.46 = 46 %
r 4.680.4
Indicated thermal efficiency
3. Relative efficiency =
Air standard efficiency
ith = 0.5 × 0.46 = 0.23
IP
4. Now, ith =
Cm
Where m is in kg/s
m 1
= = 1.035 × 10 – 4 kg/kWs
IP 42000 0.23
= 1.035 × 10 – 4 × 3600 kg/kWh
So, fuel consumption = 0.373 kg/kWh
Answer
1. Blow-by is the measurement of the unburnt air-fuel mixture and burned
combustible product from the combustion chamber to the crankcase
through the piston rings.
2. High blow-by is quite harmful because it increases the temperature and
contaminates the lubricating oil.
3. In Fig. 1.29.1, an arrangement for measuring the blow-by is shown.
4. It consists of two tubes A and B to carry out the blow-by collected in
piston ring groove and tube B is facilitated with a flow meter to measure
the blow-by product.
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Combustion chamber
Cylinder
liner
Piston
B
Sliding
tubes
Answer
The friction power of an engine is determined by following method :
i. Willan’s Line Method :
1. In this method gross fuel consumption vs. brake power (BP) at a constant
speed is plotted.
2. At a constant speed the load is reduced in increments and the
corresponding BP and gross fuel consumption readings are taken.
3. Then a graph between fuel consumption and BP is drawn and
extrapolated back to cut the BP axis, which is in an indication of the
friction power of the engine at that speed.
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Fuel consumption
Power BP
loss
Fig. 1.30.1. Willan’s line method.
ii. Morse Test :
1. Morse test is applicable to only multicylinder engine SI or CI.
2. The engine is first run at required speed and the output is measured.
Then, one cylinder is cut out by shorting the spark plug or by
disconnecting injector.
3. Under this condition all other cylinder cut out with this cylinder.
4. The output is measured by keeping the speed constant at its original
value.
5. The difference in the output is a measure of the indicated power of the
cut out cylinder. Thus, we can find the indicated power for each cylinder
added to find the total IP of the cylinder.
iii. Motoring Test :
1. In this test the engine is first run up to the desired speed by its own
power and allowed to remain under the given speed and load condition
for some time so that oil, water and engine component temperature
reach stable condition.
2. The power of engine during this period is absorbed by a dynamometer.
3. The fuel supply is then cut off and by suitable electric switching devices
the dynamometer is converted to run as a motor to drive the engine.
4. The power supply to the motor is measured which is a measure of FP of
the engine.
Answer
Given : A = 3 cm2, Spring constant = 10 bar/cm, Length of indicator
diagram = 4 cm, N = 400 rpm, W = 380 N, S = 50 N, Db = 120 cm
f = 2.8 kg/h, CV = 42000 kJ/kg, D = 16 cm = 0.16 m,
= 1.2 m, m
1
L = 20 cm = 0.2 m, n = 1, k = for 4 stroke cycle.
2
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2 Combustion
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Combustion : Stages of ........................... 2–2F to 2–6F
Combustion in SI and
CI Engine, Factors
Affecting Combustion
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Stages of Combustion in SI Engine :
1. Ignition lag or preparation phase,
2. Flame propagation, and
3. After burning.
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine :
1. Ignition delay period,
2. Rapid or uncontrolled combustion,
3. Controlled combustion, and
4. After burning.
Questions-Answers
Answer
Combustion phenomenon in SI engine can be described in following
three stages :
Stage I : Ignition Lag or Preparation Phase :
1. Ignition lag is the time lag between the first ignition of fuel and beginning
of the main phase of combustion.
2. A is the point of spark, stage I is assumed to be beginning at this moment.
3. Stage I is sort of preparatory phase where the surrounding mixture
temperature is increased by heat transfer from the flame and by certain
chemical reactions.
4. The end of phase I is marked as point B.
5. Point B is obtained as the point where p- curve for combustion process
depart from the normal motoring curve.
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6. In motoring test, the spark plug is deactivated and engine is driven by a
motor. So, the pressure variation is the same as if there was no
combustion process.
Pressure
c
Expansion
Compression b
d
a TDC
0° 180° 360°
Crank angle
Fig. 2.1.1. Theoretical p- diagram.
30 I II III
C
20
Pressure, bar
I = Ignition lag
II = Flame propagation
Spark III = After burning
10
B
A
Motoring
(Non-firing)
80 60 40 20 8 TDC 20 40 60 80
Crank angle,
Fig. 2.1.2. Stage of combustion in SI engine.
Stage II : Flame Propagation :
1. After the stage I, the mixture is in more ready position to be ignited
since it has absorbed heat from the flame and chemical reaction have
also increased the temperature of mixture.
2. Here the flame propagates rapidly thus consuming the mixture and
releasing energy which manifest itself in the increased temperature
and pressure.
3. End of stage II is the point C where the peak of pressure-angle
(p-) curve reached.
Stage III : After Burning :
1. After the flame propagation stage, there is some amount of energy
released due to the various reassociation reaction.
2. Because of the reassociation reaction some energy releases some charge
which could not burn during second stage, also burn in this stage.
3. Around 10 % energy released by fuel is in the after burning stage.
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Que 2.2. Explain the stages of combustion in a CI engine.
Answer
Combustion phenomenon in CI engine can be explained in the following
stages :
i. First Stage (Ignition Delay Period) :
1. During this phase the fuel is injected, but it has not been ignited. This is
a sort of preparatory phase.
2. Ignition delay is counted from the start of injection to the point where
p- curve separates from the pure air compression curve.
3. Ignition delay is composed of the two components :
a. Physical Delay :
1. The period of physical delay is the time between the beginning of
injection and attainment of chemical reaction condition.
2. During this period fuel atomized, vaporized and mixed with air.
b. Chemical Delay :
90
80
70
1 2 3 4
Pressure, bar
60
Start of combustion Compression pressure
50
Injection starts B
40 Motoring
0.001 sec (non-firing)
30
20
Injection
10
Atmospheric
0
120 100 80 60 40 20 TDC 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time, degrees of crankshaft rotation
Fig. 2.2.1. Stages of combustion in the CI engine.
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1. In this part, chemical reaction increases the temperature of mixture
till the mixture attains the self ignition temperature after which
ignition takes place.
2. Generally, chemical delay is longer than the physical delay.
ii. Second Stage (Rapid or Uncontrolled Combustion) :
1. The rate of combustion is very high during the delay period, sufficient
fuel droplets have accumulated in fuel cylinder and they are ready to
ignite.
2. Stage II starts from point B, and ends at the maximum pressure point of
p- curve.
iii. Third Stage (Controlled Combustion) :
1. At the end of second stage of combustion, the temperature and pressure
are so high that the fuel droplets injected in the third stage burn almost
as they enter and any further pressure rise can be controlled by purely
mechanical means, i.e., by the injection rate.
2. The period of controlled combustion is assumed to end at maximum
cycle temperature.
3. The heat evolved by the end of controlled combustion is about 70 to 80
percent.
iv. Fourth Stage (After Burning) :
1. The combustion continues even after the fuel injection is over, because
of poor distribution of fuel particles. This burning may continue in the
expansion stroke upto 70 to 80 degree of crank travel from TDC. This
continued burning called the after burning.
2. Here some energy is released because of the reassociation reaction
taking place during the burning of fuel.
Answer
Engine variables which affect the flame propagation are as follows :
i. Compression Ratio : High compression ratio results in increased
temperature and pressure, hence increases the flame speed.
ii. Ambient Pressure and Temperature : Flame speed is increased as
the inlet temperature and pressure are increased.
iii. Air-fuel Ratio : Maximum flame velocity occurs when mixture strength
is 10 % more than the stoichiometric ratio. When mixture is made leaner
the flame speed is decreased.
iv. Turbulence : As turbulence increases, the flame speed increases because
of better mixing of charge but excessive turbulence is harmful since it
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increases the heat losses to surrounding thereby lowering the
temperature of mixture.
v. Engine Load : Temperature and pressure within the cylinder increases
as the load is increased. So, flame speed increases as load increases.
vi. Engine Speed : A decrease in the engine speed decreases the turbulence
of the mixture resulting in reduced flame speed.
PART-2
Flame Speed, Ignition Delay, Abnormal Combustion and its Control.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Flame Speed : It is the measured rate of expansion of the flame
front in a combustion reaction.
Ignition Delay : It is the time period during which some fuel has
been already admitted but not yet ignited.
Questions-Answers
Answer
i. Flame Speed :
1. The flame speed is the measured rate of expansion of the flame front in
a combustion reaction.
2. In an internal combustion engine, the flame speed of a fuel is a property
which determines its ability to undergo controlled combustion without
detonation.
ii. Ignition Delay :
1. It is also called as preparatory phase during which some fuel has been
already been admitted but has not yet ignited.
2. This period is counted from the start of injection to the point where the
pressure time curve separates from the motoring curve indicated as
start of combustion.
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Que 2.5. Explain ignition lag in SI engine. Discuss the effect of
Answer
A. Ignition Lag in SI Engine : Refer Q. 2.1, Page 2–2F, Unit-2.
B. Effect of Engine Variables on Ignition Lag :
i. Fuel : The higher the self-ignition temperature of the fuel used, the
longer the ignition lag.
ii. Mixture Ratio : The ignition lag is minimum for a mixture ratio that
gives the maximum temperature. This air fuel ratio is slightly richer
than the stoichiometric ratio.
iii. Initial Temperature and Pressure : Ignition lag decreases with
increase in temperature and pressure at the time of spark.
iv. Advancing the Spark or Electrode Gap : Advancing the spark means
giving the spark earlier than the present point. Advancing the spark
reduces the ignition lag since the piston compresses the burning gases.
Answer
Following variables affect the ignition delay period :
i. Fuel : A higher cetane number (CN) means a lower delay period and
smoother engine operation.
ii. Injection Pressure or Size of Droplet : Size of droplet depends upon
the injection pressure. Lower the injection pressure, size of droplet is
smallest and it reduces the delay period.
iii. Injection Advance Angle : The delay period increases with increase
in injection advance angle.
iv. Compression Ratio : Increase in compression ratio reduces the delay
period as it increases the temperature and density both.
v. Intake Temperature : Increased intake temperature would result
increase in the compressed air temperature which would reduce the
delay period.
vi. Jacket Water Temperature : Increase in jacket water temperature
also increases compressed air temperature and hence delay period is
reduced.
vii. Fuel Temperature : Increased fuel temperature would reduce delay
period.
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viii. Intake Pressure or Supercharging : Increase in intake pressure or
supercharging reduces the auto-ignition temperature and hence reduces
delay period.
ix. Speed : Increase in the speed, reduces the delay period.
x. Air-Fuel Ratio : By increasing air-fuel ratio, the combustion
temperature is lowered and cylinder wall temperature is reduced and
hence delay period increases.
Answer
i. Fuel Choice : A low self-ignition temperature promotes knock.
ii. Induction Pressure : Increase of pressure decreases the self-ignition
temperature and the induction period. Knock will tend to occur at full
throttle.
iii. Engine Speed : Low engine speeds will give low turbulence and low
flame velocities (combustion period is constant in angle) and knock may
occur at low speed.
iv. Ignition Timing : Advanced ignition timing increases peak pressure
and promotes knock.
v. Mixture Strength : Optimum mixture strength gives high pressures
and promotes knock.
vi. Compression Ratio : High compression ratio increases the cylinder
pressures and promotes knock.
vii. Combustion Chamber Design : Poor design gives long flame paths,
poor turbulence and insufficient cooling all of which promote knock.
viii. Cylinder Cooling : Poor cooling raises the mixture temperature and
promotes knock.
ix. Engine Load : As the load on engine increases, fuel burning also
increases. Due to increase in fuel burning, temperature of cylinder
increase and therefore, knocking of SI engine increases.
Answer
A. Normal and Abnormal Combustions :
1. In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark travels across
the combustion chamber in a fairly uniform manner.
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2. Under certain operating conditions the combustion deviates from its
normal course leading to loss of performance and possible damage to
the engine.
3. This type of combustion may be termed as an abnormal combustion or
knocking combustion.
B. Phenomenon of Knocking in IC Engine :
1. A very sudden rise of pressure during combustion accompanied by
metallic hammer like sound is called detonation.
2. The region in which detonation occurs is farthest region from the
sparking plug and is named the detonation zone.
3. The process of detonation or knocking may be explained by referring to
the Fig. 2.8.1, which shows the cross-section of the combustion chamber
with flame advancing from the spark plug location A.
B
C
A D
B C
Fig. 2.8.1. Combustion with knocking.
4. The advancing flame front compresses the end charge BB′D farthest
from the spark plug, thus raising its temperature.
5. The temperature of the end charge also increases due to heat transfer
from the hot advancing flame front. Also some preflame oxidation may
take place in end charge leading to further increase in its temperature.
6. If the end charge BBD reaches its auto-ignition temperature and remains
for some time to complete the preflame reactions, the charge will auto-
ignite leading to knocking combustion.
7. During the preflame reaction period the flame front could move from
BB to CC, and the knock occurs due to auto-ignition of the charge
ahead of CC.
Que 2.9. Write down the effects of detonation. What are the
various ways to control detonation ?
Answer
A. Effect of Detonation :
1. Noise and roughness,
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2. Mechanical damage,
3. Carbon deposits,
4. Increase in heat transfer,
5. Decrease in power output and efficiency, and
6. Pre-ignition.
B. Control of Detonation : The detonation can be controlled or even
stopped by the following ways :
1. Increasing engine rpm.
2. Retarding spark.
3. Reducing pressure in the inlet manifold by throttling.
4. Making the ratio too lean or too rich, preferably latter.
5. Water injection increases the delay period as well as reduces the flame
temperature.
6. Use of high octane fuel can eliminate detonation.
Answer
A. Pre-Ignition :
1. It is the ignition of the homogeneous mixture in the cylinder, before the
timed ignition spark occurs, caused by the local overheating of the
combustible mixture.
2. It is initiated by some overheated projecting part such as the sparking
plug electrodes, exhaust valve head, metal corners in the combustion
chamber.
B. Effect of Pre-Ignition :
1. It increases the tendency of detonation in the engines.
2. It increases the heat transfer to the cylinder walls because high
temperature gases remain in contact with the cylinder for a longer
period. The load on the crankshaft during compression is abnormally
high. This may cause crank failure.
3. Pre-ignition in a single cylinder engine will result in a steady reduction
in speed and power output.
4. The increased heat generated makes the pre-igniting cylinder's pistons
and rings seize.
Que 2.11. Write short notes on diesel knock and its control.
Que 2.12. What are the causes of delay period which results in
diesel knock ?
Answer
Causes of delay period which results in diesel knock :
1. A low design compression ratio permitting only a marginal self-ignition
temperature to be reached.
2. A low combustion pressure due to worn piston rings or badly seating
valves.
3. Poor fuel ignition quality that is a low cetane number fuel.
4. A poorly atomized fuel spray preventing early ignition to be established.
5. An inadequate injector needle spring load producing coarse droplet
formation.
6. A very low air intake temperature in cold weather and during cold
starting.
PART-3
Combustion Chamber : Squish, Swirl and Tumble, Combustion
Chamber Design for SI and CI Engine and Factors Affecting it.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.14. What do you mean by air swirl ? What are the three
methods of generating swirl in CI engine combustion chamber ?
Answer
A. Air Swirl :
1. For the proper mixing of fuel and air in short time in combustion chamber
an organized air movement is provided to produce high relative velocity
between the fuel droplets and air. This movement of air is called air swirl.
B. Methods of Generating Air Swirl in CI Engine :
i. Induction Swirl :
1. This swirl is generated by directing the flow of the air during
its entry into the cylinder.
2. This method is used in open combustion chamber.
ii. Compression Swirl :
1. This swirl is generated by forcing the air through a tangential
passage into a separate swirl chamber during the compression
stroke.
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2. This method is used in swirl chambers.
iii. Combustion Induced Swirl :
1. This swirl is generated by use of initial pressure rise due to
partial combustion to create swirl turbulence.
2. This method is used in pre-combustion chambers and air-cell
chambers.
Que 2.15. What do you understand by squish and tumble method
of intensifying the rate of burning ?
Answer
i. Squish :
1. When the piston approaches TDC at the end of compression stroke,
the volume around the outlet edges of the combustion chamber is
suddenly reduced to a very small value.
2. Many modern combustion chamber designs have most of the clearance
volume near the centreline of the cylinder.
3. The gas mixture occupying the volume at the outer radius of the
cylinder is forced radially inward as this outer volume is reduced to
near zero. This radial inward motion of the gas mixture is called squish.
4. It adds to other mass motions within the cylinder to mix the air and
fuel and to quickly spread the flame front.
ii. Tumble :
1. As the piston nears TDC squish motion generates a secondary rotational
flow called tumble. This rotation occurs about a circumferential axis
near the outer edge of the piston bowl.
Answer
Combustion chambers for CI engine are of following types :
i. Open or Direct Injection Combustion Chamber :
1. It is defined as one in which the combustion space is essentially a single
cavity with little restrictions from one part of the chamber to the other
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and hence no large difference in pressure between parts of the chamber
during combustion.
2. The fuel is directly injected into the clearance space provided by the
shape of the piston crown.
3. The swirl used in this chamber is induction swirl.
4. This type of chamber is ordinarily used on low speed engines.
5. Depending upon the shape, these combustion chambers are further
classified as :
i. Shallow depth chamber,
ii. Hemispherical chamber,
iii. Cylindrical chamber, and
iv. Toroidal chamber.
Pre chamber
Orifice
Piston
Fig. 2.16.3. Pre combustion chamber.
iv. Air-Cell Chamber :
1. In this type of combustion chamber, induced swirl is used.
Inlet and Two-part energy cell
exhaust valves
Cylinder
head
Cylinder
Piston
Two-lobed main combustion chamber
Answer
Various types of combustion chamber used in SI engines are as follow :
i. T-Head Combustion Chamber :
1. This type of combustion chamber has inlet and exhaust valves on opposite
side of cylinder.
2. The spark plug is located near the exhaust.
3. It has the following characteristics :
i. Good turbulence.
ii. Short cylinder block.
iii. Long flame travel and greater tendency to knock.
iv. Unsatisfactory fuel and air utilization.
Spark
plug
Exhaust
Inlet
valve
valve
Inlet
I E
Exit
I, E
Exit S
Inlet
I
Answer
The consideration can be summarized as follows :
1. High thermal efficiency.
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2. Ability to use less expensive fuel.
3. Ease of starting.
4. Ability to handle variations in speed.
5. Smoothness of operation i.e., avoidance of diesel knock and noise.
6. Low exhaust emission.
7. Nozzle design.
8. High volumetric efficiency.
9. High brake mean effective pressure.
Answer
Design principles of SI engine combustion chamber are as follows :
1. To achieve high volumetric efficiency, the largest possible inlet valve
should be accommodated with ample clearance round the valve heads.
2. To prevent detonation, the length or flame travel from the sparking
plug to the farthest point in the combustion space should be as short as
possible.
3. The shape of the chamber should be such that the largest mass of the
charge burns as soon as possible after ignition with progressive
reduction in the mass of charge burnt towards the end of combustion.
4. To ensure high thermal efficiency and satisfactory initial combustion
conditions, the heat flow should be minimum in the zone around
sparking plug.
5. There should be good scavenging of the exhaust gases.
6. To achieve maximum thermal efficiency for a given grade of fuel, the
highest possible compression ratio must be employed.
Answer
Following are the objectives of good combustion chamber design :
1. To optimize the filling and emptying of the cylinder with fresh unburn
charge respectively over the engine’s operating speed range.
2. To create the condition in the cylinder for the air and fuel to be
thoroughly mixed and then excited into a highly turbulent state so that
the burning of the charge will be completed in the shortest possible
time.
3. To prevent the possibility of detonation at all times, as far as possible.
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Que 2.21. What are the des irable factors for combus tion
chambers in SI engines ?
Answer
Following are the desirable factors for combustion chambers in SI
engines :
1. Smallest possible ratio of surface area of chamber to its volume. This
minimizes heat loss to the cooling system.
2. Shortest travel distance for the flame front.
3. Sufficient swirl of the incoming mixture to get a uniform mixture
rapidly. However, excessive swirl may cause excessive heat loss.
4. Adequate cooling of the exhaust valve.
5. Provision for the cooling of spark plug by the incoming fresh charge to
avoid pre-ignition under wide throttle conditions.
6. Adequate sizes and numbers of inlet and exhaust valves for higher
volumetric efficiency at higher speeds and to expel the exhaust gases
completely, respectively.
Answer
Following are the factors affecting combustion chamber design :
i. Swirl :
1. It is the rotational flow of charge within the cylinder, about its axis.
Induction swirl is created by so positioning the induction (i.e., inlet)
port passage to one side of the cylinder axis so that the flow discharges
into the cylinder tangentially.
ii. Swirl Ratio :
1. Cylinder air swirl is the angular rotational speed of air about the cylinder
axis. For convenience it can be related to the angular rotational speed
of the crankshaft, the ratio of the two being called as swirl ratio i.e.,
Ai r rotational speed
Swirl ratio =
Cr ankshaft rotational speed
2. With helical ports, swirl ratio of 5 at TDC can be achieved with a flat
piston crown, which can be increased to 15 in case of piston with bowl.
iii. Surface to Volume Ratio :
1. The larger this ratio for a combustion chamber, the higher will be the
heat losses and cooler will be the walls of the combustion chamber, due
to which higher will be the exhaust gas hydrocarbon concentration.
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2. Therefore, to minimize the formation of hydrocarbons, the surface to
volume ratio should be minimum.
3. The combustion chamber with the least surface area containing a
given volume is the spherical type. Thus a double hemispherical
chamber has the least surface to volume ratio.
4. Chambers with small quench area have small surface to volume ratios.
5. Increasing compression ratio increases the surface to volume ratio.
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3 Carburetion, Fuel
Injection and
Turbocharging
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Carburetion, Mixture ................................. 3–2F to 3–3F
Requirements
Questions-Answers
Que 3.1. Define carburetion. What are the factors which affect
the process of carburetion ?
Answer
A. Carburetion : In the SI engine, a combustible fuel air mixture is
prepared outside the engine cylinder. The process of preparing this
mixture is called carburetion.
B. Factors affecting Carburetion :
1. The engine speed.
2. The time available for the preparation of the mixture.
3. The vapourisation characteristics of fuel.
4. The temperature of the incoming air.
5. The design of the carburetor.
Que 3.2. What are the mixture (air-fuel ratio) requirement for :
i. Maximum power,
ii. Maximum economy,
iii. No load,
iv. Normal load, and
v. Full load.
Answer
i. Mixture Requirement for Maximum Power :
1. The mixture (air + fuel) ratio required is 12.5 : 1 (richer).
2. The maximum energy is released when slightly excess fuel is used
because all the oxygen present in the cylinder is utilized.
3. More rich mixture than this is not helpful because it will result in poor
combustion and lesser release of energy.
ii. Mixture Requirement for Maximum Economy :
1. The maximum economy is obtained when slightly leaner mixture is
used because excess of air present ensures that all fuel is utilized with
good combustion processes.
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2. More lean mixture than required is not helpful as it will lower the cycle
temperature and the efficiency.
iii. Mixture Requirement for No Load Condition or Idling
Condition :
1. The rich mixture is required when there is idling or no load condition.
iv. Mixture Requirement for Normal Load (Economy Range) :
1. In this range, the dilution by residual gases and locked air is reduced and
primary concentration is maintenance of economy.
2. So, slightly leaner air-fuel ratio is needed around 16.5 : 1.
v. Mixture Requirement for Full Load (Power Range) :
1. Rich mixture is needed for power range. Besides providing maximum
power a rich mixture also prevents overheating of exhaust valve at high
load and inhibits detonation.
Answer
i. Mixture Requirement for Starting and Warm Up :
1. While starting from cold, the engine temperature is low. So, the fuel
sent by carburetor, which is in vapour form gets condensed on its way to
the engine.
2. The heavy ends (having high boiling point and less volatility)
hydrocarbons are more tend to condensation.
3. So, mixture that is send should be rich so that enough of light end (low
boiling point) are available in the cylinder and air-fuel ratio in cylinder is
within combustible range.
ii. Mixture Requirement for Acceleration :
1. During acceleration, the throttled valve is opened which means more of
the charge has to go inside the cylinder but liquid fuel lag behind because
of inertia.
2. To compensate this, rich mixture is required so that in cylinder sufficient
amount of evaporated fuel is present for more energy.
PART-2
Carburetors and Fuel Injection System in SI Engine.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Carburetor and its Function :
1. Carburetor is an essential part of the petrol engine and it is used on both
the two stroke and the four stroke engines.
2. A carburetor vaporizes the petrol and mixes it with the air in such a
proportion which is in accordance with the weather and the driving
conditions.
3. The functions of a carburetor are as follows :
i. It maintains a small quantity of fuel (i.e., petrol) in the float chamber
at constant head to ensure uninterrupted supply for vaporization.
ii. It converts the liquid petrol into vapour form for convenient mixing
with air i.e., atomization of fuel occurs.
iii. It prepares a homogeneous mixture of air and vaporized petrol.
B. Classification :
i. On the Basis of Direction of Air Flow :
1. Up draught carburetor,
2. Down draught carburetor, and
3. Horizontal draught carburetor.
ii. On the Basis of Number of Venturies :
1. Single venturi carburetor, and
2. Multi venturi carburetor.
iii. On the Basis of Number of Jets :
1. Single Jet carburetor, and
2. Multi jet carburetor.
iv. On the Basis of Fuel Used :
1. Liquid fuel carburetor, and
2. Gas carburetor.
v. On the Basis of Application of the Vehicle :
1. Two wheeler carburetor,
2. Passenger car carburetor,
3. Racing car carburetor,
4. Agricultural tractor carburetor, and
5. Producer gas carburetor.
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vi. On the Basis of Commercial Trade Names :
1. Zenith carburetor,
2. Solex carburetor,
3. Carter carburetor,
4. Stromberg carburetor,
5. Spaco carburetor,
6. Mikuni carburetor,
7. Jetex carburetor, and
8. SU carburetor.
Answer
A. Construction of Simple Float Type Carburetor :
1. A simple float type carburetor is shown in Fig. 3.5.1. It consists of a float
chamber with needle valve, nozzle with metering orifice, venturi and
throttle valve.
2. In float chamber, a constant level of fuel is maintained.
3. Whenever the level of fuel in float chamber goes down below the
designed level, float comes lower and thereby opens the needle of the
valve to supply more fuel from fuel tank.
4. When the level is reached, the float move upward and closes the valve.
B. Working of Simple Float Type Carburetor :
Air-fuel mixture to cylinders
Throttle valve
Fuel from
Vent Strainer pump
Needle
Venturi valve
h
Float
Nozzle
(discharge jet)
Answer
A. Cons truction and Working of a Simple Carburetor :
Refer Q. 3.5, Page 3–5F, Unit-3.
B. Idling System :
1. Fig. 3.6.1 shows an idling system.
2. It consists of a small fuel line from the float chamber to a point on the
engine side of the throttle; this line contains a fixed fuel orifice.
To engine
Throttle valve
almost closed Fuel line
Air bleed
Idle adjust
Idle jet
Venturi
Float
chamber
Air
Fig. 3.6.1. Idling system.
3. When throttle is practically closed, the full manifold suction operates on
the outlet to this jet. Besides local suction is increased due to very high
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velocity past the throttle valve. Fuel therefore can be lifted by the
additional height upto the discharge point, but this occurs only at very
low rates of air flow.
4. When the throttle is opened, the main jet gradually takes over and the
idle jet eventually becomes ineffective.
5. The idle adjust (a needle valve controlling the air bleed, which is manually
operated) regulates the desired A/F ratio for the idling jet.
C. Choke :
1. A choke is simply butterfly valve located between the entrance to the
carburetor and the venturi throat as shown in Fig. 3.6.2.
2. When the choke is partly closed, large pressure drop occurs at the
venturi throat, would normally result from the amount of air passing
through the venturi throat.
3. The very large carburetor depression at the throat inducts large amount
of fuel from the main nozzle and provides a very rich mixture so that the
ratio of the evaporated fuel to air in the cylinder is within the combustible
limits.
Fuel-air mixture
to engine
Throttle
Venturi
Float
chamber
Choke
Air
Fig. 3.6.2. Choke valve with spring loaded by-pass.
Answer
i. Neglecting the Compressibility of Air (Approximate Analysis) :
1. Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1-1 and 2-2, the equation for air
is given by
Carburetion, Fuel Injection & Turbocharging 3–8 F (ME-Sem-5)
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p1 C12 p C2
= 2 2 ...(3.7.1)
a 2 a 2
Where, a = Density of air in kg/m . 3
Throttle valve
Fuel from
Vent Strainer pump
Needle
Venturi 2 valve
2 h
Float
Nozzle
(Discharge jet)
A2 p1 p 2/ p ( 1) /
= 2c p 2 2 ...(3.7.15)
R T1 p1 p1
8. So, the A/F ratio is given as,
2/ ( 1) /
p p
2 cp 2 2
ma Cda A2 p1 p1 p1
So,
=
Cdf Af R T1 2 f (pa gz f )
mf
PART-3
MPFI, Scavenging in 2 Stroke Engines.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.8. Describe MPFI system with the help of neat sketch.
Answer
1. An MPFI system is as shown in Fig. 3.8.1.
2. The main task of MPFI system is to supply a proper ratio of gasoline and
air into the cylinders.
3. It consists of following three components :
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A. Air Intake System :
1. In this system, the air is filtered by the air cleaner passes through the
throttle body and is distributed by the intake manifold and finally drawn
into each combustion chamber.
2. Opening and closing of throttle valve is controlled by ECU according to
demand & necessity with proper calculation with input system.
Full supply
Fuel pressure
regulator
Fuel rail
Injectors
Return line
Fig. 3.8.1.
Answer
Various types of MPFI for SI engines are as follows :
i. Port Injection :
1. In this type of system, the injector is placed near the intake manifold
of the intake port and through the injector gasoline coming out and
mixes properly with air.
2. Thereafter, this mixture of gasoline and air passes through the
intake valve and enters into the cylinder.
3. In this system, number of injectors is equal to the number of
cylinders.
Air
Injector
Fuel spray
Fig. 3.9.1. Multi-point fuel injection (MPFI) near port.
Answer
1. In a two stroke engine because of non-availability of an exhaust stroke
at the end of an expansion stroke, its combustion chamber is left full of
combustion products. The process of clearing the cylinder after the
expansion stroke is called scavenging process.
2. Scavenging process can be divided into following four parts :
i. Pre-blowdown :
1. On the opening of inlet ports, the gases expanding in the main cylinder
tend to escape from it and to pre-discharge into the scavenge air manifold.
2. This process ends with the opening of exhaust port.
ii. Blowdown :
1. With the opening of exhaust ports, the gases present in cylinder discharge
into the exhaust manifold and pressure inside the cylinder drop to a
value lower than the pressure of scavenge air.
2. The blowdown process terminates at the moment the gas pressure
inside the cylinder attain a value slightly less than air pressure inside
scavenge manifold.
iii. Scavenging :
1. This phase of scavenging process start at the moment at spontaneous
exhaust gases from the cylinder terminates and ends at the moment the
exhaust ports are closed.
2. The scavenge air sweeps out all residual gases remaining in the main
cylinder at the end of spontaneous exhaust and replaces them as
completely as possible with fresh charge.
iv. Additional Charging :
1. After the completion of scavenging phase, the fresh charge continues to
flow into the cylinder and pressure in cylinder rises.
2. This results in better filling of the cylinder.
PART-4
Fuel Injection in CI Engines, Requirements.
Carburetion, Fuel Injection & Turbocharging 3–14 F (ME-Sem-5)
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Questions-Answers
Answer
1. In diesel engine air is alone drawn into the cylinder during suction
stroke and compressed to very high pressure. The compression ratio
used in diesel engine varies from 16 : 1 to 20 : 1.
2. Due to compression, the pressure and temperature of air is raised to a
value required for ignition of the fuel.
3. At the end of the compression stroke, pressure is about 28 bar to 70 bar
and temperature is about 520 °C to 720 °C.
4. Fuel is injected by means of injector at the end of the compression
stroke, thus require a high injection pressure.
5. During the injection process, fuel is broken into fine spray of very small
droplet. These droplets take heat from the hot compressed air so these
droplets of fuel changed into the vapour and get mixed with air.
6. Due to continuous heat transfer from the hot air to the fuel, the
temperature of fuel reach a value greater than the self ignition
temperature of fuel and fuel starts to ignite.
Answer
A fuel injection system must meet the following requirements :
1. Accurate metering of fuel injected per cycle.
2. The fuel should be introduced into combustion chamber within a precisely
defined period of cycle.
3. Proper control of the rate of injection.
4. Proper atomization of fuel into fine droplet.
5. Proper spray pattern to ensure rapid mixing of the air and fuel.
6. Uniform distribution of fuel droplet in combustion chamber.
7. In case of multicylinder engine, supply equal quantity of fuel in each
cylinder.
8. No lag during beginning and end of injection.
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 3–15 F (ME-Sem-5)
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PART-5
Types of Injection Systems, Fuel Pumps, Fuel Injectors, Injection
Timings.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Fuel Pump : The function of fuel pump is to deliver accurately metered
quantity of fuel under pressure at correct instant to the injector fitted
on each cylinder.
Fuel Injector : The main function of injector is to atomize the fuel
into the fine droplet which increases the surface area of the fuel droplet
resulting in better mixing and hence better combustion.
Injection Timing : The timing at which the injection of the fuel takes
place inside the inlet manifold is called injection timing.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.13. How are the injection system classified ? Describe them
briefly. Why the air injection system is not used nowadays ?
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
OR
How are the injection system classified ? Describe them briefly.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
A. Classification of Injection System : There are two type of injection
system :
i. Air Injection System :
1. In air injection system, fuel is forced into the cylinder by means of
compressed air.
2. The fuel is metered and pumped to the fuel valve by a camshaft driven
fuel pump.
3. The fuel valve is opened by means of a mechanical linkage operated by
the camshaft which controls the timing of injection.
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4. Fuel valve is also connected to a high pressure air line fed by multistage
compressor.
5. When the fuel valve is opened the high pressure carries the fuel and
sprays it in the form of droplet into the combustion chamber.
HP air
Cylinder
Mechanical
HP HP linkage
fuel fuel cylinder
LP fuel
Answer
Following are the types of modern fuel injection systems :
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i. Individual Pump and Nozzle System :
1. A schematic diagram of pump is shown in Fig. 3.14.1.
2. In this system, each cylinder is provided with one pump and one injector.
3. In this arrangement a separate metering and compression pump is
provided for each cylinder.
4. The high pressure pump plunger produces the fuel pressure, necessary
to open the injector valve at the correct time.
HP
fuel
LP fuel
Distributor
Governor
Accumulator
HP fuel
LP fuel
HP pump
Fig. 3.14.4. Schematic diagram of distributor system.
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Que 3.15. Draw a schematic diagram of fuel injection pump and
explain its working principle.
Answer
A. Construction :
1. A fuel injection pump is shown in Fig. 3.15.1.
2. It consists of a barrel in which a plunger reciprocates when driven by a
camshaft. The plunger is single acting.
3. The barrel and plunger has a very small clearance for smooth movement
of plungers and it also provides the perfect sealing even at high pressure.
The pump barrel has inlet and control port.
4. At the top of the barrel a spring loaded delivery valve is provided.
5. A rack and pinion arrangement is provided to rotate the plunger for
controlling the quantity of fuel delivery per stroke.
B. Working :
1. When the plunger is at its bottom stroke, the spill port and supply port
are uncovered (as shown in Fig. 3.15.1) oil from pressure pump after
being filtered is forced into the barrel.
To inject
Fuel chamber
Plunger spring
Tappet
Camshaft
Cam
Fig. 3.15.1. Fuel injection pump.
2. When the plunger moves up due to cam and tappet mechanism, a stage
reaches when both the ports spill port and supply port are closed and
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with the further upward movement of the plunger the fuel gets
compressed.
3. The high pressure thus developed lifts the delivery valve off its seats
and fuel flows to atomiser through the passage.
4. With further rise of the plunger, at a certain moment, the supply port is
connected to the fuel in the upper part of the plunger through the
rectangular vertical groove by the helical groove, as a result of which a
sudden drop in pressure occurs and the delivery valve falls back and
occupies its seat against the spring force.
Answer
A. Construction :
1. A cross sectional view of a fuel injector is shown in Fig. 3.16.1
End cap
Adjusting screw
Lock nut
Spindle
Fuel inlet
Nozzle valve
Fuel passage
Nozzle body
Answer
A. Type of Modern Fuel Injection System : Refer Q. 3.14, Page 3–16F,
Unit-3.
B. Types of Nozzles :
i. Single Hole Nozzle :
1. At the centre of the nozzle body there is a single hole which is closed by
the nozzle valve.
2. The size of the hole is usually of the order of 0.2 mm.
3. Injection pressure is of order of 8-10 MPa and spray cone angle is about
15°.
4. Major disadvantage with such nozzle is that they tend to dribble.
Nozzle valve
Nozzle body
Auxiliary hole
Fig. 3.17.4. Pintaux nozzle.
PART-6
Turbocharging and its Types : Variable Geometry Turbocharger,
Waste Gate Turbocharger, Effect of Turbocharging on Power and
Emission.
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Turbochargers are centrifugal compressors driven by the exhaust gas
turbines.
2. By utilising the exhaust energy of the engine it recovers a substantial
part of energy which would otherwise go waste. Thus the turbocharger
will not draw upon the engine power.
3. These are nowadays extensively used for supercharging almost all
types of two stroke engines.
4. A turbocharger utilizes a portion of the energy contained in the exhaust
gas, when it is released by the opening of the exhaust valve towards
the end of the power stroke to drive a turbine wheel which
simultaneously propels a centrifugal compressor wheel.
5. Turbocharged engines produce higher cylinder volumetric efficiencies
compared with the normally aspirated induction systems.
Answer
Main types of turbocharging are as follows :
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i. Constant Pressure Turbocharging :
1. The various cylinders discharge their exhaust into a common manifold
at pressures higher than the atmospheric.
2. The exhaust gases undergo expansion in the exhaust valves, without
doing any work, to an approximately constant pressure in the common
manifold and then enter the turbine.
3. Thus the blow-down energy in the form of internal energy is converted
into work in the turbine.
4. The higher the pressure ratio of the turbine, the higher is the recovery
of blow-down energy.
5. During the whole of the cycle the exhaust gases are maintained at
constant pressure to make use of a pure reaction turbine.
ii. Pulse Turbocharging :
1. In this method of supercharging, as soon as the exhaust valve opens a
considerable part of the blow-down energy is converted into exhaust
pulses.
2. These pulses enter the turbine where a major proportion of the energy
is recovered.
3. In order that exhaust process of various cylinders do not interfere with
one another, separate exhaust pipes are used.
iii. Pulse Converter :
1. This turbocharging method permits the advantages of the pulse and
constant pressure tubocharging methods simultaneously.
2. The combination of these two systems is done by connecting the different
branches of exhaust manifolds together in a specially designed venturi
junction, called “pulse converter”, before the turbine.
iv. Two-Stage Turbocharger :
1. Two-stage turbocharging is defined as the use of two turbochargers of
different sizes in series, e.g., a high pressure stage operating on pulse
system and low pressure stage on constant pressure operation.
2. This type of arrangement is employed for diesel engines requiring very
high degree of supercharging.
v. Miller Turbocharging :
1. The system of turbocharging is based upon the idea of increasing the
expansion ratio relative to compression ratio by means of early closure
of inlet valve as the boost pressure is increased.
2. The Miller turbocharging is not very attractive unless two-stage
turbocharging is necessary because of other reasons such as need to
reduce exhaust valve failures.
Answer
1. Variable Geometry Turbochargers (VGTs), occasionally known as
Variable Nozzle Turbines (VNTs), are a type of turbochargers, usually
designed to allow the effective aspect ratio of the turbocharger to be
altered as conditions change.
2. This is done because the optimum aspect ratio at low engine speeds is
very different from that at high engine speeds.
3. If the aspect ratio is too large, the turbo will fail to create boost at low
speeds; if the aspect ratio is too small, the turbo will choke the engine at
high speeds, leading to high exhaust manifold pressures, high pumping
losses, and ultimately lower power output.
4. By altering the geometry of the turbine housing as the engine accelerates,
the turbo’s aspect ratio can be maintained at its optimum. Because of
this, VGTs have a minimal amount of lag, a low boost threshold, and
high efficiency at higher engine speeds.
5. The variable geometry turbine allows significant flexibility over the
pressure ratio across the turbine. In diesel engines, this flexibility can be
used for improving low speed torque characteristics, reducing
turbocharger lag and driving EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) flow.
6. The most common designs of variable geometry turbochargers include
the pivoting vane design and the moving wall design.
Answer
Advantages of variable geometry turbocharger are as follows :
1. No throttling loss of the waste gate valve.
Carburetion, Fuel Injection & Turbocharging 3–26 F (ME-Sem-5)
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2. Higher air-fuel ratio and higher peak torque at low engine speeds.
3. Improved vehicle accelerations without the need to resort to turbines
with high pumping loss at high engine speeds.
4. Ability to provide engine braking.
5. Ability to raise exhaust temperature for after treatment system
management.
Answer
1. The waste gate is the control valve for the turbocharger. It prevents
excess boost pressure that could cause detonation and severe engine
damage.
2. This feature in the turbocharger consists of a bypass valve. It circumvents
some part of the exhaust gas going to the turbine and releases them into
the outlet.
3. Nowadays, vehicles with turbocharged engines feature the waste gate
turbocharger.
4. This technology helps to deliver optimum engine performance during
peak operating conditions.
5. The waste gate turbocharger has a bypass valve built into the turbine
housing. It diverts some of the exhaust gases away from the turbine
wheel through this valve.
Answer
Advantages of waste gate turbocharger are as follows :
1. Needs a smaller space to fit.
2. Reduces turbo lag to some extent.
3. Installation of compact and simple external exhaust pipe system, thus,
reducing the engine weight.
4. Delivers optimum engine performance at all times.
5. Avoids mechanical damage to engine parts.
Answer
1. Turbochargers are used throughout the automotive industry as they
can enhance the output of an internal combustion (IC) engine without
the need to increase its cylinder capacity.
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 3–27 F (ME-Sem-5)
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2. The application of such a mechanical device enables automotive
manufacturers to adopt smaller displacement engines, commonly known
as engine downsizing.
3. Turbochargers were often used to increase the potential of an already
powerful IC engine.
4. The emphasis today is to provide a feasible engineering solution to
manufacturing economics and greener road vehicles. It is because of
these reasons that turbochargers are now becoming more and more
popular in automobile applications.
5. The aim of techniques used in turbocharging to increase the engine
output and reduce the exhaust emission levels.
6. By increasing the combustion efficiency with which an engine burns
diesel, a turbocharger increases the amount of energy diesel produces
and reduces emissions by converting a greater percentage of diesel fuel
into carbon dioxide or water as opposed to a toxic emission.
7. The basic concept of a turbocharger is to recycle wasted energy from
exhaust gas, transforming more of the fuel energy consumed into power.
A turbocharged engine, therefore offers improved fuel economy, less
CO2 emissions and better performance over a non turbocharged engine.
8. Turbocharging allows auto manufacturers to reduce their engine sizes
and therefore emissions while continuing to deliver the power and
performance customers demand.
9. Turbochargers offer the fastest response to global warming at a lower
cost per vehicle than any other technology.
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4 Engine Emission
and Control
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Engine Emission and Control : ................. 4–2F to 4–5F
Pollutant, Sources and Types,
Effect on Environment and
Human Health
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Pollutants : These are produced by the incomplete burning of air-
fuel mixture in the combustion chamber.
Sources of Engine Emission :
1. Exhaust emissions.
2. Non-exhaust emissions.
Questions-Answers
Answer
Engine emission can be classified into two categories :
i. Exhaust Emissions :
1. Unburnt hydrocarbons (HC),
2. Oxides of carbon (CO and CO2),
3. Oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO2),
4. Oxides of sulphur (SO2 and SO3),
5. Particulates, and
6. Soot and smoke.
ii. Non-exhaust Emissions :
1. Fuel Tank : The fuel tank emits fuel vapours into the atmosphere.
2. Carburetor : The carburetor gives out fuel vapours.
3. Crankcase : It emits blow-by gases and fuel vapours into the
atmosphere.
Answer
Various methods of emission control are as follows :
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i. Modification in the Engine Design and Operating Parameters :
A few parameters which improve the emission are :
1. Combustion chamber configuration,
2. Lower compression ratio,
3. Modified induction system,
4. Ignition timing, and
5. Reduced valve overlap.
ii. Treatment of Exhaust Products of Combustion : The exhaust gas
coming out of exhaust manifold is treated to reduce HC and CO emissions.
The devices used for this are :
1. After-burner,
2. Exhaust manifold reactor, and
3. Catalytic converter.
iii. Modification of the Fuels : If gasoline is changed to propane as engine
fuel CO emission can substantially be reduced with reduced HC and
NOx, and in changing from propane to methane the CO as well HC
emission touch zero level and only the NOx remains as a significant
factor.
Answer
Effects of engine emission on environment are as follows :
i. Global Warming :
1. Global warming is one of the most worrying effects for scientists and
environmentalists.
2. Global warming is a direct consequence of the greenhouse effect, which
is produced by the high emission of CO 2 and methane into the
atmosphere.
ii. Climate Change :
1. Climate Change is consequence of global warming. When the
temperature of the planet increases, there is a disturbance in the
usual climatic cycles, accelerating the changes of these cycles in an
evident way.
2. Due to climate change, the mass of the poles is melting, and this is
leading to flooding and the rising of sea levels.
iii. Acid Rain :
1. The gases emitted by engines are very toxic. Those gases include sulphur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) issued into the atmosphere
that come from fossil fuels burning.
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2. When those substances accumulate in the atmosphere and react with
water, they form dilute solutions of nitric and sulphuric acid, and when
those concentrations become rain, both the environment and surfaces
suffer.
iv. Smog Effect :
1. The smog effect happens when there is a kind of dark fog concentrated
over the cities and fields.
2. That fog is a load of pollutants and can be of two types : sulphurous
smog and photochemical smog, both dangerous and harmful to
environment.
v. Deterioration of Fields :
1. Acid rain, climate change and smog all damage the earth surface.
Contaminated water and gases seep into the earth, changing the
composition of soils.
2. That directly affects agriculture, changing crop cycles and the
composition of the food we all eat.
vi. Extinction of Animal Species :
1. As the ice masses of the poles melt and sea levels rise, many animal
species, whose survival depends on oceans and rivers, are threatened.
2. Currents change, ocean temperature changes and migratory cycles
change, and many animals are forced to seek food in environments
unknown to them.
Answer
The effects of different engine emissions on human health are as follows :
i. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) :
1. It is an irritant gas and affects the mucous membrane when inhaled. In
the presence of water vapour it forms sulphurous and sulphuric acids.
These acids cause severe bronchospasm at very low levels of
concentration.
2. Diseases like bronchitis and asthma are aggravated by a high
concentration of SO2.
ii. Carbon Monoxide (CO) :
1. It has a strong affinity for combining with the haemoglobin of the blood
to form carboxyhaemoglobin. This reduces the ability of the haemoglobin
to carry oxygen to the blood tissues.
2. CO affects the central nervous system.
3. It is also responsible for heart attacks and a high mortality rate.
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iii. Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2) :
1. These are known to cause occupational diseases. It is estimated that eye
and nasal irritation will be observed after exposure to about 15 ppm of
nitrogen oxide, and pulmonary discomfort after brief exposure to 25
ppm of nitrogen oxide.
2. It also aggravates diseases like bronchitis and asthma.
iv. Hydrocarbon Vapours :
1. They are primarily irritating.
2. They are major contributors to eye and respiratory irritation caused by
photochemical smog.
v. Compounds of Incomplete Combustion :
1. Exhaust discharge from IC engines carry compounds of incomplete
combustion (polycyclic organic compounds and aliphatic hydrocarbons),
which act as carcinogenic agents and are responsible for lungs cancer.
vi. Lead :
1. Inorganic lead compounds (discharged from vehicles using leaded petrol)
cause a variety of human health disorders.
2. The effects include gastrointestinal damage, liver and kidney damage,
abnormality infertility and pregnancy etc.
vii. Smoke :
1. It is visible carbon particles.
2. It causes irritation in eyes and lungs, and visibility reduction. It also
causes other respiratory diseases.
PART-2
Formation of NO x, Hydrocarbon Emission Mechanism, Carbon
Monoxide Formation, Particulate Emissions.
Questions-Answers
Answer
Following are the various pollutants emitted by gasoline engines or
petrol engines :
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i. Carbon Monoxide (CO) :
1. Carbon monoxide occurs only in engine exhaust.
2. It is a product of incomplete combustion due to insufficient amount of
air in the air-fuel mixture or insufficient time in the cycle for completion
of combustion.
3. Carbon monoxide emissions are high when the engine is idling and
reach a minimum value during deceleration. They are lowest during
acceleration at steady speeds.
4. Closing of the throttle which reduces the oxygen supply to engine is the
main cause of CO production.
ii. Hydrocarbons :
1. Unburnt hydrocarbon emissions are the direct result of incomplete
combustion. The pattern of hydrocarbon emissions is closely related to
many design and operating variables.
iii. Particulate Matter and Partial Oxidation Product :
1. Some traces of products of partial oxidation are also present in the
exhaust gas, of which formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are important.
2. Other constituents are phenols, acids, ketones, ethers, etc. These are
essentially products of incomplete combustion of the fuel.
iv. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) :
1. Oxides of nitrogen which also occur only in the engine exhaust are a
combination of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
2. Nitrogen and oxygen react at relatively high temperatures. Therefore,
high temperatures and availability of oxygen are the two main reasons
for the formation of NOx.
Answer
1. Hydrocarbon formed due to existence of local very rich mixture pockets
at much lower temperature than the combustion chambers, unburnt
hydrocarbons may appear in the exhaust.
2. The hydrocarbons also appear due to flame quenching near the metallic
walls.
3. A significant portion of this unburnt hydrocarbon may burn during
expansion and exhaust strokes if the oxygen concentration and exhaust
temperature is suitable for complete oxidation. Otherwise a large
amount of hydrocarbon will go out with the exhaust gases.
Answer
1. Particulate matter can be either dust (particles having a diameter of
1 micron) which do not settle down or particles with a diameter of more
than 10 microns which settle down to the ground.
2. The particulate emission can be classified as follows :
i. Smoke : It composes of stable suspension of particles that have a diameter
of less than 10 microns and are visible only in the aggregate.
ii. Fumes : These are very small particles resulting from chemical reactions
and are normally composed of metals and metallic oxides.
iii. Fly Ash : These are ash particles of diameter 100 microns or less.
iv. Cinders : These are ash particles of diameter 100 microns or more.
PART-3
Methods of Controlling Emissions : Catalytic Converters and
Particulate Traps.
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CONCEPT OUTLINE
Emission Control : The term emission refers to the exhaust of
an automobile. The knowledge or subject of automobile exhaust
quality and holding it within tolerable limits is called emission
control.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Catalytic Converter :
1. The most effective treatment for reducing engine emissions is the
catalytic converter found on most automobiles and other modern engines
of medium or large size.
2. A catalyst is a substance that accelerates a chemical reaction by lowering
the energy needed for it to proceed. It is not consumed in the reaction
and so functions indefinitely unless degraded by heat, age, contaminants,
or other factors.
3. Catalytic converters are chambers mounted in the flow system through
which the exhaust gases passes through.
4. These chambers contain catalytic material, which promotes the oxidation
of the emissions contained in the exhaust flow.
5. Generally, catalytic converters are called three way converters because
they are used to reduce the concentration of CO, HC and NOx in the
exhaust.
B. Advantages :
1. The conversion is possible at normal exhaust temperatures and not at
high temperatures as in thermal conversion.
2. Reduction of nitrogen oxides can also be accomplished inside a catalytic
converter.
C. Application : Its sole purpose is to reduce the amount of pollution
produced by the combustion of hydrocarbon based fossil fuels in
automobiles.
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Que 4.10. Explain the construction and working of catalytic
converter.
Answer
A. Construction :
1. Catalytic converter is usually a stainless steel container mounted
somewhere along the exhaust pipe of the engine.
2. Inside this container there is a porous ceramic structure through which
the exhaust gas flow.
3. In most converters, the ceramic is a single honeycomb structure with
many flow passages as shown in Fig. 4.10.1.
4. Some converters use loose granular ceramic with the gas passing
between the packed spheres.
5. Volume of the ceramic structure of a catalytic converter is generally
about half the displacement volume of the engine.
6. Catalytic converters for CI engines need larger flow passages because
of the solid soot in the exhaust gases.
C. Working :
1. The surface of the ceramic passages contains small embedded particles
of catalytic material that promote the oxidation reactions in the exhaust
gas as it passes.
2. Aluminum oxide (alumina) is the base ceramic material used for most
catalytic converters.
3. Alumina can withstand the high temperatures, it remains chemically
neutral, it has very low thermal expansion, and it does not thermally
degrade with age.
4. The catalyst materials most commonly used are platinum, palladium,
and rhodium.
5. Palladium and platinum promote the oxidation of CO and HC.
1
CO + O CO2
2 2
CxHy + 2O2 xCO2 + yH2O
6. Rhodium promotes the reaction of NOx in one or more of the
following reactions :
1
NO + CO N + CO2
2 2
2 NO + 5 CO + 3 H2O 2 NH3 + 5 CO2
2 NO + CO N2O + CO2
1
NO + H2 N + H2O
2 2
2 NO + 5 H2 2 NH3 + 2 H2O
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2 NO + H2 N2 O+ H2O
Secondary air
Gas Gas
in out
Answer
Various methods of controlling of particulate emissions are as follows :
i. Cinder Catchers : The cinder catchers are shown in Fig. 4.11.1 given
below :
1. Fig. 4.11.1 (a) shows sudden decrease in gas velocity makes the particulate
separate and fall.
2. Fig. 4.11.1(b) shows a sudden change in the direction of flow of flue gas
throws the particulates away and can be collected.
3. Fig. 4.11.1(c) shows impingement of flue gases on a series of baffle stops
the particulate matter as shown in figure. These are commonly used in
stoker and small cyclone furnaces where crushed coal is burned rather
than the very fine pulverized coal. The collection efficiencies of cinder
catchers are from 50 to 75 %.
Collector plases
Fig. 4.11.2. Electrostatic precipitator.
3. In this type of collector, care must be taken to see that large quantity of
unburnt gases do not enter the precipitator. If such a mixture enters,
power should be turned off, otherwise there could be explosion because
of constant sparking between wires and plates.
4. The collection efficiency is about 99 %.
5. Electrostatic precipitators are suitable for power plants where fly-ash
content is high.
Answer
1. Compression ignition engine systems are equipped with particulate
traps in their exhaust flow to reduce the amount of particulates released
to the atmosphere.
2. Traps are filter-like systems often made of ceramic in the form of a
monolith or mat, or else made of metal wire mesh. Traps typically
remove 60-90 % of particulates in the exhaust flow.
3. As traps catch the soot particles, they slowly fill up with the particulates.
This restricts exhaust gas flow and raises the back pressure of the
engine.
4. To reduce this flow restriction particulate traps are regenerated when
they begin to saturate. Regeneration consists of combusting the
particulates in the excess oxygen contained in the exhaust of the lean
operating CI engine.
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5. On some larger stationary engines and on some construction equipment
and large trucks, the particulate traps is replaced when it becomes
close to filled position.
6. The removed trap is then regenerated externally, with the carbon being
burned off in a furnace. The regenerated trap can then be used again.
7. Modern particulate traps are not totally satisfactory, especially for
automobiles. They are costly and complex when equipped for
regeneration, and long-term durability does not exist.
8. An ideal catalytic trap would be simple, economical and reliable, it
would be self-regenerating, and it would impose a minimum increase
in fuel consumption.
PART-4
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) and Diesel Oxidation
Catalyst (DOC).
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) is an advanced active emissions
control technology system that injects a liquid-reductant agent through
a special catalyst into the exhaust stream of a diesel engine.
2. The reductant source is usually automotive-grade urea, otherwise known
as diesel exhaust fluid (DEF). The DEF sets off a chemical reaction that
converts nitrogen oxides into nitrogen, water and tiny amounts of carbon
dioxide (CO2), natural components of the air we breathe, which is then
expelled through the vehicle tailpipe.
3. SCR technology is designed to permit nitrogen oxide (NOx) reduction
reactions to take place in an oxidizing atmosphere.
4. It is called selective because it reduces levels of NOx using ammonia as
a reductant within a catalyst system. The chemical reaction is known as
reduction where the DEF is the reducing agent that reacts with NOx to
convert the pollutants into nitrogen, water and tiny amounts of CO2.
5. The DEF can be rapidly broken down to produce the oxidizing ammonia
in the exhaust stream. SCR technology alone can achieve NOx reductions
up to 90 percent.
PART-5
Fuels : Fuels For SI and CI Engine, Important Qualities of SI and
CI Engine Fuels, Rating of SI Engine and CI Engine Fuels,
Dopes, Additives.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Fuel for SI Engine : Gasoline is the main fuel used in SI engine. It
is a mixture of various hydrocarbons such as paraffins, olefins,
naphthenes and aromatics.
Fuel for CI Engine : Diesel is the main fuel used in CI engine.
Diesel fuels are the petroleum fractions that lie between kerosene
and the lubricating oils.
Dopes : These are chemicals which added to petrol or diesel to
prevent knocking.
Questions-Answers
Answer
Following are the different types of fuels used in IC engine :
i. Solid Fuel :
1. Solid fuel find little application in IC engine because of the handling the
fuel and disposing off the ash after the combustion.
2. Example : Powdered coal and saw dust.
ii. Liquid Fuel :
1. Liquid fuel is the derivative of the liquid petroleum.
2. Liquid fuel is widely used in IC engine.
3. The three principle commercial types of liquid fuels are benzyl, alcohol
and petroleum products.
4. But gasoline (petrol), diesel, kerosene are main fuel used for IC engine.
5. The main reason for use of liquid fuel is their high heating value, excellent
performance, ease of storing and ease of transportation.
iii. Gaseous Fuel :
1. Gaseous fuel are considered as ideal fuel and pose very few problem
while using in IC engine but storage and handling problem restrict their
use in IC engine.
2. Example : Blast furnace gas, coal gas, natural gas and coke oven gas.
Answer
A. Important Qualities of SI Engine Fuel :
i. Volatility : It is most important factor of a gasoline used as a fuel in SI
engine. It has effect on several phases of the operation and maintenance
as starting and warm up, during acceleration etc.
ii. Sulphur Content : Fuel should have minimum sulphur content as
sulphur forms corrosive compound that may damage the various part of
engine.
iii. Operating Range Performance :
1. The acceleration of an engine depends upon its ability to deliver suddenly
to intake an extra supply of fuel air mixture in a sufficiently vapourised
form to burn quickly.
2. Good acceleration occurs when air-fuel vapour ratio of 12 : 1 is supplied.
3. The ability to accelerate falls off as available mixture becomes lean.
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iv. Gum Content : SI fuel contains some unsaturated hydrocarbons, which
oxidized during storage and form a product known as gum. This is
undesirable deposits on the intake valve, piston rings and other engine
parts and sometimes clogged the carburetor jets.
v. Antiknock Quality : Due to abnormal burning or detonation in
combustion chamber, high rate of energy releases and adversely affect
the thermal efficiency of the engine. So fuel used should be such that it
resists the tendency to produce detonation and this property is called
antiknock quality. Hence best SI engine fuel should have high antiknock
property.
vi. Viscosity : Viscosity of the fuel should be optimum. Excess of viscosity
may create the problem during atomization.
B. Important Qualities of CI Engine Fuels :
i. Knock Characteristics : Knock in the CI engines occurs because of
an ignition lag in the combustion of the fuel between the time of injection
and the time of actual burning. A good CI engine fuel should have a
short ignition lag and will ignite more readily.
ii. Starting Characteristics : The fuel should help in starting the engine
easily.
iii. Smoke and Odour : The fuel should not promote either smoke or
odour in the engine exhaust. Generally, good volatility is the first pre-
requisite to ensure good mixing and therefore complete combustion.
iv. Viscosity : CI engine fuels should be able to flow through the fuel
system and the strainers under the lowest operating temperatures to
which the engine is subjected to.
v. Corrosion and Wear : The fuel should not cause corrosion and wear
of the engine components before or after co mbustion. These
requirements are directly related to the presence of sulphur, ash and
residue in the fuel.
vi. Handling Ease : The fuel should be a liquid that will readily flow under
all conditions that are encountered in actual use. This requirement is
measured by the pour point and the viscosity of the fuel. The fuel should
also have a high flash point and a high fire point.
Answer
Following are the methods for rating of SI and CI engine fuel :
i. HUCR :
1. The Highest Useful Compression Ratio (HUCR) is the highest
compression ratio at which a fuel can be used without detonation in a
specified test engine under certain condition and the ignition and mixture
strength being adjusted to give best efficiency.
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2. This method of fuel rating is no more popular.
ii. Octane Number :
1. Octane number is used to give the knock rating.
2. The compression ratio increases as the octane number is increased. So
this is an indication to improve thermal efficiency and power output of
the engine.
iii. Performance Number :
1. To express the rating of the fuel, which have octane number more than
100, performance number is used.
2. It is the ratio of knock limited indicated mean effective pressure (klimep)
of test fuel to knock limited indicated mean effective pressure of iso-
octane.
Klimep of test fuel
Performance number (PN) =
Klimep of iso-octane
iv. Cetane Number :
1. It is also known as cetane rating.
2. It is a measurement of the quality or performance of diesel fuel.
3. The higher the number, the better the fuel burns within the engine.
Answer
A. Effects of Gasoline Volatility : Following are the important aspect of
volatility :
i. Cold Starting :
1. In order to start an engine, a combustible mixture rich enough to
ignite easily at starting temperatures must be supplied near the
spark plug. The approximate limits of inflammability of air-gasoline
vapour mixture are about 8 : 1 for fuel rich mixture and 20 : 1 for
lean mixture. A mixture ratio of 12 : 1 which is the fastest burning
mixture is most suitable for starting.
2. From the standpoint of fuel, the problem of cold starting is largely
one of getting sufficient fuel evaporation a more volatile fuel is
desirable.
ii. Hot Starting :
1. Hot starting is given on the other side of the distillation curve.
2. If the front end volatility of the fuel is made excessively low to give
good cold starting, the amount of fuel evaporating and so going into
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the intake manifold under hot shut down conditions is high and the
mixture formed is too rich to ignite causing hot starting problem.
240
Winter
Temperature (°C) 200 Summer
160
120
80
40
0
20 40 60 80 100
Volume evaporated (%)
Fig. 4.18.1. Typical distillation curves of gasoline.
iii. Warm Up :
1. As the engine warm up, the temperature increase to the operating
temperature, low distillation temperature are desirable for best
warm up throughout the range of distillation curve.
iv. Vapour Lock :
1. When the rate of vapourization is too great it can upset the
carburetor metering or even stop the fuel flow to the engine by
setting up a vapour lock in fuel passage.
2. This characteristics demand the presence of relatively high boiling
temperature hydrocarbon throughout the distillation range.
B Performance Number : Refer Q. 4.17, Page 4–15F, Unit-4.
C. Diesel Index :
1. The diesel index is a cheap method of predicting ignition quality.
2. The diesel index gives an indication of the ignition quality obtained
from certain physical characteristics of the fuel as opposed to an
actual determination in a test engine.
3. It is given as,
API gravity (deg)
Diesel index (DI) = Aniline point (°F) ×
100
Que 4.19. Define additives. What are the requirements of additive ?
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Answer
A. Additives :
1. Additives are the compounds that are used to improve combustion
performance of fuels.
2. The main combustion problems that arise when operating conditions
become unfavourable are knock and surface ignition.
3. These combustion problems can be tackled by alternative means such
as improvement of combustion chamber desk, constructional materials,
and fuel and oil quality, etc.
4. Employment of additives, therefore, is only one of a number of measures
that can be taken for solving the combustion problems.
B. Requirements of an Additive :
1. It must be knock resistant.
2. It should be soluble in fuel under all conditions.
3. It should have no adverse effect on fuel.
4. It should be in the liquid phase at normal temperature, and volatile to
give rapid vapourisation in manifold.
5. It must not produce harmful deposits.
6. Its water solubility must be minimum to minimize handling losses.
PART-6
Gaseous Fuels, LPG, CNG, Biogas, Producer Gas, Alternative
Fuels for IC Engines.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Alternative Fuels for IC Engines : Some alternative fuels for IC
engines are as follows :
1. Alcohol,
2. Hydrogen,
3. Natural gas,
4. LPG, and
5. Biogas.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Gaseous Fuel : Refer Q. 4.15, Page 4–14F, Unit-4.
B. Advantages of Gaseous Fuels :
1. Easily compressed and stored.
2. Easily carried through pipes.
3. Easy starting of engines.
4. Easy to maintain A/F ratio in multi-cylinder engines as compared to
liquid fuels.
C. Disadvantages of Gaseous Fuels :
1. High cost (on the basis of energy content).
2. High purifying cost.
3. Storage volume per unit energy is very large.
4. As compared to engines using liquid fuels, the size and weight of the
engine (kg/kW) is considerably large.
Que 4.21. What are the properties of LPG ? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of LPG ?
Answer
A. Properties of LPG :
1. It is colourless and odourless gas.
2. The flash point of LPG is –104 °C.
3. LPG vapour is heavier than air.
5. Boiling point of LPG is low (– 6 °C)
5. It is non toxic.
B. Advantages :
1. It contains less carbon than petrol.
2. It mixes with air at all temperatures.
3. Fuel is in the form of vapour, so there is no problem of crankcase
dilution.
4. It has high antiknock properties.
5. Engine life is increased when using the LPG.
C. Disadvantages :
1. Weight of vehicle is increased due to the use of heavy cylinder for
storing LPG.
2. Horse power produce at full throttle is reduced approximately 10 %.
3. A special fuel feed system is required for liquid petroleum gas.
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Que 4.22. What is CNG ? What are its properties ? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of CNG ?
Answer
A. CNG :
1. When natural gas stored after the compression, it is known as
compressed natural gas. Its pressure varies between 7 to 21 bar and its
temperature is –160 °C.
2. An ideal composition of CNG as an automatic fuel is as follows :
i. Methane = 90 %
ii. Ethane = 4 %
iii. Propane = 1.7 %
iv. C4 and higher = 0.7 %
v. C6 and higher = 0.2 %
vi. (CO2 + N2) = 0.2 %
vii. Hydrogen = 0.1 %
viii. Carbon monoxide = 0.1 %
ix. Oxygen = 0.5 %
x. Sulphur = 10 % ppm
B. Properties of CNG :
1. CNG has very good antiknock quality which means it does not ignite
readily.
2. Antiknock octane number of CNG is nearly 130, so it burns at much
higher temperature compared with petrol unleaded and diesel which
have low octane number.
3. The engines using CNG have higher thermal efficiencies than those
fueled by gasoline.
4. CNG is non toxic and lighter than air.
C. Advantages of CNG :
1. High octane number makes it very good SI engine fuel.
2. Low engine emission.
3. It is cheap.
4. It is engine friendly as well as environment.
5. It is odourless.
6. It is clean.
D. Disadvantages :
1. Low energy density resulting in low engine performance.
2. Low volumetric efficiency.
3. Large pressure required for storage.
4. Refueling is a slow process.
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5. Inconsistent fuel properties.
Answer
A. Biogas :
1. Biogas is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen
sulphide, the major constituent being methane.
2. Biogas is produced by anaerobic degradation of animal wastes and plant
wastes in presence of water.
3. Composition of biogas is as follows :
i. CH4 = 50 % – 60 %
ii. CO2 = 30 % – 45 %
iii. H2 and N2 = 5 % – 10 %
iv. H2S and O2 = Traces
B. Properties of Biogas :
1. Octane rating of biogas with CO2 is 110 and without CO2 is 130.
2. Its auto ignition temperature is higher than petrol which makes it safer
fuel.
3. Being a gas it mixes with air at low temperature so there is no need for
rich mixture for idling or starting.
4. It has low calorific value so it works on higher compression ratio. So we
need a large size engine.
5. Due to clean operation of the engine, emission of CO and NOx reduced
very much.
Answer
Biogas plants are basically of two types :
i. Floating Gas Holder Type Biogas Plant :
1. This has a well shaped digester tank which is placed under the ground
and made up of bricks.
2. In digester tank, over the dung slurry, an inverted steel drum floats to
hold the biogas produced.
3. The gas holder can move which is controlled by a pipe and the gas outlet
is regulated by a valve.
4. This digester tank has a partition wall and one side of it receives the
dung-water mixture through inlet pipe while the other side discharges
the spent slurry through the outlet pipe.
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Slurry Mixing Floating
(Cattle dung tank Biogas Overflow
biogas holder
+ Water) supply outlet tank
Ground
level
Outlet Spent
Inlet
pipe slurry
pipe
Underground
digester tank
Mixing
tank Slurry Fixed
dome Biogas supply
outlet
Slab cover
Overflow tank
Ground level
Biogas
Inlet Spent
chamber slurry
Outlet
chamber
Underground
digester tank
Answer
1. Producer gas is made by flowing air and stream through a thick coal or
coke bed which ranges in temperature from red hot to low temperature.
2. The oxygen in the air burns the carbon to CO2.
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3. This CO2 gets reduced to CO by contacting with carbon above the
combustion zone.
4. Steam gets dissociated, which introduces H2 and the freed O2 combines
with the carbon.
5. Producer gas has a high percentage of N2, since air is used.
6. Thus, it has a low heat value.
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 5–1 F (ME-Sem-5)
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5 Engine Cooling
and Lubrication
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Engine Cooling and Lubrication : ......... 5–2F to 5–10F
Different Cooling Systems,
Radiators and Cooling Fans
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Types of Cooling Systems :
1. Air cooling system, and
2. Water cooling system.
Water Circulating Methods :
1. Thermosyphon cooling,
2. Forced or pump cooling,
3. Cooling with thermostatic regulator,
4. Pressurized water cooling, and
5. Evaporative cooling.
Radiator : The function of radiator is to reject coolant heat to the
outside air.
Cooling Fan : The purpose of cooling fan is to maintain the required
air flow across the radiator matrix and to bring down the temperature
of the water.
Questions-Answers
Answer
Following are the types of cooling system :
i. Air Cooling System :
1. In this system, a current of air is made to pass over the outside of
cylinder whose outer area is increased by providing the fins.
2. Fins are extended surface to increase the heat transfer rate between
the two medium. Generally one medium is metal surface and other is
air.
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Cooling fins between walls
Cooling fins
Lower
Water pump
tank
Drain tap
Que 5.2. Write the advantages and disadvantages of air and water
cooling system.
Answer
A. Advantages of Air Cooling System :
1. Direct transfer of heat from engine to air eliminates the use of water.
2. Engine design become simpler.
3. No antifreeze solution is needed.
4. Small thermal losses.
5. Better warm-up performance.
6. Control of this cooling system is simpler than water cooling system.
7. Less carbon deposit due to high mean cylinder temperature.
B. Disadvantages of Air Cooling System :
1. Lower volumetric efficiency.
2. Not useful for high output engine.
3. Greater noise due to use of air fan.
C. Advantages of Water Cooling System :
1. Useful for high output engine.
2. This can be conveniently located wherever required.
3. Fuel consumption of high compression water cooled engine is lower.
4. Higher volumetric efficiency.
D. Disadvantages of Water Cooling System :
1. Use of radiator increases the weight and also dimension of engine.
2. Require more maintenance.
3. More sensitive to climate. For ease of cold starting, antifreeze solution
are used.
4. Poor warm-up performance.
Radiator core
Cylinder water
jacket Lower hose
connection Lower tank
2. This system works on the fact that water becomes light on heating.
3. This type of system is provided with a radiator.
4. Top of the radiator is connected to the top of water jacket and bottom of
radiator is connected to the bottom of the water jacket.
5. Water travel down the radiator across which air is passed to cool it.
6. The air flow can take place due to vehicle motion or a fan can be provided
for the purpose.
7. The main drawback of this system is that the circulation of water will
start only after engine become hot enough to start thermosyphon action.
Que 5.4. Sketch and explain working principle of a typical
thermostat used in engine cooling system.
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Answer
1. It consists of bellows which are made of thin copper tubes, partially
filled with a volatile liquid like ether or methyl alcohol.
2. The volatile liquid changes into vapour at the correct working
temperature, thus creating enough pressure to expand the bellows.
3. The movement of the bellows opens the main valve in the ratio of
temperature rise, increasing or restricting the flow of water from engine
to the radiator.
4. Hence when the normal temperature of the engine has been reached
the valve open and circulation of water commences.
Main valve
Out
Pressure
relief valve
By pass
Bellows
Water
In
Fig. 5.4.1. Thermostat.
5. When the unit is closed the gas condenses and so the pressure falls.
6. The bellows collapse and the thermostat seats on its seat and circulation
around thermostat stops.
7. When the thermostat valve is not open and the engine is running the
water being pumped rises in pressure and causes the pressure relief
valve to open.
8. Thus the water completes its circulation through the by-pass.
2. The radiator has a supply or header tank at the top and a collector
tank at the bottom of the main radiator core or matrix.
3. The he ader tank re ce ives hot coo lant fro m the engine ,
accommodates expansion of water and also acts as a water reserve
against coolant loss.
4. A submerged horizontal baffle is provided to reduce mixing of the
incoming coolant with air so that aeration, which impairs the
radiator heat transfer efficiency, is avoided.
ii. Cross-Flow Type Radiator :
1. In the cross-flow type radiator the hot coolant is supplied to the top
of the supply tank, it flows across the radiator and is taken out from
the bottom of the collector tank.
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To coolant Header tank
pump inlet
Answer
Different types of radiator matrices are as follows :
i. Honey Comb Block Type Matrix :
1. In this type, radiator is provided with circular tubes which are upset at
each end of hexagonal shape.
2. The cooling air is passed through the circular tube and water is flowing
between the tubes.
Coolant flow
Air flow
Answer
1. The fan is generally fitted behind the radiator, usually being mounted
on the water pump shaft and induces a flow of air through the radiator
block.
2. This function being especially important when vehicle is moving slowly,
or when it is stationary and the engine is running.
3. The fan is generally driven by a V-belt from the engine crankshaft and
has a number of blades which are made from metal, nylon or some
other plastic.
4. As the number of blades increases, the fan size can be reduced.
5. It is important that the fan belt is correctly adjusted, if it is too tight the
dynamo and water pump bearing, may be damaged and excess power
absorbed and if it is too slack the efficiency of the cooling system and the
dynamo output will be affected.
6. On no account should the engine crankshaft be rotated by the fan
blades as this will cause distortion to the blades and the assembly will
run out of balance.
PART-2
Engine Friction, Lubrication Principle, Type of Lubrication,
Lubrication Oils, Crankcase Ventilation.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Lubrication : It is the admittance of lubricating oil between two
surfaces having relative motion in order to reduce friction between
them and to ensure smooth running.
Types of Lubrication System used in IC Engines :
1. Wet sump lubrication system,
2. Dry sump lubrication system, and
3. Mist lubrication system.
Crankcase Ventilation : The method of removing blow-by gases
from the engine by allowing a fresh stream of air to pass through
crankcase is called crankcase ventilation.
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants 5–11 F (ME-Sem-5)
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Questions-Answers
Que 5.8. Define engine friction and discuss the effect of engine
variables on engine friction.
Answer
A. Engine Friction :
1. It is defined as the difference between the indicated power and the
brake power.
2. The difference between indicated power and brake power is due to the
following losses :
i. Pumping losses,
ii. Blow-by losses,
iii. Valve throttling losses, and
iv. Power loss to drive the auxiliaries, etc.
3. The above mentioned losses results in the engine friction.
B. Effect of Engine Variables on Engine Friction :
i. Compression Ratio : The frictional mean effective pressure increases
as the compression ratio is increased. But the mechanical efficiency
may even increase because of improvement in indicated mean effective
pressure.
ii. Engine Speed : The mechanical friction increases with the increase in
speed.
iii. Engine Load : When the load on the engine increases, the indicated
mean effective pressure also increases and friction loss also increases.
iv. Cooling Water Temperature : The rise in cooling water temperature
reduces the frictional loss as the viscosity of oil at higher temperature is
lower which reduces the frictional loss.
v. Oil Viscosity : Higher the viscosity of oil greater is the friction loss.
Answer
1. The lubrication works on the principle of squeezing out of lubricating oil
when a suitable weight is placed on it.
2. Consider a block resting on a flat surface covered with a layer of
lubricating oil. If the weight of the block is very high or the oil is thin, the
oil will squeeze out. In other words, thick oil can support a higher load
than that supported by thin oil [Fig. 5.9.1(a)].
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3. The lubrication principle can be described in different forms as follows :
i. Hydrodynamic Lubrication :
1. When the block is moved over the surface, a wedge-shaped oil film
[Fig. 5.9.1(b)] is built-up between the moving block and the surface.
2. This wedge-shaped film is thicker at the leading edge than at the
rear.
3. This type of lubrication where a wedge-shaped oil film is formed
between two moving surfaces is called hydrodynamic lubrication.
Oil
Journal
Bearing
Load Pad
Load Oil
Bearing
Supporting oil film Supporting oil film
(a) (b )
Surface
irregularities
Load Load
Elastic
deformation Oil
Oil
of material
Answer
Various lubrication systems used in IC engines are as follows :
i. Mist Lubrication System :
1. This system is used for two stroke cycle engines. In two stroke engine,
as the charge is compressed in crankcase so it is not possible to have the
lubricating oil in the sump.
2. In this system, 2 to 3 percent lubricating oil is added in fuel tank.
3. The oil and fuel mixture is inducted through the carburetor.
4. The gasoline is vaporized and oil in the form of mist goes via crankcase
into the cylinder.
5. The oil which impinges on the crankcase walls lubricates the main and
connecting rod bearing and rest of the oil which pass on the cylinder
during charging and scavenging periods lubricates the piston, piston
rings and cylinder.
ii. Wet Sump Lubrication System :
1. In wet sump lubrication system, the bottom part of the crankcase known
as sump contains the lubricating oil.
2. From the sump lubricating oil is supplied to various part of the engine.
3. Following are the three types of wet sump lubricating system :
a. Splash System :
1. In Fig. 5.10.1, a splash system is shown. This type of system is used
in light duty engines.
Oil pressure gauge
Camshaft
Main
bearing
Lower oil pan Oil troughs
Cam shaft
Main bearing
Oil jet
directed at
dip on rod
Oil pump
Oil strainer
Fig. 5.10.2. Splash and pressure system.
c. Pressure Feed System :
1. This system is used for engines which are exposed to high load.
2. In this system, an oil pump is used for lubricating all part of cylinder.
3. Oil is delivered by pressure pump at pressure ranging from 1.5 to
4 bar. The oil under pressure is supplied to main bearings of
crankshaft and camshaft.
4. An oil hole is drilled in crankshaft bearing to supply the oil to big
end and small end bearing of the connecting rod.
5. The cylinder wall, piston, piston ring are lubricated by the oil spray.
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Oil pressure gauge
Main
Connecting bearing
rod bearing
Header line
Oil pump
Oil strainer
Fig. 5.10.3. Pressure feed system.
iii. Dry Sump Lubrication System :
1. Dry sump lubricating system is used for high capacity engines.
2. In this system, a separate storage supply tank is used at outside the
engine cylinder block.
3. The lubricating oil is fed into the supply tank from the sump by mean of
the pump through the filter.
4. Oil from storage tank is pumped to the various part of the engine.
5. Oil dripping from the cylinder and bearing into the sump is removed by
a scavenging pump which is further supplied to the storage tank through
filter.
Vent
Pressure
To bearing relief valve
Oil cooler
Supply tank
Oil pump
Engine crankcase
Filter by-pass
pressure relief valve
Dry sump
Filter
Strainer
Scavenging pump
Fig. 5.10.4. Dry sump lubrication system.
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Que 5.11. What are the different types of lubricants ?
Answer
Different types of lubricants are given below :
A. Oils : There are the various lubricating oils which are discussed as
below :
i. Mineral Lubricating Oils : These are obtained from the residual
mass left during crude petroleum distillation.
ii. Fatty Oils : The fatty oils exhibit poor keeping quality and undergo
decomposition. Fatty oils however, exhibit more oiliness than
mineral oils of the same viscosity.
iii. Synthetic Lubricants : These are called synthetic because they
are not obtained directly from petroleum.
B. Grease :
1. Lubricating grease is a solid to semi-solid dispersion of a thickening
agent in liquid lubricant.
2. Greases are normally used under condition of lubrication for which oil is
not suitable or convenient. Greases perform better than oils under
conditions requiring :
i. High bearing loads and shock loads.
ii. Slow journal speed.
iii. Temperature extremes.
iv. A seal against external contaminants.
v. Large bearing clearances.
Answer
Properties of lubricant which affect the engine performance are :
i. Viscosity : It is the ability of the oil to resist internal deformation due to
mechanical stresses and hence it is a measure of the ability of the oil film
to carry a load.
ii. Viscosity Index : The rate of change of viscosity with temperature is
called viscosity index.
iii. Pour Point : It is the lowest temperature at which the lubricating oil
will pour. It is an indication of its ability to move at low temperatures.
iv. Stability : It is the ability of oil to resist oxidation that would yield acids,
lacquers and sludge. It demands low temperature (under 90 °C) operation
and the removal of all hot areas from contact with the oil.
v. Flash Point : The flash point of an oil is the lowest temperature that
allows inflammable vapours to be formed.
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vi. Fire Point : It is the lowest temperature at which the oil will burn
continuously.
vii. Specific Gravity : It is a measure of density of oil. It varies in between
0.85 to 0.96.
viii. Corrosiveness : Oil should be free from corrosive property.
ix. Oiliness : This is the property which enables oil to spread over and
adhere to the surface of the bearing.
Que 5.13. State the functions of lubricants in IC engine. Also
describe different types of lubrication system used in IC engine.
AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
A. Functions of Lubricants :
1. To reduce the friction between the parts having relative motion.
2. To cool the surfaces by carrying away the heat generated due to friction.
3. To clean the engine part by washing away the carbon and metal particles.
4. To form a good seal between piston rings and cylinder walls.
5. To reduce the wear of moving engine part.
B. Types of Lubrication System : Refer Q. 5.10, Page 5–13F, Unit-5.
Answer
A. Crankcase Ventilation :
1. A crankcase ventilation system is a one way passage for gases to escape
in a controlled manner from the crankcase of an internal combustion
engine.
Carburetor Air cleaner
Air intake
Fresh air line
PCV
Valve
Combustion
chamber
Blow-by gases
PART-3
Ignition System in SI Engine : Ignition System Requirements,
Magneto and Battery Ignition Systems, Ignition Timing and
Spark Plug, Electronic Ignition.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Ignition System : It is that part of the electrical system which carries
the electrical current to spark plug where the spark necessary to
ignite the fuel-air mixture in the combustion chamber is produced.
Types of Ignition System used in SI Engines :
1. Battery ignition system,
2. Magneto ignition system, and
3. Electronic ignition system.
Ignition Timing : It is the correct instant for the introduction of
spark near the end of compression stroke in the cycle.
Spark Plug : The function of the spark plug is to provide a gap in
the combustion chamber for the discharge of a high voltage electric
pulse that will ignite the air-fuel mixture at the desired point in the
cycle.
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Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Need of Ignition System in SI Engine : In SI engine, compression
ratio is lower and self ignition temperature of the gasoline is higher. So,
for igniting the mixture for initiation of combustion, an ignition system
is must.
B. Constructional Layout of Battery Ignition Systems :
1. In battery ignition system, we generally used the battery of 6 V or 12 V.
2. The ignition system has to transfer the normal battery voltage of 6 V or
12 V to 20,000 V or 25,000 V for ignition of spark between the electrodes
of spark plug.
3. In Fig. 5.15.1, ignition system for a 4 stroke, 4 cylinder spark ignition
engine is shown. It has the following component :
S
Ignition coil Distributor
2
P 4 1
R1 Ballast Rotor
Ignition 3
SW 1
switch
C
Cam
Battery
Contact breaker
SW 2
Spark
plug
Capacitor
Answer
A. Ignition Timing :
1. Ignition timing is the correct instant for the introduction of spark near
the end of compression stroke in the cycle. The ignition timing is fixed to
obtain maximum power from the engine.
2. The correct instant for the introduction of a spark is mainly determined
by the ignition lag.
B. Factors Affecting Ignition Timing :
1. Compression ratio,
2. Engine speed,
3. Mixture strength,
4. Combustion chamber design,
5. Throttle opening,
6. Engine temperature, and
7. Type of fuel.
Que 5.19. What is the main function of a spark plug ? Draw a neat
Terminal
Stud
Cement
Ceramic insulator
Centre electrode
Sillment seals
Rust resistant shell
Attached gasket
Core nose
Earth or side wire
Spark gap
Fig. 5.19.1. Construction of a typical spark plug.
Answer
A. Electronic Ignition System : There are two types of electronic ignition
systems as follows :
i. Transistorised Coil Ignition System (TCI System) :
1. Circuit diagram of TCI system is shown in Fig. 5.20.1.
2. In this type of system, the contact breaker and the cam assembly of
conventional system is replaced by a magnetic pulse generating system
which detects the position of the distributor shaft and send electrical
pulse to an electronic control module.
S
High voltage
Ignition coil to distributor
P
I R 1 Ballast resistance
Ignition
switch E Emitter
1/
Transistor
B R2
Battery Cam
SW2
Contact
breaker
SCR
DC to DC triggering SCR
converter circuit
–
P S
Battery
+
Ignition coil
Que 5.21. Make comparison between TCI and CDI ignition system.
Engine Cooling & Lubrication 5–26 F (ME-Sem-5)
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Answer
Difference between TCI and CDI are as follows :
S. No. Transistor Assisted Capacitor Discharge
1. These use a very small current This system contains a capacitor
through the points to switch a system that sends a small
power transistor ON and OFF amount of voltage into a coil and
and the power transisto r the coil acts like a transformer
supplies a normal 12 volts to the and magnifies the power of the
coil. voltage.
2. It provides faster switching than This provides a thinner but
sparking points so coil much hotter spark which will
performance is little better. light a weak or rich mixture, so
we get easier starting, and also
slightly better economy, and the
plugs last longer.
3. Simple circuit, hence cheaper. Circuit is complex, he nce
expensive.
4. It provides improved HT voltage Mechanically operated contact
and more accurate timing, but breakers does not exists hence
most of the limitations of the the system is highly efficient.
mechanically operated contact
breakers still exist.
Answer
PART-4
Recent Trends in IC Engine : Lean Burn Engine, Stratified
Charge Spark Ignition Engine, Homogeneous Charge Spark
Ignition Engine, GDI.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
GDI : It is a technology used to improve specific power of the engine,
which in turn improves fuel economy.
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Lean burn engines use an air-fuel mixture with more air than is required
to burn all of the fuel. The extra air dilutes the mixture and reduces the
flame temperature, thus reducing engine out NOx emissions and exhaust
temperatures.
2. Because of reduced heat losses and various thermodynamic advantages,
lean burn engines are generally 10 to 20 percent more efficient than
stoichiometric engines.
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3. Without turbocharging, however, the power output of a lean burn engine
is less than that of a stoichiometric engine. With turbocharging the
situation is reversed.
4. Because lean mixtures knock less readily, lean burn engines can be
designed for higher levels of turbocharger boost than stoichiometric
engines and thus can achieve higher power output.
5. The lower temperatures experienced in these engines also contribute to
longer engine life and reliability. For these reasons, most heavy duty
natural gas engines are of the lean burn design.
Answer
1. It is an engine which is mid-way between the homogeneous charge
spark ignition engine and the heterogeneous charge compression ignition
engine.
2. Stratified charge engine which combines the advantages of both petrol
and diesel engines and at the same time avoids as far as possible their
disadvantages.
3. Charge stratification means providing different fuel-air mixture strengths
at various places in the combustion chamber.
4. That is, the whole fuel-air mixture is distributed in layers or stratas of
different mixture strengths across the combustion chamber while the
overall mixture is rather lean.
5. Thus, the stratified charge engine is usually defined as a spark ignition
internal combustion engine in which the mixture in the zone of spark
plug is very much richer than that in the rest of the combustion chamber.
Answer
Following are some general characteristics of stratified charge engine :
1. All types of stratified charge engines have good part load efficiency
while the full load performance is either equivalent to the petrol engine
or slightly inferior.
2. Almost all stratification processes have inherent in them some degree
of knock resistance, smooth combustion, and multi-fuel capability.
Depending upon the particular design, it can operate on low octane
gasoline or a range of quality down to diesel fuel and kerosene.
3. The volumetric efficiency of the unthrottled engines is higher than that
of the carburetted engines.
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4. The exhaust emission characteristics of most of the stratification schemes
are good.
Answer
A. Advantages of Stratified Charge Engine :
1. It can tolerate a wide quality of fuels.
2. It has low exhaust emission levels.
3. It can be manufactured by the existing technology.
B. Disadvantages of Stratified Charge Engine :
1. Charge stratification results in reduced power for a given engine size.
2. It has a higher weight than that of a conventional engine.
3. Its manufacture is more complex and hence, its manufacturing cost is
higher.
4. Its reliability is yet to be well established.
Answer
A. Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) :
1. Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is a form of internal
combustion in which well-mixed fuel and oxidizer are compressed to the
point of auto-ignition.
2. As in other forms of combustion, this exothermic reaction releases energy
that can be transformed in an engine into work and heat.
3. HCCI combines characteristics of conventional gasoline engine and diesel
engines. Gasoline engines combine homogeneous charge (HC) with
spark ignition (SI), abbreviated as HCSI.
4. As in HCSI, HCCI injects fuel during the intake stroke. However, rather
than using an electric discharge (spark) to ignite a portion of the mixture,
HCCI raises density and temperature by compression until the entire
mixture reacts spontaneously.
B. Advantages of HCCI :
1. Since HCCI engines are fuel lean, they can operate at diesel like
compression ratios (>15), thus achieving 30% higher efficiencies than
conventional SI gasoline engines.
2. HCCI engines can operate on gasoline, diesel fuel, and most alternative
fuels.
3. HCCI avoids throttle losses, which further improves efficiency.
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C. Disadvantages of HCCI :
1. High heat release and pressure rise rates contribute to engine wear.
2. Autoignition is difficult to control, unlike the ignition event in SI and
diesel engines, which are controlled by spark plugs and in cylinder fuel
injectors, respectively.
3. HCCI engines have a small power range, constrained at low loads by
lean flammability limits and high loads by in cylinder pressure restrictions.
Answer
1. Gasoline direct injection (GDI), also known as petrol direct injection
(PDI) is a mixture formation system for internal combustion engines
that run on gasoline.
2. Gasoline direct injection engines generate the air-fuel mixture in the
combustion chamber.
3. During the induction stroke, only the combustion air flows through the
open intake valve.
4. The fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber by special fuel
injectors.
5. The use of GDI can help increase engine efficiency and specific power
output as well as reduce exhaust emissions.
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants SQ–1 F (ME-Sem-5)
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1 Introduction to
IC Engines
(2 Marks Questions)
1.1. Write the formula for efficiency of Otto and diesel cycle.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
A. Efficiency of Otto Cycle :
1
= 1–
r 1
B. Efficiency of Diesel Cycle :
1 1
= 1–
r 1 1
1.2. State two differences between two stroke and four stroke
engines. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
OR
Differentiate between two stroke and four stroke engines.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans.
S. No. Two Stroke Engine Four Stroke Engine
1. Cycle is completed in two Cycle is completed in four stroke of
stroke of the piston or one the piston or two revolution of the
revolution of the crankshaft. crankshaft.
2. It contains ports. It contains valves.
3
Pressure
Exhaust 4 Atmospheric
5
Suction 1 line
Volume
B. Actual p-v Diagram of Four Stroke Diesel Cycle :
3
2
Pressure
Exhaust 4 Atmospheric
5
Suction 1 line
Volume
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1.6. Draw p-v and T-s diagram for air standard Ericsson cycle.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
p
T
QS
3 Is 3
2 ex ot h 4
pa e r Constant
n s ma Constant
Iso pre
pressure
co
io l pressure
n
th ssi
m
er
m on
4 2
al
1 1
QR
v s
(a) ( b)
1. We know that,
2 NTb p LANK 10
BP = = bm
60 1000 6
pbm 0.125 0.1 0.1 1 10
2 490 4
=
60 1000 6
( K = 1, for 2 stroke engine)
pbm = 31.36 N/m2
1.10. Give the value of compression ratio for Otto cycle, Diesel
cycle and Dual cycle. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
Ans.
1. Compression ratio for Otto cycle is 6 to 10.
2. Compression ratio for Diesel cycle is 16 to 20.
3. Compression ratio for Dual cycle is 12 to 16.
1.11. Draw p-v and T-s diagram for Otto, diesel and dual cycle.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans.
A. p-v and T-s Diagram for Otto Cycle :
p T v = Constant
3 3
Qin
Qin
2 4 2 4
Qout
Qout
1 1
v = Constant
v s
(a) p -v diagram. (b) T-s diagram.
Fig. 1.11.1.
p Q1 T
3
2 3
Constant
Reversible pressure
adiabatic
Qin
pv = C
4
2
4 Qout
Q2 1 Constant
1 volume
v s
(a) p-v diagram. (b) T-s diagram.
Fig. 1.11.2.
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C. p-v and T-s Diagram for Dual Cycle :
3 QS 4 Constant volume
Constant pressure
QS 4
3
T
p 2 5
se 2
5
I
nt e
ro
pic
QR
vo l um
pro 1 t a nt
ce ss 1 C on s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 1.11.3. Dual cycle.
2 Marks Questions SQ–6 F (ME-Sem-5)
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2 Combustion
(2 Marks Questions)
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants SQ–9 F (ME-Sem-5)
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3 Carburetion and
Fuel Injection
(2 Marks Questions)
2 Marks Questions SQ–12 F (ME-Sem-5)
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4 Engine Emission
and Control
(2 Marks Questions)
4.10. What is the significance of octane no. and cetane no. for the
different fuels ? AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
Ans. Significance of Octane Number : At higher octane number, the
engine can be supercharged to high output without detonation.
Significance of Cetane Number : Higher the cetane number of
the fuel lesser is the propensity for diesel knock.
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants SQ–15 F (ME-Sem-5)
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IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants SP–1 F (ME-Sem-5)
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B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2015-16
IC ENGINES AND COMPRESSORS
Section – A
1. Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. State two differences between two stroke and four stroke
engines.
g. Draw p-v and T-s diagram for air standard Ericsson cycle.
Section-B
pi = pd ps
Where, ps = Suction pressure.
pd = Delivery pressure.
Section-C
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2015-16)
Section – A
1. Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. State two differences between two stroke and four stroke
engines.
Ans.
S. No. Two Stroke Engine Four Stroke Engine
1. Cycle is completed in two Cycle is completed in four stroke of
stroke of the piston or one the piston or two revolution of the
revolution of the crankshaft. crankshaft.
2. It contains ports. It contains valves.
g. Draw p-v and T-s diagram for air standard Ericsson cycle.
Ans.
p
T
QS
3 Is 3
2 e x ot h 4
pa e r Constant
n s ma Constant
I so p r e
pressure
co
io l pressure
n
th ssi
m
er
m on
4 2
al
1 1
QR
v s
(a) ( b)
Fig. 1. Ericsson cycle.
Section-B
3 Constant pressure 3
3 2 3
2 3
2
p 2 3 T
4 4
4 4 4
4
1 1
Constant volume
Isentropic process
v 5 s 6 6 6
(a) (b )
Fig. 2. Same compression ratio and heat input.
b. Same Maximum Pressure and Temperature :
2 3
Constant 3
pressure
2
nt
p T 2 st a
Is e 2 C on m e
nt r u
opi 4 vol
cp 4
ro c
ess 1 1
Constant volume
v s 6 5
( a) (b )
Fig. 3. Same maximum pressure and temperature.
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1. In Fig. 3, Otto and diesel cycle are shown on p-v and T-s diagram
as :
Otto cycle : 1-2-3-4
Diesel cycle : 1-2-3-4
2. Efficiency of Otto and diesel cycle is given as,
QR
Otto = 1
Qs
QR
Diesel = 1
Qs
3. From the T-s diagram, it is clear that
QS > QS
(Heat supplied)Diesel > (Heat supplied)Otto
4. So, diesel cycle efficiency is greater than Otto cycle.
5. From above analysis, we can conclude that
Diesel > Dual > Otto
rel = th
air
th = air × rel
th = 0.52 × 0.70 = 0.364
BP
3. Brake thermal efficiency bth =
mf C
BP
mf =
thC
72
=
0.364 45200
mf = 4.376 × 10– 3 kg/sec
= 15.75 kg/hr
mf
4. Brake specific fuel consumption, bsfc =
BP
15.75
= = 0.21875 kg/kW-hr
72
ma 16
5. =
mf 1
ma = 16 mf = 16 × 4.376 × 10–3 kg/sec
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ma = 70.016 × 10–3 kg/sec
6. Volumetric efficiency,
ma
vol =
aVs Nn
70.016 10 3
0.78 =
2400
1.15 D2 L 4
4 60
2 –3
D L = 0.6211 × 10
1.25 D3 = 0.6211 × 10–3 [ L = 1.25 D]
D = 0.0792 m = 79.2 mm
L = 1.25 D
Stroke length, L = 1.25 × 79.2 = 99 mm
nt e
m
ro QR ol u
pic v
pro 1 t a nt
ce ss 1 C on s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 4. Dual cycle.
4. For dual cycle,
Total heat supplied =Heat supplied at constant volume (2-3) + Heat
supplied at constant pressure (3-4)
= Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp(T4 – T3)
Heat rejection =Heat rejected at constant volume in process
(5-1)
= Cv(T5 – T1)
5. Thermal efficiency,
Total heat supplied Heat rejected
=
Total heat supplied
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Cv (T3 T2 ) C p (T4 T3 ) Cv (T5 T1 )
=
Cv (T3 T2 ) C p (T4 T3 )
= 1
(T5 T1 ) C p
...(1)
(T3 T2 ) (T4 T3 ) Cv
1
v
6. We know that,T2 = T1 1 T1 r 1
v2
(r = Compression ratio = v1/v2)
p 1
T3 = T2 3 T1 r ( = Pressure ratio = p3/p2)
p2
v4
T4 = T3 = T1 r 1 ( = Cut-off ratio = v4/v3)
v3
1 1
v v
Also, T5 = T4 4 T1 r 1 4
v5 v5
v4 v vv vv
= 4 4 3 4 2 ( v5 = v1 and v2 = v3)
v5 v1 v3v1 v3 v1
v4
=
v5 r
7. Substituting all these values in eq. (1), we get
1
v
T1 r 1 4 T1
v5
= 1
(T1 r 1 T1 r 1 ) (T1 r 1 T1 r 1)
1 1
= 1
r 1 ( 1) ( 1)
Radiator core
Cylinder water
jacket Lower hose
connection Lower tank
Terminal
Stud
Cement
Ceramic insulator
Centre electrode
Sillment seals
Rust resistant shell
Attached gasket
Core nose
Earth or side wire
Spark gap
Section-C
Cylinder
Mechanical
HP HP linkage
fuel fuel cylinder
LP fuel
70
1 2 3 4
Pressure, bar
60
Start of combustion Compression pressure
50
Injection starts B
40 Motoring
0.001 sec (non-firing)
30
20 Injection
10
Atmospheric
0
120 100 80 60 40 20 TDC 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time, degrees of crankshaft rotation
Fig. 8. Stages of combustion in the CI engine.
1. In this part, chemical reaction increases the temperature of mixture
till the mixture attains the self ignition temperature after which
ignition takes place.
2. Generally, chemical delay is longer than the physical delay.
ii. Second Stage (Rapid or Uncontrolled Combustion) :
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1. The rate of combustion is very high during the delay period, sufficient
fuel droplets have accumulated in fuel cylinder and they are ready
to ignite.
2. Stage II starts from point B, and ends at the maximum pressure
point of p- curve.
iii. Third Stage (Controlled Combustion) :
1. At the end of second stage of combustion, the temperature and
pressure are so high that the fuel droplets injected in the third
stage burn almost as they enter and any further pressure rise can
be controlled by purely mechanical means, i.e., by the injection
rate.
2. The period of controlled combustion is assumed to end at maximum
cycle temperature.
3. The heat evolved by the end of controlled combustion is about 70 to
80 percent.
iv. Fourth Stage (After Burning) :
1. The combustion continues even after the fuel injection is over,
because of poor distribution of fuel particles. This burning may
continue in the expansion stroke upto 70 to 80 degree of crank
travel from TDC. This continued burning called the after burning.
2. Here some energy is released because of the reassociation reaction
taking place during the burning of fuel.
B. Stages of Combustion in SI Engine : Combustion phenomenon
in SI engine can be described in following three stages :
Stage I : Ignition Lag or Preparation Phase :
1. Ignition lag is the time lag between the first ignition of fuel and
beginning of the main phase of combustion.
Pressure
c
Expansion
Compression b
d
a TDC
0° 180° 360°
Crank angle
Fig. 9. Theoretical p- diagram.
2. A is the point of spark, stage I is assumed to be beginning at this
moment.
3. Stage I is sort of preparatory phase where the surrounding mixture
temperature is increased by heat transfer from the flame and by
certain chemical reactions.
4. The end of phase I is marked as point B.
5. Point B is obtained as the point where p- curve for combustion
process depart from the normal motoring curve.
6. In motoring test, the spark plug is deactivated and engine is driven
by a motor. So, the pressure variation is the same as if there was no
combustion process.
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30 I II III
Pressure, bar C
20
I = Ignition lag
II = Flame propagation
Spark III = After burning
10
B
A
Motoring
(Non-firing)
80 60 40 20 8 TDC 20 40 60 80
Crank angle,
Fig. 10. Stage of combustion in SI engine.
Stage II : Flame Propagation :
1. After the stage I, the mixture is in more ready position to be ignited
since it has absorbed heat from the flame and chemical reaction
have also increased the temperature of mixture.
2. Here the flame propagates rapidly thus consuming the mixture
and releasing energy which manifest itself in the increased
temperature and pressure.
3. End of stage II is the point C where the peak of pressure-angle
(p-) curve reached.
Stage III : After Burning :
1. After the flame propagation stage, there is some amount of energy
released due to the various reassociation reaction.
2. Because of the reassociation reaction some energy releases some
charge which could not burn during second stage, also burn in this
stage.
3. Around 10 % energy released by fuel is in the after burning stage.
Main valve
Out
Pressure
relief valve
By pass
Bellows
Water
In
Fig. 11. Thermostat.
5. When the unit is closed the gas condenses and so the pressure
falls.
6. The bellows collapse and the thermostat seats on its seat and
circulation around thermostat stops.
7. When the thermostat valve is not open and the engine is running
the water being pumped rises in pressure and causes the pressure
relief valve to open.
8. Thus the water completes its circulation through the by-pass.
70
1 2 3 4
Pressure, bar
60
Start of combustion Compression pressure
50
Injection starts B
40 Motoring
0.001 sec (non-firing)
30
20 Injection
10
Atmospheric
0
120 100 80 60 40 20 TDC 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time, degrees of crankshaft rotation
Fig. 12. Stages of combustion in the CI engine.
1. In this part, chemical reaction increases the temperature of mixture
till the mixture attains the self ignition temperature after which
ignition takes place.
2. Generally, chemical delay is longer than the physical delay.
ii. Second Stage (Rapid or Uncontrolled Combustion) :
1. The rate of combustion is very high during the delay period, sufficient
fuel droplets have accumulated in fuel cylinder and they are ready
to ignite.
2. Stage II starts from point B, and ends at the maximum pressure
point of p- curve.
iii. Third Stage (Controlled Combustion) :
1. At the end of second stage of combustion, the temperature and
pressure are so high that the fuel droplets injected in the third
stage burn almost as they enter and any further pressure rise can
be controlled by purely mechanical means, i.e., by the injection
rate.
2. The period of controlled combustion is assumed to end at maximum
cycle temperature.
3. The heat evolved by the end of controlled combustion is about 70 to
80 percent.
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iv. Fourth Stage (After Burning) :
1. The combustion continues even after the fuel injection is over,
because of poor distribution of fuel particles. This burning may
continue in the expansion stroke upto 70 to 80 degree of crank
travel from TDC. This continued burning called the after burning.
2. Here some energy is released because of the reassociation reaction
taking place during the burning of fuel.
C. Stages of Combustion in SI Engine : Combustion phenomenon
in SI engine can be described in following three stages :
Stage I : Ignition Lag or Preparation Phase :
1. Ignition lag is the time lag between the first ignition of fuel and
beginning of the main phase of combustion.
Pressure
c
Expansion
Compression b
d
a TDC
0° 180° 360°
Crank angle
Fig. 13. Theoretical p- diagram.
2. A is the point of spark, stage I is assumed to be beginning at this
moment.
3. Stage I is sort of preparatory phase where the surrounding mixture
temperature is increased by heat transfer from the flame and by
certain chemical reactions.
4. The end of phase I is marked as point B.
30 I II III
C
Pressure, bar
20
I = Ignition lag
II = Flame propagation
Spark III = After burning
10
B
A
Motoring
(Non-firing)
80 60 40 20 8 TDC 20 40 60 80
Crank angle,
Fig. 14. Stage of combustion in SI engine.
5. Point B is obtained as the point where p- curve for combustion
process depart from the normal motoring curve.
6. In motoring test, the spark plug is deactivated and engine is driven
by a motor. So, the pressure variation is the same as if there was no
combustion process.
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Stage II : Flame Propagation :
1. After the stage I, the mixture is in more ready position to be ignited
since it has absorbed heat from the flame and chemical reaction
have also increased the temperature of mixture.
2. Here the flame propagates rapidly thus consuming the mixture
and releasing energy which manifest itself in the increased
temperature and pressure.
3. End of stage II is the point C where the peak of pressure-angle
(p-) curve reached.
Stage III : After Burning :
1. After the flame propagation stage, there is some amount of energy
released due to the various reassociation reaction.
2. Because of the reassociation reaction some energy releases some
charge which could not burn during second stage, also burn in this
stage.
3. Around 10 % energy released by fuel is in the after burning stage.
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants SP–1 F (ME-Sem-5)
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B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2016-17
IC ENGINES AND COMPRESSORS
Section – A
Note : Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. Define compression ratio.
Section – B
Section – C
Note : Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)
10. a. Explain the significance of fuel air cycle. (5)
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2016-17)
Section – A
Note : Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
Section – B
Throttle valve
Fuel from
Vent Strainer pump
Needle
Venturi valve
h
Float
Nozzle
(discharge jet)
Spark
plug
Capacitor
Distributor
Cam Ignition coil
Breaker points
Fig. 2. High tension magneto ignition system.
70
1 2 3 4
Pressure, bar
60
Start of combustion Compression pressure
50
Injection starts B
40 Motoring
0.001 sec (non-firing)
30
20 Injection
10
Atmospheric
0
120 100 80 60 40 20 TDC 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time, degrees of crankshaft rotation
Fig. 3. Stages of combustion in the CI engine.
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1. In this part, chemical reaction increases the temperature of mixture
till the mixture attains the self ignition temperature after which
ignition takes place.
2. Generally, chemical delay is longer than the physical delay.
ii. Second Stage (Rapid or Uncontrolled Combustion) :
1. The rate of combustion is very high during the delay period, sufficient
fuel droplets have accumulated in fuel cylinder and they are ready
to ignite.
2. Stage II starts from point B, and ends at the maximum pressure
point of p- curve.
iii. Third Stage (Controlled Combustion) :
1. At the end of second stage of combustion, the temperature and
pressure are so high that the fuel droplets injected in the third
stage burn almost as they enter and any further pressure rise can
be controlled by purely mechanical means, i.e., by the injection
rate.
2. The period of controlled combustion is assumed to end at maximum
cycle temperature.
3. The heat evolved by the end of controlled combustion is about 70 to
80 percent.
iv. Fourth Stage (After Burning) :
1. The combustion continues even after the fuel injection is over,
because of poor distribution of fuel particles. This burning may
continue in the expansion stroke upto 70 to 80 degree of crank
travel from TDC. This continued burning called the after burning.
2. Here some energy is released because of the reassociation reaction
taking place during the burning of fuel.
Cylinder
Mechanical
HP HP linkage
fuel fuel cylinder
LP fuel
78 120 103
Brake torque, T = = 465.528 N-m
2 3200
Section – C
Note : Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)
10. a. Explain the significance of fuel air cycle. (5)
Ans.
1. The air standard cycle shows the general effect of only compression
ratio on engine efficiency whereas the fuel-air cycle may be
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calculated for various fuel air ratios, inlet pressures and
temperatures.
2. A good estimate of the power to be expected from the actual engine
can be made from fuel-air cycle analysis.
3. With the help of fuel-air cycle analysis, peak pressures and exhaust
temperatures can be very closely approximated which affect the
engine structure and design.
4. The effect of many engine variables can be understood better by
fuel-air cycle analysis.
3 Constant pressure 3
3 2 3
2 3
2
p 2 3 T
4 4
4 4 4
4
1 1
Constant volume
Isentropic process
v 5 s 6 6 6
(a) (b )
Fig. 5. Same compression ration and heat input.
ii. Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection :
1. In Fig. 6, Otto and diesel cycle are shown. Efficiency of both the
cycle is given as,
Q
Otto = 1 R
QS
QR
Diesel = 1
QS
2. QS is heat supplied in Otto cycle and equal to the area under the
curve 2 3 on T-s diagram.
3. QS is heat supplied in diesel cycle and equal to the area under the
curve 2 3 on T-s diagram.
4. From T-s diagram, it is clear that,
QS > QS
(Heat supplied)Otto cyle > (Heat supplied) Diesel cycle
5. So, efficiency of Otto cycle is greater than that of diesel cycle and
we can conclude that,
Otto > Dual > Diesel
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3
3
3'
2 3'
p T
2 4
4
1 1 e
olum
Isentropic process tant v
Con s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 6. Same compression ratio and heat rejection.
iii. Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection
:
2 3
Constant 3
pressure
2 t
n
p T 2 st a
Is e 2 C on m e
nt r u
opi 4 vol
cp 4
ro c
ess 1 1
Constant volume
v s 6 5
( a) (b )
Fig. 7. Same peak pressure, temperature and heat rejection.
1. In Fig. 7, Otto and diesel cycle are shown on p-v and T-s diagram
as :
Otto cycle : 1-2-3-4
Diesel cycle : 1-2-3-4
2. Efficiency of Otto and diesel cycle is given as,
QR
Otto = 1
Qs
QR
Diesel = 1
Qs
3. From the T-s diagram, it is clear that
QS > QS
(Heat supplied)Diesel > (Heat supplied)Otto
4. So, diesel cycle efficiency is greater than Otto cycle.
5. From above analysis, we can conclude that
Diesel > Dual > Otto
iv. Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input :
1. In Fig. 8, Otto and Diesel cycle are shown on p-v and T-s diagram
as :
Otto cycle : 1-2-3-4-1
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Diesel cycle : 1-2-3-4-1
2. From Fig. 8(b), it is clear that
(Heat rejection)Otto > (Heat rejection)Diesel
3. So, diesel cycle will be more efficient, but one should make note
that cycle having more efficiency have more expansion. So, diesel
cycle efficiency is more and Otto cycle efficiency is least.
4. From this analysis, we can conclude that
Diesel> Dual > Otto
2 3
3 3
Isentropic Constant 3
process pressure
p T 2
4
4 2
Isentropic 2 4
process 1 4
Constant 1
volume
v 5 s 6 6
( a) (b )
Fig. 8. Same maximum pressure and heat input.
Expansion
Compression b
d
a TDC
0° 180° 360°
Crank angle
Fig. 9. Theoretical p- diagram.
3. Stage I is sort of preparatory phase where the surrounding mixture
temperature is increased by heat transfer from the flame and by
certain chemical reactions.
4. The end of phase I is marked as point B.
5. Point B is obtained as the point where p- curve for combustion
process depart from the normal motoring curve.
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6. In motoring test, the spark plug is deactivated and engine is driven
by a motor. So, the pressure variation is the same as if there was no
combustion process.
30 I II III
C
Pressure, bar
20
I = Ignition lag
II = Flame propagation
Spark III = After burning
10
B
A
Motoring
(Non-firing)
80 60 40 20 8 TDC 20 40 60 80
Crank angle,
Fig. 10. Stage of combustion in SI engine.
Stage II : Flame Propagation :
1. After the stage I, the mixture is in more ready position to be ignited
since it has absorbed heat from the flame and chemical reaction
have also increased the temperature of mixture.
2. Here the flame propagates rapidly thus consuming the mixture
and releasing energy which manifest itself in the increased
temperature and pressure.
3. End of stage II is the point C where the peak of pressure-angle
(p-) curve reached.
Stage III : After Burning :
1. After the flame propagation stage, there is some amount of energy
released due to the various reassociation reaction.
2. Because of the reassociation reaction some energy releases some
charge which could not burn during second stage, also burn in this
stage.
3. Around 10 % energy released by fuel is in the after burning stage.
Cooling fins
Lower
Water pump
tank
Drain tap
Fig. 13. Water cooling system.
2. A water jacket is provided around the cylinder wall and cylinder
head ports in which water is circulated for extracting the heat from
engine part.
3. The water becomes heated in its passage through the jacket and is
cooled by means of air cooled radiator system.
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4. For ease of cold starting, some antifreeze solutions are added to
water.
B. Lubrication Systems : Various lubrication systems used in IC
engines are as follows :
i. Mist Lubrication System :
1. This system is used for two stroke cycle engines. In two stroke
engine, as the charge is compressed in crankcase so it is not possible
to have the lubricating oil in the sump.
2. In this system, 2 to 3 percent lubricating oil is added in fuel tank.
3. The oil and fuel mixture is inducted through the carburetor.
4. The gasoline is vaporized and oil in the form of mist goes via
crankcase into the cylinder.
5. The oil which impinges on the crankcase walls lubricates the main
and connecting rod bearing and rest of the oil which pass on the
cylinder during charging and scavenging periods lubricates the
piston, piston rings and cylinder.
ii. Wet Sump Lubrication System :
1. In wet sump lubrication system, the bottom part of the crankcase
known as sump contains the lubricating oil.
2. From the sump lubricating oil is supplied to various part of the
engine.
3. Following are the three types of wet sump lubricating system :
a. Splash System :
1. In Fig. 14, a splash system is shown. This type of system is used in
light duty engines.
Oil pressure gauge
Camshaft
Main
bearing
Lower oil pan Oil troughs
Cam shaft
Main bearing
Oil jet
directed at
dip on rod
Oil pump
Oil strainer
Fig. 15. Splash and pressure system.
c. Pressure Feed System :
1. This system is used for engines which are exposed to high load.
2. In this system, an oil pump is used for lubricating all part of cylinder.
Oil pressure gauge
Main
Connecting bearing
rod bearing
Header line
Oil pump
Oil strainer
Fig. 16. Pressure feed system.
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3. Oil is delivered by pressure pump at pressure ranging from 1.5 to
4 bar. The oil under pressure is supplied to main bearings of
crankshaft and camshaft.
4. An oil hole is drilled in crankshaft bearing to supply the oil to big
end and small end bearing of the connecting rod.
5. The cylinder wall, piston, piston ring are lubricated by the oil spray.
iii. Dry Sump Lubrication System :
1. Dry sump lubricating system is used for high capacity engines.
2. In this system, a separate storage supply tank is used at outside the
engine cylinder block.
3. The lubricating oil is fed into the supply tank from the sump by
mean of the pump through the filter.
4. Oil from storage tank is pumped to the various part of the engine.
5. Oil dripping from the cylinder and bearing into the sump is removed
by a scavenging pump which is further supplied to the storage tank
through filter.
Vent
Pressure
To bearing relief valve
Oil cooler
Supply tank
Oil pump
Engine crankcase
Filter by-pass
pressure relief valve
Dry sump
Filter
Strainer
Scavenging pump
Fig. 17. Dry sump lubrication system.
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B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2017-18
IC ENGINES AND COMPRESSORS
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data, then choose
suitably.
Section-A
Section-B
Section-C
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2017-18)
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data, then choose
suitably.
Section-A
3
Pressure
Exhaust 4 Atmospheric
5
Suction 1 line
Volume
Fig. 1.
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B. Actual p-v Diagram of Four Stroke Diesel Cycle :
3
2
Pressure
Exhaust 4 Atmospheric
5
Suction 1 line
Volume
Fig. 2.
1. We know that,
2 NTb p LANK 10
BP = = bm
60 1000 6
pbm 0.125 0.1 0.1 1 10
2 490 4
=
60 1000 6
( K = 1, for 2 stroke engine)
pbm = 31.36 N/m2
Section-B
Pre chamber
Orifice
Piston
Fig. 5. Pre combustion chamber.
iv. Air-Cell Chamber :
1. In this type of combustion chamber, induced swirl is used.
Inlet and Two-part energy cell
exhaust valves
Cylinder
head
Cylinder
Piston
Two-lobed main combustion chamber
Expansion
Compression b
d
a TDC
0° 180° 360°
Crank angle
Fig. 7. Theoretical p- diagram.
B. Effect of Engine Variables on Ignition Lag :
i. Fuel : The higher the self-ignition temperature of the fuel used,
the longer the ignition lag.
ii. Mixture Ratio : The ignition lag is minimum for a mixture ratio
that gives the maximum temperature. This air fuel ratio is slightly
richer than the stoichiometric ratio.
iii. Initial Temperature and Pressure : Ignition lag decreases with
increase in temperature and pressure at the time of spark.
iv. Advancing the Spark or Electrode Gap : Advancing the spark
means giving the spark earlier than the present point. Advancing
the spark reduces the ignition lag since the piston compresses the
burning gases.
3
3
3'
2 3'
p T
2 4
4
1 1 e
olum
Isentropic process
o n s tant v
C
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 9. Same compression ratio and heat rejection.
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5. So, efficiency of Otto cycle is greater than that of diesel cycle and
we can conclude that,
Otto > Dual > Diesel
P1v1 1
1 (r 1) ( 1)
pm =
(v1 v2 )
p1v1 p1v1
[(r 1 1) ( 1)] [(r 1 1) ( 1)]
1 1
= =
v 1
v1 1 v1 1
r r
p T v = Constant
3 3
Qin
Qin
2 4 2 4
Qout
Qout
1 1
v = Constant
v s
(a) Otto cycle on p-v diagram. ( b) Otto cycle on T- s diagram.
Fig. 10.
p r [(r 1 1) ( 1)]
= 1
( 1) ( r 1)
p1 r r 1 th ( 1) 1
= th 1 1
( 1) (r 1) r
p
th p1 r 3 1
p2 p3 p4
=
( 1) ( r 1) p2 p1
p p2
th p2 3
p2 p2
= r
( 1) ( r 1) p1
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th p
pm =
( 1) (r 1)
Section-C
Radiator core
Cylinder water
jacket Lower hose
connection Lower tank
160
120
80
40
0
20 40 60 80 100
Volume evaporated (%)
Fig. 12. Typical distillation curves of gasoline.
ii. Hot Starting :
1. Hot starting is given on the other side of the distillation curve.
2. If the front end volatility of the fuel is made excessively low to give
good cold starting, the amount of fuel evaporating and so going into
the intake manifold under hot shut down conditions is high and the
mixture formed is too rich to ignite causing hot starting problem.
iii. Warm Up :
1. As the engine warm up, the temperature increase to the operating
temperature, low distillation temperature are desirable for best
warm up throughout the range of distillation curve.
iv. Vapour Lock :
1. When the rate of vapourization is too great it can upset the
carburetor metering or even stop the fuel flow to the engine by
setting up a vapour lock in fuel passage.
2. This characteristics demand the presence of relatively high boiling
temperature hydrocarbon throughout the distillation range.
B. Performance Number :
1. To express the rating of the fuel, which have octane number more
than 100, performance number is used.
2. It is the ratio of knock limited indicated mean effective pressure
(klimep) of test fuel to knock limited indicated mean effective
pressure of iso-octane.
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Klimep of test fuel
Performance number (PN) =
Klimep of iso-octane
C. Diesel Index :
1. The diesel index is a cheap method of predicting ignition quality.
2. The diesel index gives an indication of the ignition quality obtained
from certain physical characteristics of the fuel as opposed to an
actual determination in a test engine.
3. It is given as,
API gravity (deg)
Diesel index (DI) = Aniline point (°F) ×
100
Combustion
chamber
Blow-by gases
Ground
level
Outlet Spent
Inlet
pipe slurry
pipe
Underground
digester tank
Ground level
Biogas
Inlet Spent
chamber slurry
Outlet
chamber
Underground
digester tank
HP
fuel
LP fuel
Distributor
Accumulator
HP fuel
Nozzle body
Auxiliary hole
Fig. 19. Pintaux nozzle.
Power BP
loss
Fig. 20. Willan’s line method.
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B. Morse Test :
1. Morse test is applicable to only multicylinder engine SI or CI.
2. The engine is first run at required speed and the output is measured.
Then, one cylinder is cut out by shorting the spark plug or by
disconnecting injector.
3. Under this condition all other cylinder cut out with this cylinder.
4. The output is measured by keeping the speed constant at its original
value.
5. The difference in the output is a measure of the indicated power of
the cut out cylinder. Thus, we can find the indicated power for each
cylinder added to find the total IP of the cylinder.
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B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2018-19
IC ENGINES AND COMPRESSORS
Section-A
b. Draw p-v and T-s diagram for Otto, diesel and dual cycle.
Section-B
Section-C
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2018-19)
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data, then choose
suitably.
Section-A
b. Draw p-v and T-s diagram for Otto, diesel and dual cycle.
Ans.
A. p-v and T-s Diagram for Otto Cycle :
p T v = Constant
3 3
Qin
Qin
2 4 2 4
Qout
Qout
1 1
v = Constant
v s
(a) p -v diagram. (b) T-s diagram.
Fig. 1.
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B. p-v and T-s Diagram for Diesel Cycle :
p Q1 T
3
2 3
Constant
Reversible pressure
adiabatic Qin
pv = C
4
2
4 Qout
Q2 1 Constant
1 volume
v s
(a) p-v diagram. (b) T-s diagram.
Fig. 2.
C. p-v and T-s Diagram for Dual Cycle :
3 QS 4 Constant volume
Constant pressure
QS 4
3
T
p 2 5
se 2
5
I
nt e
ro
pic
QR
vo l um
pro 1 t a nt
ce ss 1 C on s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 3. Dual cycle.
Section-B
nt e
ro
pic
QR
vo l um
pro 1 t a nt
ce ss 1 C on s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 4. Dual cycle.
4. For dual cycle,
Total heat supplied =Heat supplied at constant volume (2-3) + Heat
supplied at constant pressure (3-4)
= Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp(T4 – T3)
Heat rejection =Heat rejected at constant volume in process
(5-1)
= Cv(T5 – T1)
5. Thermal efficiency,
Total heat supplied Heat rejected
=
Total heat supplied
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Cv (T3 T2 ) C p (T4 T3 ) Cv (T5 T1 )
=
Cv (T3 T2 ) C p (T4 T3 )
= 1
(T5 T1 ) C p
...(1)
(T3 T2 ) (T4 T3 ) Cv
1
v
6. We know that, T2 = T1 1 T1 r 1
v2
(r = Compression ratio = v1/v2)
p 1
T3 = T2 3 T1 r ( = Pressure ratio = p3/p2)
p2
v4
T4 = T3 = T1 r 1 ( = Cut-off ratio = v4/v3)
v3
1 1
v v
Also, T5 = T4 4 T1 r 1 4
v5 v5
v4 v vv vv
= 4 4 3 4 2 ( v5 = v1 and v2 = v3)
v5 v1 v3v1 v3 v1
v4
=
v5 r
7. Substituting all these values in eq. (1), we get
1
v
T1 r 1 4 T1
v5
= 1
(T1 r 1 T1 r 1 ) (T1 r 1 T1 r 1)
1 1
= 1
r 1 ( 1) ( 1)
Throttle valve
Fuel from
Vent Strainer pump
Needle
Venturi valve
h
Float
Nozzle
(discharge jet)
Pre chamber
Orifice
Piston
Fig. 8. Pre combustion chamber.
iv. Air-Cell Chamber :
1. In this type of combustion chamber, induced swirl is used.
2. In this chamber, clearance volume is divided into two parts, one is
main cylinder and other is energy cell or air-cell.
3. The energy cell has two chambers which are separated from each
other and from the main chamber by narrow orifice.
4. It has the following advantages :
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i. Short delay period. ii. Smooth running.
iii. Easy starting.
iv. Rapid mixing of air and fuel during controlled combustion stage.
Inlet and Two-part energy cell
exhaust valves
Cylinder
head
Cylinder
Piston
Two-lobed main combustion chamber
rel = th
air
th = air × rel
th = 0.52 × 0.70 = 0.364
BP
3. Brake thermal efficiency bth =
mf C
BP
mf =
thC
72
=
0.364 45200
mf = 4.376 × 10– 3 kg/sec
= 15.75 kg/hr
mf
4. Brake specific fuel consumption, bsfc =
BP
15.75
= = 0.21875 kg/kW-hr
72
ma 16
5. =
mf 1
ma = 16 mf = 16 × 4.376 × 10–3 kg/sec
ma = 70.016 × 10–3 kg/sec
6. Volumetric efficiency,
ma
vol =
aVs Nn
70.016 10 3
0.78 =
2400
1.15 D2 L 4
4 60
2
D L = 0.6211 × 10 –3
Section-C
3 Constant pressure 3
3 2 3
2 3
2
p 2 3 T
4 4
4 4 4
4
1 1
Constant volume
Isentropic process
v 5 s 6 6 6
(a) (b )
Fig. 10. Same compression ration and heat input.
ii. Same Peak Pressure and Heat Input :
1. In Fig. 11, Otto and Diesel cycle are shown on p-v and T-s diagram
as :
Otto cycle : 1-2-3-4-1
Diesel cycle : 1-2-3-4-1
2. From Fig. 11(b), it is clear that
(Heat rejection)Otto > (Heat rejection)Diesel
3. So, diesel cycle will be more efficient, but one should make note
that cycle having more efficiency have more expansion. So, diesel
cycle efficiency is more and Otto cycle efficiency is least.
4. From this analysis, we can conclude that
Diesel> Dual > Otto
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2 3
3 3
Isentropic Constant 3
process pressure
p T 2
4
4 2
Isentropic 2 4
process 1 4
1
Constant
volume
v 5 s 6 6
( a) (b )
Fig. 11. Same peak pressure and heat input.
v2 p1 1.3
p
p2
2.6
1.3
p1
v 2 v 1
70 % 30 % v
Fig. 12.
0.7 r 0.3
= 1.7
0.3r 0.7
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r = 4.68
1 1
2. Air standard efficiency = 1 – =1– = 0.46 = 46 %
r 1 4.680.4
Indicated thermal efficiency
3. Relative efficiency =
Air standard efficiency
ith = 0.5 × 0.46 = 0.23
IP
4. Now, ith =
Cm
Where m is in kg/s
m 1
= = 1.035 × 10 – 4 kg/kWs
IP 42000 0.23
= 1.035 × 10 – 4 × 3600 kg/kWh
So, fuel consumption = 0.373 kg/kWh
70
1 2 3 4
Pressure, bar
60
Start of combustion Compression pressure
50
Injection starts B
40 Motoring
0.001 sec (non-firing)
30
20 Injection
10
Atmospheric
0
120 100 80 60 40 20 TDC 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time, degrees of crankshaft rotation
Fig. 14. Stages of combustion in the CI engine.
1. In this part, chemical reaction increases the temperature of mixture
till the mixture attains the self ignition temperature after which
ignition takes place.
2. Generally, chemical delay is longer than the physical delay.
ii. Second Stage (Rapid or Uncontrolled Combustion) :
1. The rate of combustion is very high during the delay period, sufficient
fuel droplets have accumulated in fuel cylinder and they are ready
to ignite.
2. Stage II starts from point B, and ends at the maximum pressure
point of p- curve.
iii. Third Stage (Controlled Combustion) :
1. At the end of second stage of combustion, the temperature and
pressure are so high that the fuel droplets injected in the third
stage burn almost as they enter and any further pressure rise can
be controlled by purely mechanical means, i.e., by the injection
rate.
2. The period of controlled combustion is assumed to end at maximum
cycle temperature.
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3. The heat evolved by the end of controlled combustion is about 70 to
80 percent.
iv. Fourth Stage (After Burning) :
1. The combustion continues even after the fuel injection is over,
because of poor distribution of fuel particles. This burning may
continue in the expansion stroke upto 70 to 80 degree of crank
travel from TDC. This continued burning called the after burning.
2. Here some energy is released because of the reassociation reaction
taking place during the burning of fuel.
Cylinder
Mechanical
HP HP linkage
fuel fuel cylinder
LP fuel
Accumulator
HP fuel
Main valve
Out
Pressure
relief valve
By pass
Bellows
Water
In
Fig. 17. Thermostat.
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5. When the unit is closed the gas condenses and so the pressure
falls.
6. The bellows collapse and the thermostat seats on its seat and
circulation around thermostat stops.
7. When the thermostat valve is not open and the engine is running
the water being pumped rises in pressure and causes the pressure
relief valve to open.
8. Thus the water completes its circulation through the by-pass.
Power BP
loss
Fig. 18. Willan’s line method.
B. Morse Test :
1. Morse test is applicable to only multicylinder engine SI or CI.
2. The engine is first run at required speed and the output is measured.
Then, one cylinder is cut out by shorting the spark plug or by
disconnecting injector.
3. Under this condition all other cylinder cut out with this cylinder.
4. The output is measured by keeping the speed constant at its original
value.
5. The difference in the output is a measure of the indicated power of
the cut out cylinder. Thus, we can find the indicated power for each
cylinder added to find the total IP of the cylinder.
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants SP–23 F (ME-Sem-5)
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7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Explain the advantages of multistage compression with
help of p-v and T-s diagram. Derive optimum pressure ratio
for two stage compressor and also find minimum work of
compression.
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2020-21.
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B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2019-20
IC ENGINES AND COMPRESSORS
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data, then choose
suitably.
Section-A
d. What is the significance of octane no. and cetane no. for the
different fuels ?
Section-B
Section-C
Po
adi a wer strok
Qadd batic
e x pa e
n s io n
2 C om
Pressure
adia p res 4
bat sio n s
ic c t
o m r ok e
pre
ssi o
n Qout
0 1
Intake stroke Exhaust stroke
Volume
Fig. 1.
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4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. What is the importance of ignition system in SI engine ?
Explain different type of ignition system used in IC engine.
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2019-20)
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data, then choose
suitably.
Section-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief : (2 × 7 = 14)
a. Give the value of compression ratio for Otto cycle, Diesel
cycle and Dual cycle.
Ans.
1. Compression ratio for Otto cycle is 6 to 10.
2. Compression ratio for Diesel cycle is 16 to 20.
3. Compression ratio for Dual cycle is 12 to 16.
d. What is the significance of octane no. and cetane no. for the
different fuels ?
Ans. Significance of Octane Number : At higher octane number, the
engine can be supercharged to high output without detonation.
Significance of Cetane Number : Higher the cetane number of
the fuel lesser is the propensity for diesel knock.
Section-B
4 Qout
Q2 1 Constant
1 volume
v s
(a) p-v diagram. (b) T-s diagram.
Fig. 1.
2. p-v and T-s diagram of diesel cycle are shown in Fig. 1(a) and (b)
respectively. This cycle consists of following processes :
i. Process (1-2) : It is isentropic compression process.
p1v1 = p2v2
ii. Process (2-3) : It is constant pressure process and heat is added at
constant pressure.
Qin = Cp(T3 – T2)
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iii. Process (3-4) : It is isentropic expansion process.
p3v3 = p4v4
iv. Process (4-1) : It is constant volume process and heat is rejected at
constant volume.
Qout = Cv(T4 – T1)
3. Work done during the cycle,
W = Heat added – Heat rejected
= Cp(T3 – T2) – Cv(T4 – T1)
Work done
4. Thermal efficiency, =
Heat input
C p (T3 T2 ) Cv (T4 T1 ) Cv (T4 T1 )
= = 1
C p (T3 T2 ) C p (T3 T2 )
T
T1 4 1
T1 Cp
= 1 ...(1)
T3 C
T2 1 v
T2
5. For reversible isentropic compression and expansion processes,
1
T1 v
= 2 ...(2)
T2 v1
1
T4 v
= 3 ...(3)
T3 v4
6. For constant pressure heat addition,
T3 v
= 3 = (cut-off ratio) ...(4)
T2 v2
7. From eq. (2) and eq. (3), we get
1
v3
T4 T3 v4
=
T1 T2 v2
v
1
Section-C
3 Constant pressure 3
3 2 3
2 3
2
p 2 3 T
4 4
4 4 4
4
1 1
Constant volume
Isentropic process
v 5 s 6 6 6
(a) (b )
Fig. 2. Same compression ration and heat input.
ii. Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection :
1. In Fig. 3, Otto and diesel cycle are shown. Efficiency of both the
cycle is given as,
Q
Otto = 1 R
QS
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QR
Diesel = 1
QS
2. QS is heat supplied in Otto cycle and equal to the area under the
curve 2 3 on T-s diagram.
3. QS is heat supplied in diesel cycle and equal to the area under the
curve 2 3 on T-s diagram.
4. From T-s diagram, it is clear that,
QS > QS
(Heat supplied)Otto cyle > (Heat supplied) Diesel cycle
3
3
3'
2 3'
p T
2 4
4
1 1 e
olum
Isentropic process tant v
Con s
v s
(a) (b )
Fig. 3. Same compression ratio and heat rejection.
5. So, efficiency of Otto cycle is greater than that of diesel cycle and
we can conclude that,
Otto > Dual > Diesel
iii. Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection
:
2 3
Constant 3
pressure
2
nt
p T 2 st a
Is e 2 C on m e
nt r u
opi 4 vol
cp 4
ro c
ess 1 1
Constant volume
v 5 s 6
( a) (b )
Fig. 4. Same peak pressure, temperature and heat rejection.
1. In Fig. 4, Otto and diesel cycle are shown on p-v and T-s diagram
as :
Otto cycle : 1-2-3-4
Diesel cycle : 1-2-3-4
2. Efficiency of Otto and diesel cycle is given as,
QR
Otto = 1
Qs
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QR
Diesel = 1
Qs
3. From the T-s diagram, it is clear that
QS > QS
(Heat supplied)Diesel > (Heat supplied)Otto
4. So, diesel cycle efficiency is greater than Otto cycle.
5. From above analysis, we can conclude that
Diesel > Dual > Otto
iv. Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input :
1. In Fig. 5, Otto and Diesel cycle are shown on p-v and T-s diagram
as :
Otto cycle : 1-2-3-4-1
Diesel cycle : 1-2-3-4-1
2. From Fig. 5(b), it is clear that
(Heat rejection)Otto > (Heat rejection)Diesel
3. So, diesel cycle will be more efficient, but one should make note
that cycle having more efficiency have more expansion. So, diesel
cycle efficiency is more and Otto cycle efficiency is least.
4. From this analysis, we can conclude that
Diesel> Dual > Otto
2 3
3 3
Isentropic Constant 3
process pressure
p T 2
4
4 2
Isentropic 2 4
process 1 4
1
Constant
volume
v 5 s 6 6
( a) (b )
Fig. 5. Same maximum pressure and heat input.
Po
adi a wer strok
Qadd batic
e x pa e
n s io n
2 C om
Pressure
0 1
Intake stroke Exhaust stroke
Volume
Fig. 6.
Ans.
1. The work done per kg of fluid in the cycle is given by,
T
W = Cv T3 T1 (r ) 1 31 T1
(r )
2. Differentiating W with respect to r and equating to zero,
dW ( 1)T3
= Cv T1 ( 1) (r) 2
dr r
T
– ( – 1) T1(r) – 2 + ( – 1) 3 = 0
r
–2 T
( – 1) T1(r) = ( – 1) 3
r
2 – 2 T3
(r) =
T1
1/2 ( 1)
T
r = 3 ...(1)
T1
–1
3. Since, T2 = T1 (r)
Substituting the value of r from eq. (1) in the above equation, we
get
( 1)
T 1/2 ( 1) T
1/2
T2 = T1 3 T1 3 T1T3
T1 T1
4. Similarly, T4 = T3/(r)–1
T3 T3
T4 = ( 1)
1/2
T3T1
T 1/2 ( 1) T3
3 T
T1 1
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T2 = T4 (T1T3 )1/2
Spark
plug
Capacitor
Distributor
Cam Ignition coil
Breaker points
SW2
Contact
breaker
SCR
DC to DC triggering SCR
converter circuit
–
P S
Battery
+
Ignition coil
Throttle valve
Fuel from
Vent Strainer pump
Needle
Venturi valve
h
Float
Nozzle
(discharge jet)
Float
chamber
Air
Fig. 12. Idling system.
3. When throttle is practically closed, the full manifold suction operates
on the outlet to this jet. Besides local suction is increased due to
very high velocity past the throttle valve. Fuel therefore can be
lifted by the additional height upto the discharge point, but this
occurs only at very low rates of air flow.
4. When the throttle is opened, the main jet gradually takes over and
the idle jet eventually becomes ineffective.
5. The idle adjust (a needle valve controlling the air bleed, which is
manually operated) regulates the desired A/F ratio for the idling
jet.
D. Choke :
1. A choke is simply butterfly valve located between the entrance to
the carburetor and the venturi throat as shown in Fig. 13.
2. When the choke is partly closed, large pressure drop occurs at the
venturi throat, would normally result from the amount of air passing
through the venturi throat.
3. The very large carburetor depression at the throat inducts large
amount of fuel from the main nozzle and provides a very rich
mixture so that the ratio of the evaporated fuel to air in the cylinder
is within the combustible limits.
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants SP–19 F (ME-Sem-5)
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Fuel-air mixture
to engine
Throttle
Venturi
Float
chamber
Choke
Air
Fig. 13. Choke valve with spring loaded by-pass.
TDC
EVC
Ignition
IVO
Compression
Expansion
Exhaust
IVC Suction
EVO
BDC
TDC
EVC
IVO
10°
Compression
20°
Expansion
Exhaust
Suction
35°
35° 35°
IVC
EVO
BDC
Fig. 15. Actual valve timing diagram (four stroke SI engine).
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants SP–21 F (ME-Sem-5)
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4. The inlet valve is opened 10° to 30° in advance of the TDC position
to enable the fresh charge to enter the cylinder and to escape the
burnt gases into atmosphere.
5. Suction of the charge continue upto 30° to 40° after the BDC at this
point inlet valve is closed and compression process starts.
6. The spark plug produces the spark 30° to 40° before TDC, so fuel
gets more time to burn. The pressure becomes maximum at 10°
past the TDC.
7. The exhaust valve is open at 30° to 60° before BDC and burnt gases
driven out of the cylinder during upward motion of the piston.
8. After that exhaust valve closes at 10° past the TDC.
Camshaft
Main
bearing
Lower oil pan Oil troughs
Cam shaft
Main bearing
Oil jet
directed at
dip on rod
Oil pump
Oil strainer
Fig. 17. Splash and pressure system.
IC Engine Fuel & Lubricants SP–23 F (ME-Sem-5)
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c. Pressure Feed System :
1. This system is used for engines which are exposed to high load.
2. In this system, an oil pump is used for lubricating all part of cylinder.
Oil pressure gauge
Main
Connecting bearing
rod bearing
Header line
Oil pump
Oil strainer
Fig. 18. Pressure feed system.
3. Oil is delivered by pressure pump at pressure ranging from 1.5 to
4 bar. The oil under pressure is supplied to main bearings of
crankshaft and camshaft.
4. An oil hole is drilled in crankshaft bearing to supply the oil to big
end and small end bearing of the connecting rod.
5. The cylinder wall, piston, piston ring are lubricated by the oil spray.
iii. Dry Sump Lubrication System :
1. Dry sump lubricating system is used for high capacity engines.
2. In this system, a separate storage supply tank is used at outside the
engine cylinder block.
3. The lubricating oil is fed into the supply tank from the sump by
mean of the pump through the filter.
4. Oil from storage tank is pumped to the various part of the engine.
5. Oil dripping from the cylinder and bearing into the sump is removed
by a scavenging pump which is further supplied to the storage tank
through filter.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–24 F (ME-Sem-5)
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Vent
Pressure
To bearing relief valve
Oil cooler
Supply tank
Oil pump
Engine crankcase
Filter by-pass
pressure relief valve
Dry sump
Filter
Strainer
Scavenging pump
Fig. 19. Dry sump lubrication system.
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