Cuisenaire Rods and Why Book

1
Gattegno Cuisenaire® Reader
Contents
Autho r Title So urc e Pa g e Num b er
Introduction 1
Jenny Cane Mathematical MT257 3

Journeys
Caroline Ainsworth Consistency of MT253 8

Imagery
Ian Benson Functional MT245 13
relationships
between patterns of
Cuisenaire rods
Caleb Gattegno ATM 21st MT62 15
Anniversary
Madelaine Thoughts about MT7 16
Goutard problems
Caleb Gattegno A Farewell Address Gattegno 22

Anthology
Gattegno Cuisenaire Reader
A resource for all interested in better teaching of mathematics
- Jenny Cane - - Caroline Ainsworth -

Mathematical Consistency
journeys of
imagery
- Madeleine Goutard - - Ian Benson -

Thoughts Working Functional relationships
about between patterns of
problems with rods Cuisenaire rods
and why
- Caleb Gattegno - - Caleb Gattegno -

ATM 21st A
Anniversary Farewell
Address
“I wrote in the late fifties, early sixties, a series of textbooks for children. And,
I suppose some teachers see them, but their children never saw them. They
are for children. They contain what I know about children’s powers. And, I try
to help them. By using their powers, but I finish the first 6 years of the course
in two. Where is the teacher who would accept that doing the work of 6 years
in 2. But if you are at all touched by truth, find out. Find out if it is possible that
it only takes two years to be master of the arithmetic."
- Caleb Gattegno, A Farewell Address-
The articles in this booklet bring together inspirational writings on the theory of reforming
mathematics education together with articles by primary teachers who exemplify the Cuisenaire-
Gattegno approach in practice.
Sixty years after Cuisenaire, Gattegno and Goutard embarked on this journey, new demands on
mathematics teachers and new developments in conceptual mathematics and computer languages
make reform both more urgent and more tractable.
The 2014 national curriculum is one of the first in the world to mandate that all four arithmetic
operations and fractions as operators be studied from Year 1. Gattegno's textbooks propose an
algebra of colour coded Cuisenaire rods to do just this.
1
In his Science of Education Gattegno proposed " subordinating teaching to learning" to harness
mental powers present in every child. He set out a new role for the teacher - to create game-like
situations that the learner can experience mathematically, while supplying the labels and notations
they cannot invent themselves. He proposed a way of talking about their learning in terms of
awarenesses - which could be subconscious, conscious, named or categorized.
Madelaine Goutard illustrates this approach to lesson design in her article.
The articles from Jenny Cane and Caroline Ainsworth show how inspiring teaching can emerge from
a close reading of Gattegno and Goutard's books. They contain open questions to guide learners
exploring whole number and fractional relationships through permutations and combinations of
Cuisenaire rods. Ian Benson discusses why these books differ from traditional textbooks and how
this approach can be extended to further enrich school mathematics.
The recent revitalisation of the Cuisenaire-Gattegno tradition was initiated through a network of
schools by Charles Clarke, Secretary of State for Education in 2004. We are grateful to Stockland
and Bursted Wood primary schools, founding members of the network, for permission to
reproduce children's writing. Cuisenaire® Rods is a trademark registered to Educational
Solutions (UK) Ltd. It is used with permission. The cover illustration is copyright Sociality
Mathematics, 2017
We invite the reader to join the ATM in writing a new chapter in this exciting journey.
Ian Benson
Jim Thorpe
October 2017
2
Mathematical journeys: Our journey in
colour with Cuisenaire rods
This article draws on Jenny Cane’s plenary presentation to the ATM conference.
T
he title of the 2017 ATM conference, In 2013, the new National Curriculum was published.
Mathematical journeys immediately made At that time, the teachers in the school were
me think about my own mathematical journey questioning how we were going to be able to help
as a primary school teacher. I had been navigating our key stage one children understand fractions in
my way through the Gattegno textbooks Numbers in a meaningful way. We did not want children to work
colour whilst using Cuisenaire rods with key stage 1 through tasks in a procedural way. A meeting with
children. For the teachers at Bursted Wood Primary, Ian Benson guided us to material written by Gattegno
the journey so far had been one of excitement, wonder and we decided to trial this material with our Year 1
and discovery. Putting together the plenary allowed cohort. At first I did not know what to expect but I was
me to reflect, as well as giving me the chance to look willing to experiment as I had never had experience
forward. The aim of the plenary was to both chart the of teaching key stage one mathematics before.
progress of our work and to show how we had started The textbook was laid out clearly and the exercises
to use Gattegno’s curriculum graph (Figure 1) as a were easy to understand. There were no suggested
way of navigating through a primary mathematics timings and I felt a sense of freedom. This might have
curriculum alongside the aims of the current National been overwhelming for some teachers, but for me,
Curriculum. I realised that the curriculum graph was it offered the freedom and the creativity I had been
going to be the map of my journey, which I could looking for.
share.
The children became immediately engaged with the
The graph shows mathematical routes that cross Cuisenaire rods and the lessons had a buzz about
each other. Some of the routes we embarked on them. There was a fantastic mix of conversation,
felt more complete than others, but each had the concentration and excitement. At first the children
Gattegno textbooks at the heart of it. I wanted were using the rods alongside Book 1 for two sessions
to show how we were trying to shift the study a week, but I realised quickly that the work undertaken
of mathematics from a focus on instrumental in the sessions was providing a far richer and more
understanding towards supporting children to make meaningful environment for mathematics than I had
their own creative connections. Gattegno calls this ever seen before. Children were using the language
“subordinating teaching to learning”. of equivalence and fractions expertly and naturally
and never tired of discovering new things about the
Why did we start using Cuisenaire rods and the
patterns they had made. Towards the end of the trial
Gattegno textbooks at Bursted Wood?
we made the decision to use Book I as a medium-
Before we began using the rods, our mathematics term plan and the material contained in the book
lessons drew on a wide range of resources. Often the provided the ideas for our daily mathematics lesson.
resources did not meet the needs of the children nor This was a leap of faith as this meant that the children
the intention of the lesson. Sometimes the children would not be writing digits for well over half a term,
needed to learn how to use the resource to make but we felt this was going to play to our advantage
efficient use of it and perhaps, in some cases, the because the children’s understanding of the structure
teachers themselves were not aware of the impact the of the number system and their developing forms of
resources could have on the lesson. Problem solving representation of their thinking through engaging with
and reasoning were not high priorities in lessons early algebra work would be strong. I am grateful for
and too often the children were simply watching their a forward-thinking leadership team that allowed me
teacher think. I was reminded of Madeleine Goutard’s to follow my professional judgement and move away
comment, (Goutard 1958), “The kind of problems that from routines that we had always followed. Now, four
we are in the habit of inventing for children to solve years on, every child in years 1-3 has their own set of
are concerned with determined situations … there is Cuisenaire rods (sharing the resource would not have
only one possibility and the children are asked to fill worked) and the teachers in these year groups are
in the blanks”. (p. 9) using the textbooks to plan.
July 2017 www.atm.org.uk 3

www.atm.org.uk
R_1 R_2 PL: complete table of partitions of a length L
Length measured by train with Restriction to PL : indifference to
most cars (carriages). the order of the rods in each train.
Illustrated here with trains
The initial R stands for restriction ordered (i) left to right by non- R_3 R_4
R_1 is conventionally written R 1 increasing length of cars, and then Equivalent trains with two cars. Equivalent trains including (i) cars
(ii) top to bottom by non-increasing of one colour, or (ii) cars of two
July 2017
length of cars in the ﬁrst column, colours including a single smaller
and if necessary in subsequent rod. This is a restriction of the
columns: the "Ferrer Table" (▷). Ferrer Table.
L Partitions of L Complementarity Iteration
w, w, w, ..., w omitting rearrangements L = a+b = c+d = ... L= n×l+r
The complete
Addition Composite table of
Sets Sets Equations Commutativity Subtraction Division numbers r = 0
Correspondence partitions of
Associativity
and r ≠ 0 length
1-1 1-2 1-3..
2-1 2-3.. 3-2 DarkGreen.
Prime numbers
Measure Repeated r≠0
Numerals
Subsets ▷ Functions
Combinatorial Repeated ▶︎ subtraction
R_4'
calculus addition
Mathematical journeys: Our journey in colour with Cuisenaire rods.
Equivalence L=n×l
Classes of Long
Concept of Arithmetical equivalent division
Combinations
inclusion progressions differences
Order Integers
Milestones
Cardinal Permutations
Complementarity
numbers
4
of sets
Whole Divisibility
numbers HCF and
Groups of
LCM Products
substitutions Theory of
Algebra subtraction
of sets Ordinal Mixed
numbers Multiplication
numbers
Family of ordered
Fractions as pairs
operators Equivalence A
Equivalence M
▶︎ "Measure, in the work with the rods, is borrowed from physics and introduces
counting by the back door, since it is necessary to know how many times the unit has
Powers Operations
been used to associate a number with a given length. But measure is also a source of on fractions
fractions and mixed numbers, and will serve later to introduce real numbers. Thus
measure is a more powerful tool than counting, which it uses as a generator of
mathematics. Counting is met in R_1, and can be interpreted again as being a measure The operation of Distributivity
multiplication
with white rods. Measure is naturally also an interpretation of iteration and is the basis of
Logarithms Decimal
R_4 and all its consequences." Gattegno, op cit, p 126 fractions
(*)
Geometrical
Newton's progressions
▷ Ferrer order is discussed in Ian Benson, On the awareness of patterns of Cuisenaire binomial Commutative
ring of (*) Connections Roots
rods, Mathematical Imagery, ATM, 2016 . Numerals are number names, not yet polynomials (ℝ) from Addition, (Surds)
Decimal
numbers Percentages
numbers. They are used in equations to record how many. Subtraction
Various bases Multiplication,
of numeration Field of Division
rational
All rights reserved by Sociality Mathematics CIC © 2006-17. No part of this publication may be reproduced or Fractional
numbers
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photography, recording or any indices Approximations
(ℚ)
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from Sociality Mathematics CIC. Derived
from Caleb Gattegno, Common Sense of Teaching Mathematics, Educational Solutions, 1974 (page 124) Problems Applications Errors
Cuisenaire is a trademark of Educational Solutions (UK), Ltd A157_21.06IaBe220506ACF
Figure 1: The Gattegno curriculum graph.
The Gattegno curriculum graph helped us see how destroys its essential character. It may need faith
the textbooks fit together to provide us with a starting to stand by watching children building an Eiffel
point for our planning. It has multiple entry points and Tower or making doorways ... especially when
logical dependencies. Gattegno showed how the the construction seems to have no particularly
study of permutations and combinations of Cuisenaire mathematical significance; but six to eight weeks
rods in key stage 1 could yield awarenesses spent in this free play will pay handsome dividends
about sets, equivalence, equation, function and … While thus engaged children meet, without
correspondence. Children speak and write with a words or other intermediary between their own
mathematical vocabulary that begins when we use spirits and reality, a rich variety of relationships
playful activities, then make connections to actions inherent in the rods.
in the rod world and virtual actions in the mind. Zulie This journey of free play, initially with rods and later
Catir and Caleb Gattegno constructed a chart (see with free writing, is one journey that continues across
Figure 2), which helped to explain this further and has all paths on the curriculum graph. It is essential and
helped with our thought processes and planning. an activity that the children never tire of, no matter
how old they are.
Journey 2: Equivalence
Children begin this next journey by sorting, naming,
ordering and using equivalence to form patterns using
the rods. The work is taken from Book I, Chapter
2, titled Qualitative work. Once again it is up to the
teacher to maintain the game-like structure set from
Figure 2: The Catir and Gattegno chart. free play to motivate the children to explore more.
Here Gattegno introduces ‘trains’, which are two or
In the rest of this article, I want to illustrate how
more rods placed end to end. He asks the learner
the journeys within the graph provide us with the
to make as many trains as they can and describe
language and experiences we feel our children need them. He follows this by asking the learner to take
and thrive on in their mathematics lessons. one rod and find trains that are equivalent in length to
Journey 1: First encounters that rod. It is at this point we have children as young
as five using the word equivalent with ease and with
The first chapter of Numbers in colour is entitled free
understanding.
play. This title is followed by a blank page. I loved this
because of its simple message, play. As the children Initial equivalence work is predominantly random and
enter year 1 they each receive their own box of rods. is described as ‘empirical’ by Madeleine Goutard in
It is a moment of pure excitement and the children Mathematics and children. She notes that children
love unwrapping the box and playing with the rods. are often kept at the empirical stage using concrete
In terms of a transition from reception to year 1 it resources and goes on to observe that perhaps when
is perfect. It is during this time that the teacher can a teacher feels a child is struggling to understand a
begin noticing what the children are making and mathematical concept they are simply given objects
can immediately establish the game-like structure to count with. Gattegno’s treatment using Cuisenaire
of lessons. The chance to observe the children’s rods allows the child to play and converse whilst
creativity also allows for conversations about what the teacher can help to steer a conversation. If a
child does not understand something, there are
they see, aiming to build the choices they can make
easy constructions to revert back to and familiarity
with the rods. The children take pride in owning
can be re-established. The empirical stage moves
their box of rods. Even packing away the resource
swiftly, through repetition, to systematic thinking by
can provide much in the way of mathematics. This
asking children to sort rods into patterns of equivalent
beginning is accessible for all and not overwhelming
length, thus promoting higher-order thinking skills. By
for young children. Gattegno (1974) writes:
the time the children move to Book II, the foundation
Indeed, the wise teacher will just use the rods of pattern building is taken a step further and the
for long stretches of free play and will be in no children are able to explore patterns within patterns.
hurry to introduce any trace of direction. Free Some are even able to plan the internal parts of a
play is, precisely, free. Organisation or direction pattern before completing them with the rods.

Crucially, the trains remain in the rod domain and the

set of names are in the algebra domain. The children
move with ease between the domains. Quickly, the
signs for plus and equivalence help the children to
form equations. Children were confidently able to use
the sign for equivalence at the beginning or end of an
Figure 3: Year 2 children building patterns within
equation. Crucially they do not use ‘=’ simply to signal
patterns.
an answer, they use it to signify equivalence.
It is clear to me that the children have started to
internalise the patterns they have made and are
able to construct them virtually as mental images.
Whereas previously in my mathematics teaching, I
may have focused on number bonds to 10 or 20 and
given the children just two numbers to put together to
construct these, I notice that when the children use
the Cuisenaire rods their only restriction is the rule of
equivalent length and they find it easy to understand
that a number can be partitioned in many ways.
They are also quick to rule out rods that will not be
equivalent to each other or can ‘see’ what the missing
gap in a pattern would be without having to test it. On Figure 5: Children’s recording using letter codes.
reflection, I believe it is at this point that I started to Number study follows this work and once again the
see how so much could be gained from a seemingly familiar patterns are returned to for the children to
simple task. A single resource and the idea of pattern write about. The relationships established in the
can be returned to again and again, first through qualitative chapter are so strongly internalised that
language and then through writing. Gattegno writes using number becomes straightforward and natural.
about “yielding a lot from a little”. These tasks show The rods themselves are not manufactured with a
exactly what he means. value attached to them, so it is important that the
Journey 3: Discovering notation teacher emphasises the lack of a fixed value early on.
Gattegno creates an early exercise where the rods
This journey builds on the idea of free play and are taken in turn and measured by the white rods to
equivalence and is focused on children finding ways name them algebraically (Gattegno Mathematics Text
to describe their awarenesses through notation. Book 1. Part 3. Activity 19). Later, by calling white the
Children move freely between the rod world and unit, he names the other rods by the number of whites
the algebraic world, translating the rod work into needed to make an equivalent length. (Gattegno
writing and interpreting their notation through rod Mathematics Text Book 1. Part 3. Activity 1).
constructions. The rods are given a letter name
based on the colour code (see Figure 4). This offers What becomes clear, once the number study is
opportunity for noticings such as there is a ‘b’ and ‘B’ in full swing, is that the children are comfortable
or discussion of why the brown rod is called tan. establishing different names for the same rod. The
red rod, for example, could be red, two, half of four,
a fifth of ten depending on its context. One activity
that I have developed from the books that works well
across all stages is called the ‘name game’. Here the
children generate a pattern, maybe suggested by the
books or a creation of their own, and write as many
different names for each row as possible. Here they
are moving smoothly across the domains in speech,
action and virtual action. When working with Book
1, I notice that my lessons are about the children
generating their own mathematics through what they
see. The combinations, possibilities and answers
Figure 4: Letter names of the rods. vary but the constructions remain simple. I feel as if
I am planting mathematical seeds that will blossom
Children begin working on notation by going back
over the course of the books and there is no rush to
to the initial patterns they have made, this time
see them bloom straight away.
describing them in writing using the letter code.
Goutard refers to this writing as a ‘paper train’.
6 July 2017 www.atm.org.uk

The tasks are accessible to all but are deep enough to

challenge. Within the textbooks, I find the pedagogy
I need but also a sense of creative freedom. It does
not feel like a scheme. I love the notion of game-like
structures, and by thinking like this, I have been able
to cut out unnecessary planning and gimmicks that
perhaps I might once have used. There is always a
buzz in my classroom from the children using the
rods.
Another important aspect of this project has been
Figure 6: The name game. the professional conversations that I have been able
Journey 4: Structure and relationships to engage in. I am regularly in contact with other
teachers and academics who support me and allow
At this point, a new manipulation is introduced where me to ask questions or, in turn, support them. There
the firmly established trains become crosses. These is a sense that we are creating a portfolio of work that
crosses represent products and the thirty seven is unique to each school but shows the power of the
most important products are laid out on a visual textbooks. Above all, I realise what Goutard meant
chart. Instead of children simply learning products when she said, “you don’t teach Cuisenaire rods”. As
in sequence and by rote, here they construct she writes in Mathematics and children:
or deconstruct them with ease. Once the new
manipulation is established, I find that this is mainly Between two classes both using the rods,
carried out virtually and that the children understand enormous difference in level may exist which
the process surprisingly quickly. Gattegno continues can only be accounted for by the extent teachers
to develop the learner’s appreciation of how numbers benefit from what the material has to offer.
can be related and, more importantly, provides Teachers must drop the idea that pieces of
exercises to allow the learner to think about how to wood have magic powers. The transformation of
use these relationships to calculate with other known education can only result from a renewal of the
facts. Gattegno describes this phase of Book II as teachers as persons and this, in turn, must stem
“milestone numbers” and they are a springboard to from creating awareness on their part (p. 3).
deeper learning about geometric progressions. The journey so far has been exciting and inspirational.
There is much more to do and further progress to be
made, but we have a strong sense of direction. We
truly believe that we are inspiring our children and not
simply informing them.
Figure 8: Illustration from What we owe children: The

Figure 7: Products. subordination of teaching to learning, 1987.
Final thoughts References
It is exciting to think how far we have come with the Catir, Z. and Gattegno, C. (1973) Notes on the
materials and to know that we have a guide to help Gattegno approach to mathematics New York:
us navigate through future material. I feel that my Educational Solutions.
approach to teaching has changed a great deal and
Gattegno, C. (1970) Gattegno mathematics text-book
I would go as far as to say I feel rejuvenated. I enjoy
1. New York: Educational Solutions.
noticing and observing more and do not feel the need
to talk as much in my lessons. The mathematics Gattegno, C. (1974) Common Sense of Teaching
comes from the children and their ability to generate Mathematics New York: Educational Solutions.
conversations about what they see or the way they
Goutard, M. Thoughts about problems. MT7 July
write about their patterns allows me to find out what
1958 3-9.
they understand. I feel like I am becoming the teacher
I have always wanted to be as Gattegno’s concept of Goutard, M. (1964) Mathematics and Children
subordinating teaching to learning becomes a reality. Reading : Educational Explorers Publishers.

Consistency of imagery
Caroline Ainsworth describes how she uses Cuisenaire rods to develop children’s
understandings of the structure of mathematics.
I
work as a specialist mathematics teacher in a Mark is calculating 1
x 34 . He has chosen to set out
3
small primary school in Devon. As a school we these rods:
use Cuisenaire rods from Reception to Year 6 (10
to 11 years old) to develop children’s understanding of
the structure of mathematics. For the past ten years,
we have been developing an approach based on
Caleb Gattegno and Madeleine Goutard’s methods
to support our mathematics teaching. Although we
use other manipulatives and resources, schemes of
work and textbooks, we rely on our use of the rods
to give consistency of imagery. We believe this helps
us to be more efficient with our teaching, to build on
children’s learning from one area of mathematics to
another, to see connections and, most importantly,
to make generalisations. In this article I reflect on
I ask Mark to explain his thinking. “Look, that is three-
how this imagery is created, sustained, and used
quarters of that [pointing to green and pink] and this
to support calculating, reasoning and generalising.
[white] is one third green. So, one third of three-
I begin and end with a narrative to give insight into
quarters must be one quarter.” He places the white
how we work on mathematics in the classroom and,
on the pink for emphasis. He continues working,
as an interlude, reflect on how we use the rods in
satisfied that he has convinced me he is right.
developing imagery.
Emily is working on 25 + 12 , she has set out this:
A narrative of calculating with fractions – part 1
With three weeks to go before the Standardised
Assessment Tasks (SATs), I am contemplating
revising calculating with fractions with Year 6. The
new test paper will require the children to add,
subtract, multiply and divide using fractions and
mixed numbers. The grid next to each calculation
on the sample paper seems to imply the expectation
of an efficient, written method. But I do not want to
reduce my children to following a set procedure,
however tempting it is as a way of gaining marks,
as children can be easily confused if they do not
understand the procedures. I know many children in
the class are efficient with these procedures, but I
“This is half [picking up white and red] and so is this
want to retain their spirit of reasoning and articulating
[yellow and orange]. This is one-fifth, [she taps red
their ideas. So, conscious of time constraints, but
along the orange with no attempt at accuracy as we
determined to value deeper learning, I set a range
both know its true], so this must be two-fifths [pink].”
of fraction calculations and tell the class, “I am not
She places the pink and yellow end to end. “So it
as interested in the answers as I am in your thinking.
Can you use the rods to explain your thinking to me?” makes nine-tenths altogether.”
September 2016 www.atm.org.uk 8

Consistency of Imagery
Richard is working on 1
divided by 1
, he has chosen I ask him what he would then call white. He replies
6 4
to set this out: ”one-ninth.” I pass him a second white and ask him
what he has now. Instantly he replies, ”two-ninths
… oh yes, that’s right, I get it now.” But with only a
few weeks to SATs I worry that, under pressure, he
will jump to the same incorrect calculating method.
My quick intervention will not be enough to establish
understanding. This is not to imply that none of the
children who have consistently used rods at our
school develop or persist with misconceptions, but
familiarity with the rods gives us a way of constantly
challenging any misconceptions, not by a teacher-led
explanation, but by carefully guiding the child through
reasoning, supported by the rods, towards a new
awareness of the situation.
He picks up dark green and explains, “this is one
As a class, we examine Richard's idea and I ask
quarter of that [2 oranges and pink] because it fits in
everyone why they think Richard chose 2 oranges
4 times, and this is one sixth of it [showing me pink]
and a pink. Benn says, “We know they could be 24
because it fits in 6 times. So really it’s how many of
and we know 4 x 6 is 24 so it makes sense to use
these [pink] are there in that [dark green],” he pauses,
24.” I ask him how we know this. He replies, “we’ve
“no,” he corrects himself, “it’s the other way around.”
used the rods a lot so you just know it.” I think Benn
He places dark green against pink and states, “it
is referring to the fluency children gain when using
doesn’t.” I ask, “does some of it fit in?” He compares
a manipulative as simple, yet powerful, as the rods
the pink and dark green, “two-thirds of it does,” he
for building not only number bonds and times tables
pauses again, “yes, that’s right because quarters are
facts, but a deeper understanding. Somehow, the
bigger than sixths so its going to be less than one.”
rods come to contain both numerical possibilities and
Neither Mark, Emily or Richard need me to confirm a generalisation of the situation which can be shared
their answers are correct, but the rods give us a by the teacher and children.
shared context and image of the calculation. They
Interlude: Developing imagery
support the child when articulating the situation and
allow me a window on their thinking. The children in the narrative above are Year 6 (10
to 11 years old) and have invested time and effort
Meanwhile, Alfie, who joined the class in September,
into constructing a sense of both number and
is telling me that one-ninth plus one-ninth is two-
operations with the rods since Reception. How has
eighteenths because, “you add the ones and you
this happened? It may be useful here to describe
add the nines.” I can see that even Alfie himself is
how we go about using rods to build and develop this
not convinced by his own reasoning. He says, “it is,
consistent imagery.
because you add them, don’t you, you add the top
and the bottom?” I set out the blue and ask him if we To guide our teaching we use the approach Goutard
can agree to call it 1. describes in Mathematics and Children (1964). She
shows four ways of presenting number relationships
which may be studied with children in order to gain
depth of understanding about calculating. These
ways form the basis of many of our lessons and are
used to introduce the signs. I offer simplified versions
of the four ways, in turn. The following image, the
table of partitions of lengths allows the child to see
commutativity (children say “you can swap the rods
around”) and the compensating dynamic of partitions
(children say “one side gets smaller the other gets
bigger” or “there’s a staircase going up and one going
down,”) without referring to specific numbers.
9 September 2016 www.atm.org.uk

quantity is added to or subtracted from both numbers,

a calculation can be adjusted to make it easier, for
example, 657 – 298 can become 659 - 300.
Repeated and varied activities using this arrangement

of rods can lead to flexibility with calculating, including
understanding how calculations might be adjusted, The image shows that we are referring to the difference
for example 299 + 327 can become 300 + 326, which between two lengths, very different from the image of
for many is easier to calculate mentally. The children an overall length made when rods are stuck together.
have agreed that the ‘+’ sign can be used to represent In order to bring this to children’s awareness, Goutard
rods being placed end-to-end (the children often say uses an activity in which children are shown a pair of
“stuck together”). The compensating dynamic can be rods by the teacher and asked to make pairs of rods
used to help children memorise number bonds. This with an equivalent difference, children often call it
can be number specific, so if we see that 5 + 5 = 10 “the same gap”. They can see what is important, that
(using 2 yellows and an orange), then 6 + 4 must also the gap remains the same, and what can be changed,
be 10 because one rod has increased in length, so that is the lengths of the rods. We use the question,
“what can you do to my pair of rods to turn it into your
the other must decrease, by the length of a white. In
pair of rods?,” to make children aware of the addition
this way the actual rods, or a retained image of them,
or subtraction of an equivalent length.
can help children move from known to unknown
facts. But the same image can be used to work We can ask, “If a – b = c, which of these is also true?
from 50 + 50 = 100 to 60 + 40 = 100 or 600 + 400 2a - 2b = 2c or 2a – 2b = c?”. Some children quickly
grasp the idea and use algebra to express what we
= 1000. We notice that once the children realise the
have seen, others try this out with specific rods. The
rods can represent any number, they generalise for
key seems to be to try to work towards this type of
themselves. The teacher’s job is to devise activities
question whenever subtraction is being studied,
where children can use this awareness. In order to giving all children as much chance as possible to
assess their understanding of the situation, I ask, “If reach this mastery level. Here the rods are used to
a + b = c, which of these is also true? create an image of a relationship.
(a+1) + (b-1) = c + 1? Or (a+1) + (b-1) = c?
Tables of factors or divisors (equivalent products)
Somehow the rods, as they do not relate to
specific numbers, can be used by the teacher to This is not to say that using the rods as numbers
create a bridge from children’s awareness of the cannot be a good starting place for seeing those
relationships, but we find it useful to move quickly
compensating dynamic to an understanding of this in
to generalisations, before children slip into thinking
written notation.
what they are noticing applies only to this particular
Families of equivalent differences number or group of numbers.
Similarly, activities based around study of a family of For example, when studying families of equivalent
equivalent differences can generate understanding products, we often ask the children to set out a
that the family is infinite and that as long as the same number with many factors such as 24 then to write

number sentences. Family of equivalent fractions (or quotients)

Goutard uses the rods to create an image of the family
of equivalent fractions (or quotients). This awareness
may well have helped Mark and Richard to select rods
for their calculations. Richard would be familiar with 2
oranges and pink as 24, dark green as 6 and pink as
4, but could simultaneously see dark green as 14 of the
longer train of rods and pink as 16 . Mark saw yellow
12 x 2 = 24, 6 x 4 = 24, 8 x 3= 24 5
and orange simultaneously as 10 and as 12 .
We gather facts together on the board and ask the
children what they see. Children quickly say that
one number is doubling, the other halving, yet the
product is staying the same. For me this is not as
important as the children articulating the answer
to the next question, “why is this?”. They often say
something to the effect of, “because those are
half the size, you need twice as many of them”.
When everyone has had the chance to explain this
relationship, we will move on to asking them to set out
another number such as 18 and repeat the exercise.
We might then gather together 2 x 9 = 18 and
6 x 3 = 18 to draw out that one number is being tripled
and the other divided by 3. In answer to the question,
“what do you notice?”, we are looking for more
general explanations about the inverse operations
being applied.
Again, we can use this awareness to adjust In order to use the rods effectively to create flexible
calculations (5 x 126 can become 10 x 63) and check imagery, we have learnt that these images need to be
understanding using algebra: “if a x b = c is this true? used repeatedly, approached in different ways and
2a x 2b = 2c?; 2a x 12 b = c?; 12 a x 2b = c?; the children given plenty of opportunities to discover
1 1
2 a x 2 b = c?”. and articulate for themselves the generalisations
they contain. It is not enough to ‘see’ commutativity
These activities can be repeated many times
in an arrangement of rods, it needs to then be tested
with different arrangements of rods. Children’s
with fractions, decimals, mixed numbers, more than
explanations of what they see and how they
2 numbers, and do on. The consistency of imagery is
generalise shifts subtly each time they are asked,
only useful if we go beyond agreeing the way we label
their reasoning becoming clearer. They benefit from
certain rod arrangements and are constantly aware
listening to each other’s explanations, and through
of the need to draw out generalisations.
explaining aloud the image becomes useful and
memorable to the child. A narrative of calculating with fractions – part 2
Working in this way, always looking for how we can The lesson continues and the Year 6 children show
generalise the situation, leads children to anticipate me many varied and creative ways to visualise
these generalisations. I find the children are often a calculating with fractions that I store away for use
step ahead of what I am saying. If I pause, leave a with future classes. The lesson ends and I move on
gap, remember to be quiet, children will fill the silence to teach fractions to Year 2. Also heading towards
with, “So does that mean?”; “ What if we used big SATs, I would like these young learners to have a
numbers?”; “Would it work with fractions?”; “Does it depth of understanding about quarters and halves in
always work?”; “How would you do it with decimals?” a range of contexts. I plan to use Goutard’s approach
On a really good day, I resist the temptation to answer to teaching fraction notation, but again I do not want
immediately, allowing another child to suggest an to limit their thinking and risk missing opportunities
answer or at least a means by which we can check. for generalising. I am looking for what Goutard calls,
“creativity at the level of symbols”. I do not want to
11 September 2016 www.atm.org.uk

limit their ideas to labelling an image with a fraction

just as they begin to grasp generalisations about
fraction notation.
We have set out a pink rod and I suggest it could be
called 1 today. I ask for a name for red, someone
suggests a half. I ask what we might call white,
someone offers a quarter but I remember to be
careful to allow other ideas to follow. Someone says
they see it as half of a half, another one quarter plus
one quarter, another one minus three-quarters and
many others. The children begin to record their ideas
and explain their thinking to their group, comparing
rods and reasoning about possible names. We vary For a while, to borrow a phrase from the Shanghai
the rod we call 1. teachers, I let out the string on the kites and let them
fly, knowing I will pull them back in later. If these ideas
are recorded and examined now, if fluency of ideas,
flexibility of expression and consistent imagery is
owned by the children, it can be built up now in Year
2, then hopefully, by Year 6, they will be sure that
1
9
+ 19 does not equal 2 .
18
Caroline Ainsworth is a specialist primary

mathematics teacher and senior teacher at
Stockland C of E Academy.
References
Goutard, M. (1964). Mathematics and Children.
Educational Explorers Publishers : Fishguard.

Functional relationships between
patterns of Cuisenaire rods
Ian Benson suggests how appropriate new conventions can support generalization
T
he study of permutations and combinations of 1. ACTION: using the number array, the
Cuisenaire rods has proved to be a rich source of set of fingers, rods ...
mathematical tasks motivating abstraction through
2. VIRTUAL ACTION: using imagery generated by
algebraic symbol systems as well as mathematical
the action
generalisation. (Gattegno, 1963a, Ainsworth 2011,
Benson 2011, 2014) Cuisenaire-Gattegno is a unique 3. SPEAKING: language to describe
approach that can meet the aim set by the new national imagery
curriculum, that learners “need to be able to move fluently
4. WRITING: symbols and notation
between representations of mathematical ideas.”
(DfE, p53) At first he argued that this meant that pupils didn’t need
textbooks at all.
In this exercise I take a Key Stage 3 rod permutation
problem posed on the nrich site as http://nrich.maths. “Many people know that from 1953 to 1956 I refused to
org/4338 (go to www.atm.org.uk/mt245 for link.) follow any suggestion from teachers that I should write
text-books. My reasons were:
I show how teachers can use this task to support
generalisation by employing a new formalism and 1. that I wanted the teachers to use the rods
diagramming convention that records the functional according to their lights and not to mine
relationships between patterns of Cuisenaire rods.
2. that, just as I did not want to interfere with the
This convention was suggested by William Lawvere and
learning process of children, so I did not wish to
Stephen Schanuel as an “external and internal diagram”
interfere with the teacher’s freedom of work.”
for mappings between typed sets.
(Gattegno, 1963b, p. 107)
(Lawvere, Schanuel 1997, 2004).
However, he continued to be pressed by teachers,
The exercise requires the learner to construct specific
and eventually found the solution in the form of a log,
patterns for trains equivalent in length to each rod in turn.
recording a set of lessons with actual children, “A set of
They are restricted to using only white or red rods.
questions – what better basis could be put into a book?”.
Figure 1 shows a solution to this exercise for the pink rod. This preserved the experimental basis of the approach,
as there would be no need to give answers, leaving
teachers and pupils free to explore. He hoped
that everyone coming to the new text-books would know
that they were to be used with Cuisenaire rods, which
he colour-coded in order of size w for white; r for red;
g for light green; p for pink; y for yellow etc. Without the
rods his books, like this note, are meaningless, “but they
become child’s play when used in conjunction with the
rods.” (op. cit., p. 108)
The next decision that Gattegno had to make was
whether to include diagrams in his books. He chose not to
do this in the books written for children between 1956 and
1960. He wrote,
Figure 1. The pattern of white and red trains for the pink
rod … “anyone who inserts diagrams has in my opinion
Learners are asked to construct such a pattern 1. completely misunderstood the components of
interactively for the smaller rods, light green, pink, and learning with the rods, which is a mathematisation
yellow. Then they are asked to hypothesise how many of actions;
trains would be in the pattern for the next longest - dark
2. mixed an old-fashioned and no longer justified
green - and check their work online. Finally learners
approach, based on images suggested by
are asked to say how many trains are in the pattern for
illustrations with a dynamic approach based on
orange, the longest rod, and to explain their work.
actions with objects, thus reducing the efficiency of
The solution is a Fibonnaci series. The new formalism both;
enables the learner to demonstrate succinctly why this
3. slowed down the learning process by spending time
is the case, in particular why there are 89 trains in the
on irrelevant work;
pattern for orange.
4. fostered habits of thought which are hybrid, thus
Gattegno held strong views on how to communicate
under-cutting the integrity of the learners mind.”
mathematically (1973, p. 2). He wrote that mathematical
(op. cit., p. 109)
activity unfolds as:
March 2015 www.atm.org.uk 13

Functional relationships between patterns of Cuisenaire rods
By 1973 in ‘Common Sense of Teaching Mathematics’ A study of the sequence in Figure 3 shows that after G
Gattegno had relented and he includes as an illustration each subsequent pattern can be mapped onto the disjoint
a diagram of a set of complete patterns that he uses to sum of the previous two sets. The number of members in
define what he means by an integer. He writes, “the set of each set is therefore the sum of the number of members
all ways of making a particular length with rods produces of these prior sets.
an equivalence class: all trains in the set are equivalent
Figure 4 is an external diagram. It extends our series to
since they have the same length” (1974, p. 51). Figure 2
the remaining patterns (where K, N and E code for the
reproduces his drawing, with annotations to show the
patterns for the black, brown and blue rods). Arrows again
correspondences they suggest.
indicate the functional relationships between
the patterns.
By inspection the number of members in the
pattern for orange is 89.
Figure 2. A set of complete patterns of rods from white to

yellow
The diagram arranges the complete patterns into product
groups, that is, groups of trains with the same number of
Figure 4. Functional relationships between the patterns
cars. Looking at the number of trains in each group we
(external diagram)
see a pattern emerge corresponding to the coefficients
in Newton’s Binomial expansion or the sequence known
conventionally as Pascal’s triangle: 1, 1-1, 1-2-1, 1-3-3-1 Ian Benson is CEO (Acting) Sociality Mathematics CIC
etc.
The nrich exercise studies red and white trains only. Note Key Stage 3 rod permutation problem
From Figure 2 we can see that these patterns can be can be accessed at http://nrich.maths.
represented from left to right as sets of trains using org/4338
Gattegno’s coding scheme for the rods, choosing a
capital letter to name each pattern. References
W={w} G = { rw, wr, www } Ainsworth, C. (2011) A case study of one teacher’s
professional development journey, (https://www.ncetm.
R = { r, ww } P = { rr, wwr, wrw, rww,wwww } org.uk/resources/28795)
G and each subsequent pattern can be related to the Benson, I. (2011) The Primary Mathematics: Lessons from
earlier patterns by drawing a line between the members the Gattegno School
of each set as shown in Figure 3. This is called an internal
diagram. An arrowhead is used to indicate the direction Department for Education (2013) The National Curriculum
of the functional mapping between the sets. In this case for England
the functions depend on the first car of the source train. Gattegno, C. (1963a) Mathematics with
In one direction trains starting with a white car map onto Numbers in Colour https://issuu.com/eswi/
the previous set, and trains starting with a red car map docs/gattegno-math-textbook-1/9
onto the set two sets earlier. These maps are called
surjections. They are shown with a closed arrowhead. Gattegno, C. (1973) Notes on the Gattegno Approach to
Mathematics
In the other direction the functions prepend a white (red)
car to the source train to form the target train. This is Gattegno, C. (1974) Common Sense of
shown with the open arrowhead. These functions are Teaching Mathematics http://issuu.com/
injections, or 1-to-1 mappings. eswi/docs/the_common-sense-of-teaching-
mathematics
Lawvere W., Schanuel S. (1997, 2004)
Conceptual Mathematics
Gattegno, 1963b, For the teaching of

mathematics, Volume 3, p107
http://issuu.com/eswi/docs/fttomv3webbook
Figure 3. Functional relationships between the patterns
(internal diagram)
14 March 2015 www.atm.org.uk

21st Anniversary
Caleb Gattegno – reflections on 21 Years of ATM
To be of age is a symbol rather than a full reality. would be that of a joyful, busy, keen set of minds
ATM was, in a way, of age when it was born as ATAM, finding that they can mathematise the universe. As we
because it filled a need: it re-juvenated a number of learn and enjoy learning so do our classes – when we
mathematics teachers in Great Britain and the accept the responsibility of presenting them with
Commonwealth. Has ATM at twenty-one the meaningful challenges not too far beyond their reach,
inspirational value it had in 1952? Does anybody not so easy as to appear trivial nor so mechanical as
today think of inspiration, or of touching teachers to be soul killing but assuredly capable of exciting
affectively and effectively? them.
These questions may be answered by each reader The games children play have these attributes, and all
personally. of us could learn from observing how children play.
I, as the convener of the Committee which funded The aim of a game is always a particular mastery.
ATAM, still feel that what made our movement Rules are explicit and errors are related to these rules
acceptable in 1952 can still make us recognisable as governing the acquisition of some skill. Once a skill is
contributing vital ingredients o the schools of Britain mastered it becomes instrumental and higher level
because we are moved by our vision and out thoughts, challenges then emerge in the shape of new games.
because we feel that teaching is a giving of ourselves Over the last twenty-one years I have studied, on my
rather than the handing out of old or new mathematics. behalf and that of all teachers, how games can be
What is the job which I recognise as mine, but which, invented which take care of the level reached by a
perhaps, not everybody sees as theirs? The words searching mind, and have proposed challenges linked
have changed since my first manifestoes but the spirit to the various levels which expand the self in the
is the same. Our students or pupils or school children dialogues it entertains with the objective situations.
(according to age) can be made to discover that My games are related to the mathematical structures I
mathematics is a mental activity which is everybody’s want to bring to the students’ notice. Simple
birth right, and that they can engage in it if their elders structures require naked materials, like coloured rods
know it or of it. The activity of mathematicians is to or prisms or geoboards. More complex structures
mathematise, not to rediscover the mathematics of the require the insertion of various mental dynamics into
past. So the activity of students of existing the manipulations of the materials.
mathematics should be to look at what exists as if it Games are austere and ritualistic, just the opposite of
were being made for the first time. This will give the qualities that attract teachers today in the so-called
dignity to errors, trials, tentative conclusions, guesses “open education”, where what happens is not on the
or assumptions, working out an example thoroughly whole under anybody’s control, and therefore not
before finding that there are classes of examples anyone’s responsibility. In my games the openness
which display the same phenomena and before being comes from the fact that there exist entities in the
able to enunciate the theorem that stands for the universe which are independent of each other and not
phenomenon. hierarchically linked, but once engaged on a road the
This will generate new methods of teaching which are inner dynamics get hold of the players and the
more serious than those offered today under various mathematisation is acted out ritually.
names. In particular it will give teachers an enhanced If, for instance, we play a game of transformation in
dignity through an enhanced responsibility. For they the field of the addition of integers in a particular base,
will have to know a great deal more about learning and the vision of the transform is the substance of the
learning mathematics than the literature provides. fame, but the fame ends which the transform displays
Man only finds freedom at the end of a quest. the name of the sum in that base. The game aims at
He cannot be clumsy, insensitive, and yet be free. the mastery of changing by one’s own means which
Teachers will feel the blessings of freedom as they was given into an addition which immediately yields
manage to reach that true competence as teachers the name of the sum by simple inspect of the addend.
which is indissolubly related to their pupils’ learning. The job that remains to be done by teachers of
Anyone who finds that in order to understand what mathematics includes the re-examination of all that we
goes on in his class he needs to consult other people ask children to do in order to acquire a certain mastery
or books, knows that he cannot be in contact with his of mathematisation of some areas – a job comparable
pupils’ learning, for each of us is a “learning system”, to that done by the Bourbakis for the edifice of 20th
is a retaining system” by construction; and every one century mathematics. To this I dedicated myself when
of us delights in the feeling of mental expansion and we started ATM.
spiritual growth. How much have you, reader, done in that direction?
If only teachers really knew this the climate of classes
15
Thoughts about Problems (which it is, if only one solution is possible)
we imply a mind capable of its instant
M.Goutard (translated from French)
solution. In proposing a problem to a child,
The kind of problems that we are in the we are assuming that s/he is capable of
habit of inventing for children to solve are, interpreting it independently. But as soon
it seems to me, concerned with very as a problem is correctly posed in the mind,
precisely determined situations: in them a it is both understood and solved by the
number of terms are brought together in a same act of thought. All that is required is a
certain relationship which is very set and little time in which to formulate the reply.
fixed. From this static scheme there is the But this time is not being used creatively. It
one possibility only – that of finding a single is occupied only in shifting from one pint to
missing term. Actually, any one of the another by means of acquire mechanisms.
terms may be omitted and in each case the Just as one cannot instantaneously
child is asked only to fill in the blank. We transfer oneself to the other side of the
could compare such problems, and the road, so does it take the mind a little time to
words in which they are stated, to a jigsaw perform certain operations. But the
puzzle which the child must reconstruct in problem itself was solved as soon as it was
order to specify which piece is missing. Or, put and seen. And it is a well-known fact
to change the metaphor, s/he is given the that, in the history of science, an unsolved
ends of a chain and must assume that the problem is one that is wrongly posed and
other links exist. that the person to solve it will be the one
who asks the right questions.
Unless an analysis of the mathematics
involved, and of the dynamism of the In putting any particular question to a child,
relationships, has been learnt previously, we assume that, if s/he is able to put it to
the child finds that s/he cannot solve these themselves, their mind will work at just this
problems: this is made worse because the level of reality. If this is so, the solution will
facts are buried in a concrete form, which be found immediately, in which case there
adds to the confusion by making it difficult is no more taking place than the exploration
for the child to find the relationships, since of a certain horizontal level. We are giving
they are not visible as such. This explains training (certainly useful) in some dexterity,
the successful results which can be but are not concerned with true
obtained by a teaching method that creativeness. If, on the other hand, the
Cuisenaire rods make possible, for a child does not move on this level, the
mastery of dynamic schemes is gained problem cannot be expressed in their mind:
which can be applied to any concrete s/he must first make the preliminary
situation. The child is at ease in using their analysis referred to above, and not until
own knowledge, and immediately finds the s/he has done this will s/he be able to rise
answers to the problems posed. to the appropriate level.
From this one could say that the question We seem to be faced with these
of problems is solved. I ask myself, alternatives:
however, whether in a such a case one is
1. We may pose to a child problems which
justified in speaking of ‘problems’. Rather,
s/he can solve only by rising to a higher
it seems to me that we have arrived at a
level through ‘inventing’ the mathematics
point at which the problem has
s/he needs. But, besides the dangers of
disappeared: at this level there is no
affective blockage that such a method
challenge to the mind which deserves to be
carries, it is also suspect in that it does not
called a problem.
give the opportunity for a sufficiently free
What strikes me is that whenever we set a analysis of the mathematics involved, since
problem which is exactly determined it provides only one static example of a
16
dynamic scheme; a necessarily facts given already include the solution.
constrained aspect of what is merely a The most banal example will prove this.
contingent state. “Some goods cost 100 francs. They are
sold for 120 francs, what is the profit?”
2. We can make the algebraic analysis
When reality questions in such a way, it
separately and in the abstract. From fruitful
does it artificially; it is pretending to ignore
awarenesses, the child acquires such ease
what is already known, since it is obvious
and freedom that thereafter s/he will have
that the profit is fixed at the same time as
no difficulty in applying knowledge to
the selling price. If there was a problem at
problems. But now that s/he is applying
all, it occurred before this. What may have
knowledge, the child’s mind is no longer
been the possibility of a problem lies in the
being used creatively. S/he has reached
‘fact’ that the goods costing 100 francs had
the point at which the ‘problem’ has
to be sold at a certain price: one might here
disappeared.
have paused to consider if it would have
Consequently, it seems to me that in order been better to sacrifice a little profit in order
to find a way out of this alternative we must to assure a larger sale. But it is made clear
form a different conception of what a that as soon as one term is fixed so is the
problem should be. other also, and that thus there is no
problem. In this we also see that the ‘time’
Let us bear in mind that what appeared to of the resolution of such a classic problem
be the most important thing was not the is only arbitrary and artificial time, which
solution of a problem but the way of posing has no bearing on the time which relates to
it. Instead of requiring that the child shall the solving of the real problem as it is
solve problems, mathematical education experienced by the solver.
ought to stimulate the child to ask their own
questions (clearly more is envisaged than We guess now how it will be possible to find
the writing out in their own words of little an issue to the alternative above. Instead
stories on a familiar theme: instead we are of starting with problems situated at an
contemplating a reversal of what is usually objective level in a reality completely
done). The need to give children a sense of determined, we must start with problems
problem arises because we need creative situated at the level of the subject in a
mathematicians and not only people who reality not completely determined. The
know mathematics and can express clearly problem will consist in determining it and in
what they know. Suppose that, instead of turning it into a ‘solved reality’. The time
having problems set for them, children factor entering into the solution will be a
meet, invent and construct their own creative time used mentally and actually:
problems! For what matters is the having a proper function and not (as in the
questioning: reflection is only a question in trivial example) just as an artifice.
action. Questioning should not come from
It is obvious that such a way of looking at a
the object but from the subject. It is man
problem accords with true mental activity.
who asks questions of nature; there is a
In life we are faced with problems which are
response if the questions are well framed.
at first more or less undetermined. People
But in our classrooms what happens is just
live at different levels of awareness of what
the contrary: objective reality is used to put
reality is, which gives an illusion that
questions to the child, and the questions
another person could enter a situation that
are put in such a way as to leave the
is from the first perfectly determined. To
possibility of only one answer.
their awareness it is at first incompletely
I want to show that a problem taken at the determined; it is through the effort to
‘object’ level, about a reality already fixed, increase this awareness that the other
cannot be other than artificial since the person determines it. Initially, there is
nothing but a ‘fact’: e.g. the necessity of
17
constructing a house; or the presence of a reach through action. In the process he
certain number of objects; or the apparent finds the data of his problems. According
movements of the sun, etc… These facts as he wishes to go in one direction or
offer a base for the progressive another, he sees which terms he needs to
development of all that is possible. support actions and adjust operations
accordingly. But the terms relative to the
In all fields of education and especially with
ones he uses are implied by the child’s
young children, we must start with
choices and he becomes aware both of the
indefinite situations (for such is the reality
terms and of the relations. A child’s
in which they live). If in such a situation it is
deliberate constructive action gives them
the size or number of objects that must be
the power to analyse a reality which at first
considered, the problem becomes
was only potential. Having introduced more
mathematics. With the little ones who are
and more ‘necessities’ until he has reached
just beginning to count, I suggest that
a certain point in the field of determination,
problems arise from facts as simple as this:
he can go back, unlinking the related terms
someone has given us a certain number of
and freeing the possibilities, until there
things (pictures shall we say). What shall
remains only one thing given, the number
we do with them? Each child starts off in
of possibilities becoming again infinite – the
any way they like, to find out what can be
return gives a rational development of all
done from the fact they have a number of
possibilities.
pictures. All kinds of problems arise
spontaneously. The harvest cannot fail to The traditional problem is found at the final
be rich. From this lively beginning with its stage of the first movement in this scheme:
possibilities of flying off in all directions, the one that goes from relative
however, certain especially interesting indetermination into complete
avenues can be found and explored: for determination. To bombard the child with
example, collecting sets of cards given out disguised versions of some fixed types of
in succession. This provides an endless problems is quite unnecessary, whereas
series of possibilities obtained in a precise from any real fact an infinite number of
manner. In another direction, on the problems can be developed.
contrary, it can happen that the possibilities
It is worth saying that if we start from what
become rarer and rarer, that we tread ways
is indefinite the child ceases to be
more and more restricted and impose on
obsessed by the answer, a magic figure
ourselves conditions more and more
which s/he must find at all costs. Since s/he
difficult, until we reach the point at which
is no longer confined in a maze from which
the large or small number of terms left are
s/he must find one exit, any issue is
in a state of completely static equilibrium.
valuable when s/he can justify it. The
To take a simple example, let us suppose
child’s mind is concentrated on their own
that we decide to take two sets of cards: if
aims and actions. Each child can respond
we fix only the difference between the
at their own level, giving their own solutions
number of cards in the two sets (say by
and explaining them freely. Also, the data
giving three more cards to one child than
which s/he finds and brings in are those
the other), there is an infinite number of
which suit the growing demands for
possibilities; if only the sum is fixed (the
precision corresponding to the child’s own
cards of one set being shared between two
awareness, and hence s/he has full
children) the possibilities form a definite
understanding of their function. S/he is no
series; if both sum and difference are fixed,
longer embarrassed with more terms than
then only one solution is possible.
s/he can deal with, having no idea why they
So, placed in an indefinite situation which are included.
he wishes to determine, the child uses their
imagination towards an aim that he will
18
Perhaps all this will throw some light on number or size of the elements (trying to
problems about unequal parts, as in find out how to combine and arrange what
mixtures, alloys, etc. These are supposed we have, in order to make another new
to be difficult and many methods are used length each time). In each case, we
to solve them, e.g. graphs, reasoning. examine the field of possibilities, consider
mnemonics, although it is considered new demands and make a choice that will
preferable to use algebra in a mechanical fit the concrete situation. The analysis
way once the formation of equations has takes into account the factors involved and
been learnt. I quote a typical example from the part they play: the greater the variety of
a book intended for teaching in the fourth elements, or the smaller the elements, or
year of secondary school: “Two casks the smaller the differences between them,
contain equal quantities of wine. The wine the greater is the number of possible
in the first cask costs 70 francs per litre, and lengths that can be formed. Then if we
that in the second costs 75 francs per litre. become interested in the work of chemists
Half the contents of the second cask are or salesmen who want to mix liquids of
poured into the first one, and then half of varying price or consistency, we can start
this mixture is poured back into the second off by finding the composition or the price,
cask. The contents of the latter then have a of mixtures which can be made, and
total value of 730 francs. Find what quantity discover the limits of variation that we can
of wine each cask held initially.” The way choose from. Finally, we may investigate
the statement is made almost leads one to how to obtain a mixture having such and
believe that the mixture has been made at such a consistency or price that we
random and as it happens one becomes presume to be possible. It is soon seen that
aware of its price, then wondering what the if the number chosen is the arithmetic
composition might be. Certainly, some mean of the given elements, the mixture
children do understand it like that. As if the can easily be made. Other cases may be
composition had not been known first in more difficult. Suppose we start with liquids
order for the price to be evaluated! Since of value 3u and 10u and decide to make a
this is the case, the real problem requires mixture from these that has any other of the
that we shall find the proportions in which intermediate values we happen to choose.
the elements must be combined so that a Cuisenaire rods will provide a particularly
predetermined price can be charged. So, I useful aid in the work. A child decides to
want to show that it is only when children make a mixture of value 6u. She begins by
are given the opportunity to ‘live’ the whole mixing one litre of each so that he gets 10u
problem Just as it appears to anyone who + 3u = 13u (an orange and a light green
actually wants to make mixtures of any rod), when the liquid she wants should be
kind, that they will be able to understand only 2 x 6u = 12u (2 dark green rods), so
and master the compensating dynamics she finds that she has too much. If she
involved in such problems. adds a litre of the lower rate, then for three
litres of the mixture, 13u + 3u = 16u (an
What we want, when we make mixtures, is
orange and two light greens); although she
to obtain intermediate quantities. As it is
should obtain 3 x 6u = 18u (3 dark greens).
easier to realise what happens when the
Now she has not enough, so decides to
elements preserve their identity within the
add a litre of the higher value. She
mixture, a good beginning could come from
continues in this way until she reaches the
imagining oneself to be a carpenter who
exact mixture she wants (such that the line
has to make a floor with blocks of wood of
of orange and light green rods is the same
different lengths. First, we decide on the
length as the line of dark green rods). This
total length (and discover how the elements
happens after mixing seven litres: four of
can be combined in various ways to make
value 3u and three of value 10u (4 light
up this length), next we consider the
19
green rods and 3 orange rods = 7 dark lies between these, and the second
green rods). obvious fact is that it will be a multiple of 5
if people dealt with integers. Seeing the
When we examine all the solutions
figure 730 fr. suggests at once that we are
obtained by the various members of the
concerned with 10 litres at 73 fr. per litre,
class, we see that each of the different
composed of 2/5 wine at 70 fr. (4 litres) and
mixtures chosen was found by combining
3/5 wine at 75 fr. (6 litres). All that remains
seven litres but in different proportions.
to be done is to take into account that the
This comparison confirms the awareness
second cask contains half of the 70 fr. wine,
that what concerns us is the difference
which tells us immediately that both casks
between two quantities, and as a result the
originally held 8 litres.
pupil can appreciate the way in which
intermediate quantities could be formed. Problems of this kind are often stated with
With seven litres of value 3u (a train of 7 one extra fact that is irrelevant (which may
light green rods) and seven litres of value be the total number of litres of the mixture),
10u (a train of 7 orange rods) we can make while a direct insight makes for greater
all possible mixtures. By interchanging economy of labour. There is now no
litres of 3u and 10u (which is to replace a laborious forming of equations followed by
light green rod by an orange rod and vice blind mechanical resolution; no tedious
versa) our first mixtures have values of 4u arguments based on false assumptions; no
and 9u per litre. Explaining in terms of the imaginary substitutions which are so long
rods: to use an orange instead of a light winded and involve repeating the same
green adds “7” to the total length which process over and over again. ‘Reasoning’
initially was of 7 light greens. This is is brought in because one does not ‘see’.
equivalent to supplying one white rod to But the child who can see is only the one
each or to exchanging light green rods for who is allowed to experience the true
crimson rods. Similarly, to remove one of problem in all its vicissitudes and not its a
the orange rods and put a light green one priori resolution: that is, the child who
in its place can be considered, mixes and who provides himself with the
alternatively, as changing to a train of blue changing reality on which he works so that
rods. At the next exchange of a light green he can observe the effects of what he does
rod and an orange one, the new mixtures, to it, creating various and interesting fields
5 light greens + 2 oranges and 2 light of determination. The highly structured
greens + 5 oranges are equivalent to trains ‘traditional’ problem should be used only as
of 7 yellow and 7 brown (and have values a final test by which a child proves that
5u and 8u per litre). We continue in this way mastery of mixture problems is such that he
until we have made the total of all can also ‘see’ when the problem is
possibilities (between 3 and 10). The reversed. This reversibility is now possible
development gives insight into the whole and time does not enter any more, since
scheme so that a child will see at once that the whole problem has been exhausted
if she wants a mixture of value 8u, say, she through true problems clearly seen.
combines the liquids 3u and 10u in the
My thoughts now turn in another direction.
proportions of 2/7 and 5/7.
I mentioned earlier that all teaching must
On returning to the former problem that begin with situations that are not precisely
was supposed to be difficult, we find that determined, but which need to be formed,
the children have become experts on and that by taking a certain point of view on
mixtures of all kinds so that they find is it, the problem becomes mathematics. I
already resolved (as, truly, it is) without now want to discuss this instant at which
their even having had to pick up a pencil. the problem changes into mathematics.
From the values combined, of 70 fr. and 75
fr., the first thing we see is that the result
20
If a problem is concerned with a concrete determined to make it as regular as we
reality, this might be of such a quality that it possibly could: now we found the same
could not at once be dealt with as result every time to within one count, this
mathematics without imposing arbitrarily sudden deep awareness of the relation of
on the child. Telling the time is a good the subject to the children’s world led to
example. It is not a foregone conclusion endless questions about clock-making, etc
that a child is ready to learn to tell the time and to further widening of the field of
simply by virtue of the fact the she knows consciousness of time (what would
how to multiply by 5. There is the risk of happen if clocks did not mark the passing
teaching nothing but a meaningless ritual. I of time, first thinking of the disturbance that
will describe an experience I had with five- it would cause in our little schoolchildren’s
year-olds that shows at what moment such world and then going on to imagine the
knowledge can be introduced. chaos that would enter the whole of social
life). It showed me that it is not until children
We were in a new classroom which had an
are conscious of problems of time, and of
electric clock; in the children’s stories this
the correspondence of the different
clock often entered as a mythical person of
movements in the world that they are ready
evil repute. I then became aware that the
to consider a mathematical point of view.
children did not realise that the clock hands
moved uniformly, and that for them it lived Further reflections on this revealing
between stopped moments. They thought example make one wonder if the difficulties
the hands made a small movement. which some adolescents have in applying
Stopped for a longer period, moved on a mathematics to practical problems are not
little, stopped again, and so on. “But,” I caused by their having been plunged too
asked, “what about when it is completely soon into quantitative aspects of it. A
stopped?” one sensitive and intelligent qualitative study should first clear the
child gave an answer to which the other ground, sweep away obstacles and provide
children assented: “When we turn around the opportunity to develop awarenesses
and round we get giddy and then have to that are essential to a proper
stop. It is the same with the clock, for understanding of the practical situation
although the hands don’t go around so involved.
quickly, the force of turning makes it giddy
To summarise, what we are
so that it has to stop to recover.” Interest
recommending is an existential conception
being aroused, we watched carefully to see
of problem: that problems should form and
when the hands moved. To pass the time
mould themselves from the spontaneous
the children began to count. Each time the
contours of the child’s thought, favouring
hand moved when they had reached a
its movement towards greater maturity. It
different number, since their speed of
is no longer a question of puzzles
counting was not regular and they also lost
perfectly complete, and independent of
count in bursts of laughter when they saw
the subject who has to deal with them.
the hands move. They noticed the
The individual should be called upon to
variability, but attributed it to the moodiness
interfere effectively and efficaciously in
of the clock or its degree of giddiness. This
order to raise reality to a higher level of
continued for some time, until one child
structure. This is why a true problem of
said firmly: “No, the clock’s hands move
consciousness must be a problem having
evenly, it is we who count too quickly.”
true duration, requiring time for its
What a turning of the tables! From
solution: which means that the mind is
measuring its movement, we had
alert and, from its growing awareness, is
discovered instead that it measured our
constructing the world.
own! We sat at the table with our eyes Mathematics Teaching No. 7 July 1958
glued to the clock and beat out a measure,
21
A Farewell Address we had tremendous mental powers; and
we still treat them all as if they had none.
(a large meeting on the last evening of This is what I know to be true. Why is no
ATM Conference, Winchester, 1988. This one trying to know whether indeed it is true
is a slightly curtailed transcript of Dr or not, to put me in my place if it is not true,
Gattegno’s talk, prepared by Dick Tahta or else go on with research that I started
and agreed with him) and try to add something to it? This is the
most important thing. I have repeatedly
… I am very glad to be with you. I see three
written articles, that you may not have read,
or four faces that I have known for many
in which I say: don’t waste your time,
years, a few that I have known for fewer
please, doing all sorts of things that people
years, and many I’ve never met. I won’t
have been doing for so long, with slightly
know you because I am talking to you, but
better results, in terms of having two
I hope that I will be able to say something
children in a class who understand it
worthwhile for you.
instead of one….
In 1950, before ATM, I held a weekend
I did not prepare this talk. I had thought I
seminar at Braziers Park in Oxfordshire.
was going to meet with perhaps one or a
People came from the schools where I had
dozen people who were interested in
students from the London Institute of
discussing some question or other. Now I
Education. It happened that I suggested
see a variety of people sitting together and
that maybe we could consider that one day
I would like to put to you a number of
there would be a request for the metric
issues. The first is that there is only one
system to be adopted by the British. I didn’t
instrument in research in order to find
finish my sentence before I had a riot.
answers. One instrument and that is to
(laughter) That was excluded forever. You
raise questions, to ask questions. To
see, I was so surprised that something as
question is the instrument. And if you don’t
mild as ‘let’s talk of the metric system’
question, then don’t be astonished that you
created so much turmoil.
don’t find anything.
Well you have the metric system now, and
There are questions that are trivial and
it was almost 40 years ago that I asked
don’t serve any purpose: What’s the time?
teachers to consider it. I’ve been asking
Five to nine. Its finished, it’s a useless
teachers to consider other matters for the
question. What’s your name? it’s a useless
same length of time and I haven’t had a riot.
question. Now, there are important
But I’ve had silence, except from the one or
questions and we have to learn to ask
two people tonight who let me know that it
them. One important question is: why is it
happens that I have had some input into
that every one of us did not speak until the
their lives. Well, since nobody tells me how
ninth month or tenth or twenty-fourth month
would I know? I am not sure that what I am
after birth? This is an important question.
going to say tonight will not create a riot but,
Why is it that we don’t speak for many
if it does, wait 40 years and you will see
months and then a year, or a few months,
what…(laughter)
later, we do speak? It is disturbing to have
I have no pleasure in saying that the fields a question of this kind: why is it that I did
in which I work hardly interest anybody, not speak? The answer is so rich, in terms
anywhere. I call myself the greatest failure of your own education, that I hope you will
in the field of education because I tried so put it to yourselves.
much and achieved so little…I see that
Another question is: why do I sleep every
nobody’s prepared to find one of the most
night? This is one of the most stupid
important things that I have put in front of
questions, yet one which has the greatest
you, several times through your journal.
profundity and a tremendous yield. Why is
That is, that when we were little children,
22
it that I sleep every night? Another publications. You have to be researchers
question is: what is the cost of learning because you are interested in the truth of
anything? Is there an objective way in the situation in which you find yourselves.
which we can know what it costs to be as
You are there with n children, a small
good at addition as Weierstrass?
number if they are meant to be
Weierstrass was a great mathematician
handicapped in some way or another, in
and he must have been good at addition.
larger numbers if they are supposed to be
(laughter) Why is it that it takes so long to
normal. You are paid by the LEA to do a
teach long division and that it’s not
certain job. You have to separate this
understood by so many? The cost of
requirement that you have to perform to
learning anything is an important question.
justify your cheque from the actual
It is included in a wider challenge, which
opportunity that you have of knowing
you may perhaps want to work on: what is
something that is not yet known. It is not yet
the economics of education? …
known because university researchers only
I say something that is going to be true in spend a few hours a week watching a
2021 or 28 let’s say, to be more optimistic. certain group of people. You spend thirty
And that is that every child, in every school, hours a week, if you are in a primary
will learn two new languages every year. I school, or five hours a week with each
know it to be true. And for you it’s just class if you are in a secondary school, if I
nonsense, one more sign of the craziness am correct in my recollections of what I did
of that man. I know it is true. Therefore, if in the late 40s. I can assure you that what I
you wait to 2028, you will see it. And if you know, I learnt in these situations. I learnt it
work for it, it will be known in 2027, because I allowed my students to enlighten
perhaps. me.
Among the people that I have met in my life, People often say: ‘I teach them but they
and I have met perhaps a hundred don’t learn’. Well, if you know that, stop
thousand teachers, in forty-eight countries, teaching. (laughter) Not resign from your
I haven’t met one who believes that there is job: stop teaching in the way that doesn’t
a need for him or her to find out whether I’m reach people, and try to understand what
crazy or speaking the truth. I don’t mind if there is to do for you to become daily more
you say I am crazy. What does it mean? If skilled in helping these youngsters furnish
I was that crazy, you wouldn’t be here. their minds with things that are so
There must be some attenuation of that elementary that, where they take five years
craziness of mine that makes you come today, I can do them in 18 months,
and spend a few minutes in my presence. sometimes less.
We haven’t yet begun, ladies and It’s so elementary, what we teach in the
gentlemen, to see that before we can BSc or in the high school. We take years to
improve education, we must study it. And do something which could be done, when
we must study it seriously, not go to it’s well understood, in weeks, days or
courses and wait for someone to tell us hours. You see, I said to you a few
what we think. I hear that there was one moments ago, they can learn two
session today about the teacher as languages every year, and yet they take
researcher. If you read what I wrote in the five years not to learn a language.
late 40s, early 50s, this is spelt out there. (laughter) They do several terms in
And it is spelt out with a certain force, in geometry and have no idea of what it is. Not
which I said: ’Only you, who are in the everybody; those that pass the exam get a
classroom, can do this study. If you don’t social sanction that, perhaps they know.
do it, it will not be done’. You don’t have to The others – those that acknowledge the
be researchers with degrees, wanting fact - they tell you: ‘I don’t understand
23
anything in algebra, anything in geometry. make something, Einstein had to do
I don’t understand’. How is it they don’t something, there was room for changes.
understand? This is a good question: how But Copernicus changed our mind. He was
is it that they don’t understand? the one who said: … sit on the sun and look
at the world. He could do it at his desk in
Behind all these few words that I am telling
his cell. He sat on the sun and looked, and
you, there are years of reflection,
he saw.
experiment and trials, with sometimes a
correct answer found in a reasonable time, Don’t you think there is a lesson to learn,
sometimes not found, ever…The that the whole of humanity can be wrong
opportunity we have of educating ourselves and one person not? If you are carried by
has been wasted year after year after year. tradition, well, nobody will say anything,
I did not waste it; but I say that to myself nobody will notice if you put the brakes on,
because nobody believes it, nobody knows and stop and say why, why am I going that
it. I didn’t waste it. I know that every time I way? You see, all the foundations of
was in a classroom, working in a certain mathematics, as we know them in the
way, when I finished I could tell myself: ‘you literature, are based on the axioms that
have found this that you did not find earlier Peano, Hilbert, Landau, and so on, have
in similar circumstances, and it belongs to made known to us. And, these foundations
the situation, it is part of it’. of mathematics, I say, are wrong. Why are
they wrong? You see, these names – I
Why do I have to be respectful of tradition
didn’t add Russell, I didn’t add the great
when I don’t even know how much struggle
names of this country, Whitehead and
those who imposed, or made, this tradition
others – well, if you add them, they are all
available, had to go through so many years
wrong together. (laughter)
ago? There are those who believe that God
wrote the Bible. Are you among those who They are all wrong together because they
believe that the curriculum has been written only worked on the content of their minds.
by God? Or written by some people who, They didn’t work on the reality, the reality of
may be extremely learned, or know the little the minds of learners. They weren’t
that is sufficient to get on committees which concerned with that, they were concerned
allow them to make proposals which are with writing a set of axioms and then to use
passed by the hierarchy? For me, every the machinery and obtain the
one of these is a question that I have to put consequences which we have integrated
to myself. I’m not answering. I have to put into our curriculum. They were so little
questions... concerned with reality that they did not
notice that counting is a complex activity.
Why is it that we are so respectful of
We have, for centuries, taught people, by
tradition? Do you remember 1543? This is
offering counting as the basis of
the year of the death of Copernicus. A few
elementary arithmetic. It’s wrong! Shall I
months earlier, he had published his
say it louder? Its wrong. Not because I say
treatise and he had the good taste to die
so, but because counting is a complex
immediately afterwards. (laughter)
activity. It’s a complex activity asking of
Copernicus told us one thing. Against all
children more than is required in order to
the beliefs of everybody up to that time, he
give them a better foundation.
was alone, just a monk in a Polish
monastery. Today, we don’t know any of You all know that it takes a little time for
the others and we still think that Copernicus little children to say: one, two, three, four,
made a gift to us of a vision of the world that five…They say: one, seven, three, two,
is true. Not totally true, since Kepler had to four. Don’t they sometimes say this? And
make some changes, and Newton had to after a while they say: one, two, three…
make some explanation, Laplace had to And you are very very happy that they say
24
one, two, three, like you. But you didn’t ask children learn. So, he interviewed mothers.
yourselves: why do they say: one, seven, Can you imagine? Can you imagine
three, two? Why? It happens so often; so wanting to learn how children learn, and
many people know that their own children saying it must be the mother who teaches?
do that. But they don’t stop to ask the And then he wanted, with his assistants, to
question. Once the children get it right – spend a lot of time in knowing how mothers
which means they do what everybody does connect with their children. And the
– then we are satisfied. It doesn’t strike problem – the challenge – he ignored. It did
anyone that they do it, that they have spent not occur to him to ask: how did I learn to
some time sorting things out by speak my language?
themselves. Does it make you wonder, how
The answer that you all give is: I can’t
do they work, these children? How do they
remember; therefore, I can’t do this study.
use their minds in order to get what we are
True, you can’t remember. But it’s not true
going to build our arithmetic on?
that you can’t do the study. If only you
When I travelled in Europe, I discovered could, in your work, get the support, of the
that in Czechoslovakia, you teach the first reality of how we, as very young children,
year up to 5, the second up to 10, the third as babies, have used our powers, our
up to 20. In Yugoslavia, you never mention human powers. If you relate to them, in the
numbers until children are seven. So that proper manner, then the future will be so
they don’t know that they live at 25 King’s wonderful. You’ll see that all the things that
Road, or 28 King’s Road. They are not are oppressive, creating depression in so
allowed, you see. And when you go to other many teachers, burning them out and so
countries, you find the same thing. In the on, have no reason to be there.
preface of Piaget’s Child’s Conception of
There’s a Copernican revolution to be
Number, he says children keep learning
made. Let us begin with the learner, not
integers every year up to the age of six.
with the teacher and the teachers’ courses,
Nonsense, nonsense, my child, at the age
or the regulations and the curriculum. Let’s
of three, would bring the parchisi set and
begin with the learners. And you don’t all
say: can we play it in base 3? If you are not
have to start at birth…You can be with
interested in understanding how the minds
children at any stage and you will discover
of your students work, maybe it’s time to
things about learning which are going to
start. Maybe it’s time for you to ask
help you more than you can believe today,
questions that will help you.
more than you can hope for tomorrow, or
Have you ever noticed that children learn to ever know, until you do it again and again
speak their mother tongue by themselves? with different groups on different subjects
And that you are evading questions in in different ways. It’s a whole area that
saying: they do it by imitation. ‘By imitation’, belongs to education: to reach the learning
indeed. The greatest nonsense, I have ever process in human beings.
heard, and everybody repeats it. It’s
You know what they did in Harvard, Yale,
absolutely wrong. No-one can learn to
Edinburgh, and perhaps London? They
speak the mother tongue by imitation. So,
went to animals to learn about human
you have to ask the question: how did we,
learning. They found somethings that
because we were babies, how did we learn
animals do and then they had the problem,
our mother tongue? What sort of powers of
the very difficult problem: how does it relate
the mind did we have to sort these things
to what humans do? But if you start with
out by themselves?
humans and you say: I am sure of one
These questions are possible. They were thing, and that is that everybody, who is not
possible for me, they are possible for you. deaf, or has some other trouble, learns to
Jerome Bruner wanted to study how young speak the language. Whatever it is…any
25
language can be learned by little ones. Why is it that the child who learnt to stand
They must do some things with their mind. does not stand like a statue the rest of his
They must have the mind to do those life? He has achieved something
things. And since the parents don’t know extraordinary. And instead he says, well I
what they are, the parents can’t teach their know how – what – I have done. I am going
little children. If they did know, they to use this to conquer the next stage, and
wouldn’t know how to teach it. Then the next stage is to walk. And once I have
children would not speak, just as they don’t learnt to walk, I am not going to walk the
learn to read or write or do arithmetic. rest of my life, I’m going to recognise that
(laughter) there is a component of my walk which is
called speed, and I’m going to speed it up.
I’m trying to say very few things and I hope
And the result will be that something new
that one out of all of you will take it seriously
happens and I can…run.
and you will look into what is the reality of
human learning, that, in which I, you, This is the state of mind of the learners, that
everyone, has been involved. Why is it that they don’t rest after each mastery. They
I didn’t speak after I was born? My aim at mastery: when they have it, they use
environment was speaking all the time, so it to conquer the next thing. This is what
it can’t be the environment that does it. human learning is. It’s already found in
Why is it that I spent months sorting things some animals in some areas, but human
out? With what did I sort things out? beings do it all the time. They go on and on
Mothers are satisfied to say, when children doing this same work on something till they
make a mistake: I tell them again and again master it. One they master it, they apply it,
and again what they should say. Well, they they transfer it. This is the important thing
can say that, you say it, every day. You about human learning that has allowed us
repeat so many times what you do in your to go on and on finding more of what is
teaching. The result is, the students get ours, what belongs to our capabilities, our
bored, they don’t listen to you anymore. Not mind…
that they learn better because you repeat…
Once at my desk in Addis Ababa in 1957, I
You are prepared to say: if people are blushed, I was so ashamed of myself.
serious and equip themselves in the proper 1957, twenty years after I got my doctorate
manner and give themselves special in mathematics, I understood what we do
instruments, we can know a great deal when we add two fractions… I did not know
about this and that – in physics, chemistry, that to add two fractions involves addition.
biology and so on. You are prepared to say I said it but I didn’t know it. I could write it, I
that. Why aren’t you prepared to say, if we could get the answer, but I didn’t know what
equipped ourselves in a certain way, we it meant to add two fractions. And
would be able to enter the challenges suddenly, I realised that, whenever I have
knowing what learning really is? pears and apples, two pears and three
apples, I don’t have five apples or five
One of the instruments, that you all have, is
pears. I have something altered, I have five
to ask questions. You don’t need
pieces of fruit. So why did I do that?
microscopes or telescopes… You only
Because I wanted to find how to get them
need to open up your mind, to say: I can’t
together, I had to raise myself to another
remember therefore I can’t recall it, I’m
level where the pears, pearness and
going to find out what it is – and I’m going
appleness are replaced by fruitness. And at
to find out in truth what it is. And slowly, you
that moment, I can say five. And I never
educate yourselves. Slowly you find out
realised that ‘common denominator’ meant
that no baby walks before he or she can
‘give the same name’ to both. And in the
learn to stand. No baby runs until he or she
middle of the word ‘denominator’ I see a
can walk. There are hierarchies in time.
French word ‘nom’ which I knew very well.
26
It didn’t strike me, ever, that it is addition possible that it only takes two years to be
that forces me to get denominators, master of the arithmetic.
common denominators, not fractions. That
was my shame…
(at this stage various remarks were made
The logicians believe that there is only one inviting comment on what had been said,
1, and how could they make 2, with one and taking up some further issues)
1?...they say: we add 1 to itself…and so I
The challenge is still there. Is it true? Is it
go and repeat to my students there is only
true that if the mind is clear, if the children
one 1, and you add 1 to itself.. when in fact
know what they are doing, it goes fast, they
you need bags of 1’s (laughter), bags of 2’s
remember everything forever? Is it true?
and bags of 3’s. You know you’ll be able to
Find out.
move ahead, to take any step. And if you
have bags in which there are as many as There are a number of articles in MT over
you would ever need, you don’t want. But if the last fifteen years which tell a number of
you only had one 1: what a life. these things. If you still have the collection,
try to find out by reading. Find whether
When I was young, when I was reading the
these articles, that were written for you,
works of so-called great men, great
have any power or inspiration. This is the
mathematicians and so on, I was
way of teaching, to inspire, not to inform.
impressed by what they said. So, I know
Don’t forget that, when you stand in front of
that one can be impressed by what one
your children. Unless they have already got
reads. But this is no reason to punish the
certain experiences, your height is the
youngsters who come to us by trying to get
justification for their worship. They think
them impressed. Well, when you work on
you are strong. And it is reinforced when
these questions with an open mind, you
they think that you have so much
stop being intimidated, you stop being
knowledge, and they don’t. So, there is a
carried away. You recover your
discrepancy – a spiritual difference –
independence, your autonomy. And you
between where you stand and where they
know that what you have to do, what you’re
stand. And this difference, by itself, creates
doing belongs to the challenge, it’s a
the inspiration. This is why it is what you are
discipline you have to give yourself – a
that matters in teaching, not what you
spiritual discipline. This is part of the
know…
education of teachers. To make them know
that, without spiritual discipline, they can’t Thirty-seven, or thirty-six, years ago, we
be free – they can’t free themselves. Once were a handful when we started. A few
they discover how to free themselves, of months later, we were a platoon. A year
this or that, they see that there is a reality later, perhaps we were a company. Now
which can be presented to others in the you are a brigade. You can do so much
way they have received it…so I would say, more. By your numbers alone, you can do
if I have criteria, my job is to make them so much more to transform the teaching of
have criteria, not knowledge. Knowledge mathematics.
will come out of that….
Goodnight. (applause)
I wrote in the late fifties, early sixties, a
From Gattegno Anthology (ATM, 1988) and audio
series of textbooks for children. And, I
clip https://www.atm.org.uk/write/MediaUpload
suppose some teachers saw them, but
s/About/History_Gattegno/It_only_takes_t
their children never saw them. They are for
wo_years_to_be_master_of_arithmetic_•_
children: they contain what I know about
1m01s_•_1.2Mb.mp3
children’s powers. And, I try to help them,
by using their powers: but I finish the first 6
years of the course in two? But if you are at
all touched by truth, find out. Find out if it is
27
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1

Gattegno Cuisenaire® Reader

Jenny Cane Mathematical MT257 3

Caroline Ainsworth Consistency of MT253 8

Caleb Gattegno A Farewell Address Gattegno 22

- Jenny Cane - - Caroline Ainsworth -

- Madeleine Goutard - - Ian Benson -

- Caleb Gattegno - - Caleb Gattegno -

Madelaine Goutard illustrates this approach to lesson design in her article.

July 2017 www.atm.org.uk 3

July 2017 www.atm.org.uk 5

Crucially, the trains remain in the rod domain and the

6 July 2017 www.atm.org.uk

The tasks are accessible to all but are deep enough to

Figure 8: Illustration from What we owe children: The

July 2017 www.atm.org.uk 7

September 2016 www.atm.org.uk 8

9 September 2016 www.atm.org.uk

quantity is added to or subtracted from both numbers,

Repeated and varied activities using this arrangement

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number sentences. Family of equivalent fractions (or quotients)

11 September 2016 www.atm.org.uk

limit their ideas to labelling an image with a fraction

Caroline Ainsworth is a specialist primary

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March 2015 www.atm.org.uk 13

Figure 2. A set of complete patterns of rods from white to

Gattegno, 1963b, For the teaching of

14 March 2015 www.atm.org.uk

Join ATM at any time and receive twelve months of membership,

 Five copies of the ATM journal Mathematics Teaching (MT)

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