Foundation Biology For NEET - Ol - Disha Experts

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EBD_7029
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Contents
1. Crop Production & Management 1-34
2. Micro-organisms 35-66
3. Conservation of Plants and Animals 67-90
4. Cell-Structure and Functions 91-122
5. Reproduction in Animals 123-148
6. Reaching the Age of Adolescence 149-180
7. Pollution of Air and Water 181-198
8. Life Processes 199-209
9. Tissues 210-227
10. Diversity in Living Organisms 228-241
11. Genetics 242-252

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Chapter
CROP PRODUCTION &
1 MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Food, required for all organisms including human beings, is an edible or potable substance (usually of animal or plant origin). It
consists of nourishing and nutritive components such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, essential mineral and vitamins, which
(when ingested and assimilated through digestion) sustains life, generates energy, and provides growth, maintenance, and
health of the body. The green plants synthesize their food by the process of photosynthesis while man and other animals
directly or indirectly depend on plants for their food requirement.
Humans obtain their food from plants as well as animals. They grow plants and rear animals to meet their daily requirements.
But since, human population is increasing day by day, also their food requirement is increasing along with it. Hence, we need
more than a quarter of billions of tonnes of grain every year to meet this increasing demand of food. But have you ever thought
how is the food requirement to a large number of people in a country fulfilled? The food requirement is achieved by farming
more lands, increasing the food production and by managing the production and distribution of food.
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2 BIOLOGY
CROP
Crop is a plant or plant product that can be grown or cultivated and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. For example, if all
the plants of maize are grown in a field, then it is called a maize crop. Similarly, if all the plants of wheat are grown, then it is called a wheat
crop.
Crop can be used as:
- food crops, for human consumption (e.g., wheat, potatoes).
- feed crops, for livestock consumption (e.g., oats, alfalfa).
- fibre crops, for ropes and textiles (e.g., cotton, hemp).
- oil crops, for consumption or industrial uses (e.g., cottonseed, corn).
- ornamental crops, for landscape gardening (e.g., dogwood, azalea); and industrial uses.
- secondary crops, for various personal and industrial uses (e.g., rubber, tobacco).
The first cultivated crop plants were cereals such as wheat, barley, rice and maize. Their seeds are rich in
carbohydrates and therefore form the staple diet almost everywhere in the world. Wheat is the most important
cereal in the world, followed by paddy and maize.
Table : Some other examples of crops

Crops Examples
Cereal crops Wheat, Paddy, Millet, etc
Pulses Gram, Peas, Beans
Oil seeds Mustard, Groundnut, Sunflower
Vegetables Tomato, Cabbage, Spinach
Fruits Banana, Mango, Orange etc.
All the crops are grown in their respective seasons. Paddy, for example, is grown during rainy season while maize is grown during
winter season. Therefore, on the basis of seasons, all the crops are categorised into two main groups —kharif crops and rabi crops.
(i) Kharif crops : The crops grown in rainy season during the months of June to October are called Kharif crops. They are also
known as summer or monsoon crop. These crops require warm, wet weather at major period of crop growth and also required
short day length for flowering. Soyabean, maize, sugarcane, groundnut, paddy and cotton are the examples of Kharif crops.
(ii) Rabi crops : The crops grown in winter season from November to April are called rabi crops. They are also known as winter crop.
Crops grow well in cold and dry weather and require longer day length for flowering. Wheat, barley, mustard, peas etc. are some
examples of rabi crops.
Another type of crop is summer/zaid crops. These crops are grown in summer month from March to June. They require warm day
weather for major growth period and longer day length for flowering. E.g. groundnuts, watermelon, pumpkins, gourds.
Worms helps plants by mixing the soil, so gardeners love them because they are “free” help.
P oi n t
1. Why we classify crop plants?
2. What will happen if the farmer grows Rabi crops during rainy season instead of winter?
3. Why crops such as paddy are grown only in rainy season?
SOLUTION
1. We classify crop plants:

- To get acquainted with crops.
- To know the adaptability of crops.
- To know the growing habit of crops.
- To know the growing season of the crop
Crop Production & Management 3
- To understand the climatic requirement of different crops.

- To know the economic produce of the crop plant & its use.
- To understand the requirement of soil & water for different crops.
- Overall to know the actual condition required for the cultivation of plant.
2. If Rabi crops are sown in rainy season i.e. from June to October, then the whole plant crop will get destroyed. This could be
because of factors required to maintain the crops such as lack of optimum temperature, adaptability, availability of pests and
many more. Hence, Rabi crops such as wheat, mustard etc. should be sown only in winter season
3. It is because crops such as paddy require large quantity of water. Therefore, they are grown in the rainy season to fulfill their
excessive water requirement.
Agriculture forms a complex web of product, producer, distributor and consumer. All of them are interconnected
and dependent upon each other for survival.
AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
The growing of crops in the fields by the farmer for obtaining food like wheat, rice etc, is called agriculture. About 70% of the India’s
population is dependent on agriculture. They are also ranked second in terms of agricultural output.
Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created
food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science.
The reason for the increased agricultural output is the steady improvement in irrigation methods, new agricultural technology and
modern agricultural practices. Farmers carry out certain activities in a particular sequence till the crops mature at harvest. These
activities are known as agricultural practices. These practices increases the overall yield of a crop.
Agricultural Practices
Preparation of Sowing of Addition of Irrigation Protection Harvesting Storage of food

Soil Seeds Manure and from weeds & grains
Fertilizers Crop protection
Ploughing Levelling Manuring

Outline classification of basic agricultural practices carried out at various stages of crop production
PREPARATION OF SOIL
Crop quality greatly depends on soil composition. The ideal soil is balanced, well-drained, fertile and with a pH (acidity level) situated
between 6 and 7. It is important to add decomposed manure or compost which, in addition to improving soil structure and composition,
will supply nutritive elements required by the plants. Preparation of soil is the first step to be followed before growing a crop. It is
usually employed to loosen the soil. Plants absorb water, nutrients and salts from the soil. Therefore, it is important to prepare soil for
a healthy produce.
METHODS OF SOIL PREPARATION

The soil is prepared for sowing the seeds of the crop by ploughing, levelling and manuring.
Ploughing
The process of loosening and turning the soil is called ploughing or tilling. A properly set up plough will break and turn the soil so that
all the weeds, (grass), crop residue and debris are buried without any scrap of waste present in the field. It also provides a seed free
medium for planting an alternative crop.
The loosening of soil plays an important role in crop production because –
(i) It allows the plant roots to penetrate freely and deeper into the soil so that plants are held firmly to the ground.
(ii) It also allows the roots of the plant to breathe easily. It is because loose soil can hold a lot of air in its spaces.
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4 BIOLOGY
(iii) It helps in the growth of microbes and worms present in soil.
(iv) It helps to remove weeds and other undesirable plants in the field.
FRIENDLY EARTHWORMS
Earthworms are called best friends of farmers. They can consume practically all kinds of organic matter. They pull down any organic
matter that is deposited on the soil surface such as leaf fall, debris etc. This organic matter then undergoes biochemical change in
the intestine of earthworm. Hence, earthworm converts the dead organic matter into rich humus, thereby enriching the soil with
nutrients.
Earthworms are important to farmers in the following respects :-
(i) It improves the soil fertility.
(ii) It maintains the physical condition of the soil.
(iii) It helps in mixing of sub soil and top soil.
(iv) It helps in providing required nutrients to plants.
(v) It helps in recycling of waste materials in the surroundings.
Tools used for ploughing are : plough, hoe and cultivator.

(i) Plough : It is the most ancient method for ploughing the seed. Ploughs are
traditionally drawn by working animals such as horses or cattle, but in modern times
Plough shaft
may be drawn by tractors. A plough may be made of wood, iron, or steel. It contains
a triangular iron rod which is called ploughshare. Then there is a long log of wood
called ploughshaft.
Plough share
The one end of the shaft has a handle and the other end is attached to a beam which
is placed on a pair of bulls or other animals such as camel, horse etc.
Importance of plough Plough
Plough
(i) It is used for breaking large lumps of soil into small pieces.
(ii) It is used for disposing weeds, grass, crop residues, debris etc from soil.
Grip
(iii) It is used for adding manure or fertilizers to the soil.
(ii) Hoe : Hoe are bladed tools that have a long rod of woods or iron. The one end of
wood has a fixed strong blade and a bent plate of iron that works like a blade. The Handle
Beam
other end is attached to a beam that is placed on a pair of bull during ploughing the
field.
Importance of hoe
Bent plate
(i) To agitate surface of soil so as to remove weeds and other unwanted plants. Rod
(ii) To dig and move the soil upside down.
(iii) To chop roots and other crop residues. Hoe
(iii) Cultivator : It is the modern method of ploughing done these days. It is an implement
equipped with shovels, blades etc. and used to break up soil & remove seeds.
Cultivators are very similar to harrows in their function but are generally used to
work large clods of soil while harrows tend to be used afterwards to create finer tilth.
While the terms cultivator and harrow are sometimes used interchangeably,
cultivators are determined by their ability to penetrate large depths in order to
sufficiently break up the soil for seedbed preparation. It involves the use of tractor
to drive cultivator.
The tractor type cultivator tiller is suitable for large scale farming especially when
you want to plant grain crops like wheat, corn and others. If you have a few acres of
land to cultivate, you should invest in this type of cultivator tiller. With the help of
a tractor, you can till and cultivate large acres of land in a short period of time.
Importance of cultivator
(i) It removes and destroys weeds, as well as fertilizes the soil and covers seeds Cultivator driver by truck
with soil.
(ii) It saves labour time involved during ploughing.
Levelling
Unevenness of the soil surface has a significant impact on the germination & yield of crops. After ploughing, the field is levelled with
the help of a leveller. It is because the ploughed soil is quite loose, so it is liable to be carried away by strong winds or washed away
by rain water. The ploughed soil is levelled by pressing it with wooden leveller.
Importance of levelling
(i) It prevents the top fertile soil from being carried away by strong winds or washed away by rain water.
(ii) It helps in uniform distribution of water in fields during irrigation.
(iii) It prevents the loss of moisture from ploughed soil.
(iv) For better crop establishment.
(v) It reduces irrigation time.
(vi) Less effort in crop management.
(vii) It increases the yield and quality.
(viii) Optimization of water use efficiency.
Levelling of agricultural land

Manuring
Manure is organic matter used as fertilizer in agriculture. Sometimes before ploughing, the
manure is added to the soil. The process of applying organic minerals and adding nutrients to
the soil is called manuring. This is done for proper mixing of manure with soil. Manuring is
done to increase the fertility of the soil before seed is sown in field. Manures improve the
fertility of the soil by adding organic matter and nutrients, such as nitrogen that is trapped by
bacteria in the soil. Higher organisms then feed on the fungi and bacteria in a chain of life.
SOWING OF SEEDS
Manuring
Sowing of seeds is the second important step of crop production. Once the soil in the fields
has been prepared by ploughing, levelling and manuring, the seeds of the crop can be sown in it. Sowing is the process of placing the
seeds in the ground soil for future growth of crop plants.
However seeds those are to be selected for growing should be of good quality. The quality of seed depends on the plants that are used
for collecting seeds.
CHARACTERISTIC OF PLANTS THAT ARE USED FOR COLLECTING THE SEEDS

(i) Plants should be healthy and of vigorous growth.
(ii) Plants resistant to pests and diseases. So that they will produce healthy seeds.
(iii) Seeds should be collected from matured, well formed plants that produce sweet tasting fruit.
(iv) Always collect healthy seeds from high yielding plants. This will ensure the good yield of plants in subsequent generation.
METHODS OF SOWING SEEDS

There are two methods of sowing the seeds in the soil. These are sowing by hand and by seed drill.
Sowing by Hand
The scattering of seed by hand is the simplest and ancient method of delivering seed to the soil. This process is known as broadcast-
ing. In this method, the seeds are scattered in the field by the farmer in standing position. This method, however has few disadvan-
tages like the seeds may not be properly distributed in field and may fall in clusters at one place and at another place there may be none.
Sowing by a Seed Drill
Sowing of seeds by drill is a better method of sowing than broadcasting. The seeds sown with this method are sown at right intervals
and at a proper depth.
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6 BIOLOGY
TOOLS USED FOR SOWING SEEDS

Traditional Tool
It is a funnel shaped tool and is driven by plough. The seeds are filled into the funnel that has a long
pipe with sharp ends. The seeds from the funnel moves into the pipe placed into the soil as plough
move.
Modern Method (Seed drill)
Seed drill is a machine for planting seed at a controlled depth and in specified amounts. These days Traditional method
seed drills are used (for sowing seed) that involves the use of tractors. of sowing
A seed drill is a long iron tube having a funnel at the top. It is tied to back of the plough and seeds
are put into the funnel of the seed drill. As the plough makes furrows in the soil, the seeds from the
seed drill are gradually released and sown into the soil furrow made by plough.
Importance of seed drill tool
(i) It allows uniform distribution of seeds into the soil at a proper depth.
(ii) It also protects the seeds from birds.
(iii) It also saves times.
PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE SOWING SEEDS IN SOIL Modern method of sowing

(i) The seeds should be sown at right intervals or spacing. It is because sowing seeds at (Seed drill)
proper distance avoids the competition among the plants. All plants in the field require
optimum light, water and nutrients for their normal growth and development. So if they are grown nearby they might compete
with each other and in turn would reduce the yield of crop. Therefore, it is advised to sow seeds at uniform distances.
(ii) Seeds should be sown at right depth in soil. If the seeds are sown too deep, then they may not germinate because they cannot
breathe due to insufficient air at greater depth. Also, if you just spread the seeds on the surface of the soil, then the seeds will
be easily picked and can be eaten by birds. Hence, seeds should be sown at proper depth in soil.
(iii) The seeds used for sowing should be clean, healthy and free from diseases.
iN THE LAB
How can you find whether the given sample of seeds are healthier or not?
Take a clean jar half filled with water. Put some seeds (damaged and healthy) into the jar and stir it well.
Now observe the seeds present in jar.
Mixture of
damaged and
healthier seeds
Damaged
seeds
Healthier
seeds
What do you observe?

You can see some of the seeds are floating on the surface while some of them settle at the bottom.
The seeds that float on water are actually damaged seeds. They are hollow from inside. Hence, they are lighter in weight and float
at the top. Whereas healthier seeds sink to the bottom of jar. Healthy seeds are heavier and healthy in all respects.
P oi n t
Why seeds are not sown in dry and highly wet soil?
SOLUTION
Moisture in the soil is necessary for germination. So, if seeds are sown in dry soil, they may not germinate. Similarly, if the
seeds are sown in a highly wet soil, then on drying, the soil surface becomes too hard that the germinating seedling might not
come out of ground.
CONNECTING TOPIC
TRANSPLANTATION
Sometimes some seeds (for example, rice, tomato, chilli, cabbage, bringal etc) are not
directly planted in the fields, instead they are planted in the seed beds called nurseries
and when they grow into seedlings they are transferred in the field.
You must have seen farmers transplanting paddy (rice) seedlings in the fields. This
method is known as transplantation.
In case of paddy (rice) crops, the seeds are first sown in a small plot of land and then
allowed to grow into tiny plants called seedlings. After the seeds have grown into tiny
plants (called seedling) in the nursery, only the healthy and well-developed seedlings
are then picked out and transferred to the regular field for further growth.
This process of transferring the seedlings from the nursery to the main field by hand is Paddy Seedling transplantation
called transplantation. During transplantation, farmers keep the proper distance be-
tween various seedlings and also between rows of seedling. This is done to ensure that each and every plant gets the sufficient
sunlight, water and other nutrients for normal and healthy growth of plants. This process of transplantation has several advantages
over the direct sowing.
Advantages of Transplantation
(i) It enables us to select only the better and healthy seedlings for the cultivation of crops.
(ii) It allows better and deeper penetration of roots in the soil.
(iii) It promotes better development of shoot system of plants.
(iv) It allows seedlings to be transplanted at the right spacings so that each and every plantlet gets uniform dose of sunlight, water
and nutrients.
P oi n t
Find out more examples of crops that are cultivated by transplantation method ?
SOLUTION
Tomatoes and chillies
ADDITION OF MANURE AND FERTILIZERS

The plants require number of essential nutrients for their growth and development. All the nutrients required by plants can be obtained
from air, water and soil. Deficiency of any of these nutrients might affect the life activities of plant, which in turn can reduce the net yield
of the crop.
You must have seen that in an area, some of the plants show weak growth while some of them show vigorous growth. Can you guess,
why such variations are seen?
It is because of the lack of certain nutrients required by plant for normal growth and development. Lack of nutrients makes the soil
infertile. So, unless the depleted plant nutrients are put back into the soil from time to time the growth of crops would be poor. Hence,
deficiency of plant nutrients in the soil is compensated by adding manures and fertilizers to the soil.
Manure
Manure is a natural fertilizer. It is prepared by the decomposition of plant and animal waste. It is known to have a large quantity of
organic materials and little amount of plant nutrients. Thus, manures provide a lot of organic matter like humus to the soil. The humus
improves the physical and chemical properties of the soil. It also improves the soil texture for better retention of water and aeration of
soil.
Since manure is produced by decomposition of animal’s excreta and plant waste, it protects the environment from harmful chemicals.
Thus, it helps in recycling of farm wastes.
Farmers add manure directly to the soil in the fields or first convert it into compost by burying it in pits.
NOTE
Types of Manure
There are three types of manure: animal manure (farm yard manure), compost and plant manure.
Animal manure: This is the combination of animal faeces or dungs, urine and plant products used as beddings for the animals. Dung,
farm refuse, fallen leaves, twigs etc are dumped in heaps to undergo decomposition and form dark amorphous manure. The faeces of
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8 BIOLOGY
poultry, goat, sheep, cattle, pigs and rabbits are essential for farmyard preparation. The period of decomposition varies with the type
of animal dung used. Before applying the manure, it must be allowed to decompose fully so as to avoid burning the roots of the crops.
Plant (Green) manure: Green manure refers to crops which have already been uprooted (and have often already been stuffed under
the soil). Typically, plant manures are crops that are grown for the purpose of plowing them in and using it as nutrients and organic
matter.
Green manure crops are commonly associated with organic farming, and are considered essential for annual cropping systems that
wish to be sustainable.
Compost manure: Compost is rotten vegetable matter, garbage, sewage, sludge and animal refuse often enriched with small amounts
of chemical fertilizers during decomposition stage.
WHAT IS COMPOSTING?
Composting is the process of converting dead organic matter into rich humus. The waste materials such as cow dung, vegetable
waste, sewage waste etc are dumped into a pit. The pit is then covered with mud to prevent air and light entering it. It is then left
undisturbed for few months. During this process, the microbes decompose the animal and plant waste and convert it into inorganic
materials. These inorganic materials are excellent nutrients for plants.
Sometimes, the process of composting is done with the help of earthworm. Then this process is known as vermi-composting. Earthworms
can consume practically all kinds of organic matter. This organic matter undergoes biochemical change in the intestine of earthworm.
Hence, earthworm converts organic matter into rich humus, thereby enriching the soil with nutrients. The process of composting
ensures the continuance of fertility cycle. Composting is considered as the best recycler in nature.
Advantages of Manure
(i) It enriches the soil with organic material.
(ii) It increases the water holding capacity of soil.
(iii) It aerates the soil by making it porous.
(iv) It helps in the growth of micro-organisms.
(v) It improves the soil texture.
(vi) It increases the crop production.
(vii) It replenishes the soil with all manures.
FERTILIZERS
Fertile soil contains minerals, organic matter and a number of microscopic forms of plant and animal life. The soil should also contain
soluble minerals. If the soil is deficient in these minerals, fertilizers must be added to ensure healthy crops.
Fertilizers are commercially available plant nutrients. They can be organic or inorganic in nature. They ensure healthy growth and
development of plants by providing required nutrients such as nitrogen(N), phosphorous(P), potassium(K), sulphur(S) etc to the
plant. They have nutrients in a concentrated form. So they provide quick replenishment of plant nutrients in the soil and restore its
fertility. Also, they have high solubility in water. So, they are easily absorbed by the plants.
Fertilizers are good only for short term use. Also it is harmful to the symbiotic microorganism that live in soil. The excess use of
fertilizers also causes water pollution.
Excessive use of fertilizers degrades the quality of soil in the long run, for example, excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers makes the
soil and water rich in nitrates. Nitrogen-rich water is not good for drinking. Nitrates from the soil also flow into rivers and lakes with
rainwater and enhance the growth of weeds and algae. This decreases the oxygen content of water leading to death of aquatic life.
Excessive use of fertilizers can change the nature of the soil making it either too acidic or too alkaline.
NOTE
Types of Fertilizers
Nitrogenous fertilizers : Urea, Ammonium sulphate, Ammonium nitrate, Sodium nitrate.
Phosphatic fertilizers : Calcium hydrogen phosphate or superphosphate, Ammonium hydrogen phosphate, Ammonium phosphate.
Potassium fertilizers: Potassium nitrate, Potassium chloride, Potassium sulphate.
P oi n t
How NPK helps plants in their growth?
SOLUTION
Nitrogen is extremely important for leaf growth; phosphorus promotes development of roots, flowers and seeds or fruit; and potassium
is necessary for the growth of strong stems and movement of water in plants, in addition to promoting flowering and fruiting.
iN THE LAB
Let us perform an activity to find out how fertilizers and manure affects the plant growth.
Take some healthy gram seeds and allow them to germinate in a pot.
Then take three empty jars and label them as A, B and C.

In jar A, add little amount of soil mixed with urea, a fertilizer.
In jar B, add similar amount of soil but mixed green manure.
In jar C, add similar amount of soil without any manure or fertilizer.
Now water all these vessels bearing soil.
Soil mixed Soil mixed Soil without

with urea with green manure or
manure fertilizer
A B C
Now from the pot, select three equal sized seedlings and plant them in jar A, B and C. Keep the vessel in a safe and lighted place.
Water them regularly and observe the growth.
What did you observe after few weeks?
A B C
You can observe that seedlings develop into small plantlets in all the three jars after few days. However, their growth varies in all
the three.
The jar A shows maximum growth while jar C showed the least growth.
Plantlets in jar A showed the maximum growth because urea is readily soluble in water and is quick acting. When it is supplied to
the soil, nitrogen is rapidly changed into ammonia. Later seeds use this ammonia for its growth and development.
The plantlets in jar A also show the growth but less compared to jar B.
The growth of plantlet in jar C is least because soil is infertile as it lacks certain essential soil nutrients.
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10 BIOLOGY
Table : Differences between manure and fertilizers
MANURE FERTILIZERS
i. Manure is a natural substance that is prepared by They are commercially available plant nutrients.
decomposition of animal excreta and plant wastes.
ii. They have large quantity of organic material and little They can be organic or inorganic in nature.
amount of plant nutrients.
iii. They help in enriching the soil with organic matter and They help in enriching the soil with organic matter and
nutrients. nutrients in concentrated form.
iv. It provides humus to the soil. It does not provide any humus to soil.
v. It protects the environment and helps in recycling of waste Its excessive use can cause pollution.
vi. It is slowly absorbed by the plants. It is readily absorbed by the plants.
vii. Example– animal excreta, plant waste, sewage waste etc. Example– sodium nitrates, urea, ammoniam sulphate etc.
CONNECTING TOPIC
CROP ROTATION
Crop rotation is the practice of growing two or more varieties of crops on the same land in sequential seasons.
The continuous growing of same crop over and over again might reduce the particular nutrient from the soil. Hence, farmers
employ crop rotation so that they can replenish the lost nutrients from the soil.
In crop rotation, the cereal crops like wheat, maize etc are grown alternately with leguminous crops like pulses, beans, peas, etc.
Legumes have nitrogen fixing bacteria in their root nodules that can fix atmospheric nitrogen.
For example, when maize crop is grown first, it takes away a lot of nitrogen from soil for its growth and development and makes
the soil nitrogen deficient. And next, when leguminous crops are grown in the same field, leguminous crops with its nitrogen fixing
bacteria enriches the soil with nitrogen compounds and increases its fertility. When another cereal crop like wheat is grown after
that, then wheat can utilize this extra nitrogen from soil for its growth and produce a crop with increased yield. In this way, rotating
different crops (leguminous and non-leguminous crops) in the same field replenishes the soil with nitrogen naturally and thereby
increases the crop production.
Advantages of Crop Rotation
(i) It improves the fertility of soil and hence brings about an increase in food production.
(ii) It reduces the need of fertilizers.
(iii) It reduces the build up of pests & diseases that affect different group of plants.
(iv) They ensure that enough nutrient are available to different crops each year.
(v) It aids in building and maintaining healthy soil by maintaining level of its organic matter and soil structure.
(vi) It controls weeds.
NOTE
Monoculture is the repeated planting of the same crop in the field year after year.
Intercropping is the growth of two or more crops in proximity in the same field during a growing season to promote interaction
between them. Available growth resources, such as light, water and nutrients are more completely absorbed and converted to crop
biomass by the intercrop as a result of differences in competitive ability for growth factors between intercrop components. The more
efficient utilization of growth resources leads to yield advantages and increased stability compared to sole cropping.
Mixed cropping, also known as multiple cropping, is growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land. It leads
to an improvement in the fertility of the soil and increase in crop yield. The products and refuse from one crop plant help in the growth
of the other crop plant and vice-versa. Mixed cropping is an insurance against crop failure in abnormal weather conditions. It also
helps the farmer to improve its yield and economy and avoid crop failure which was very common in India and Asian countries.
P oi n t
Study the given sequence of pictures and then answer the questions.
Cereal crops
Plant nutrients Soil after repeated cereal crops
Cereal crops Soil after few cereal crops Soil after a legume crop
1. What happens to plant nutrients in soil after growing cereals repeatedly in same
field for many years?
2. Does soil fertility decrease when only cereal crops are grown again and again?
3. What happens to plant nutrients in soil after growing leguminous crops?
SOLUTION
1. The continuous plantation of crops in a field makes the soil poor in certain nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium etc. As a result, the soil fertility decreases and hence the crop yield.
2. The soil fertility decreases when crop with similar requirements are grown again and again. For example, when a crop like
maize is grown, it takes away a lot of nitrogen from soil for its growth and makes the soil nitrogen deficient. If now, the same
kind of crop or crop with similar requirement is grown then it would further make the soil nutrient deficient. Thus, the
continuous plantation of any crop in field makes the soil poor in certain nutrients.
3. Legumes have nitrogen fixing bacteria in their root nodules that can fix atmospheric nitrogen. When the leguminous crop is
grown in the same field, then the leguminous crop with its nitrogen fixing bacteria enriches the soil with nitrogen compounds
and increases its fertility.
IRRIGATION
Water is essential for the growth of plants. It transports all nutrients required by the plant to each and every part of the plant body. It
also maintains the moisture of soil and prevents soil from drying.
It is therefore, necessary to supply water to crop plants in the fields, periodically. The process of supplying water to crops in the fields
is called irrigation. Irrigation is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of
disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. It also protects plants against frost, suppressing weed growth
in grain fields and preventing soil consolidation. The time and frequency of irrigation varies according to different seasons, crops and
soil types. The various sources of irrigation are wells, canals, rivers, dams, ponds and lakes. Even rain is a source of irrigation of crops.
IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION
(i) Irrigation before ploughing makes the soil soft due to which ploughing becomes easier.
(ii) It provides moisture for germination of seeds.
(iii) It is important for the absorption of nutrient elements by plants from soil. The water dissolves the nutrient present in the soil to
form a solution. This solution of nutrients is then absorbed by the roots for the development of plants.
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METHODS OF IRRIGATION
Two methods of irrigation that helps in conservation of water are : traditional method and modern method.
Irrigation
Traditional Method Modern Method
Moat Dhekli Rahat Chain Pump Drip System Sprinkler System
Waterlogging
Waterlogging refers to the saturation of soil with water. It occurs whenever the soil is so wet that there is
insufficient oxygen in the pore space for plant roots to be able to adequately respire. Other gases detrimental
to root growth, such as carbon dioxide and ethylene, also accumulate in the root zone and affect the plants.
Most often, waterlogged conditions do not last long enough for the plant to die. Once a waterlogging event
has passed, plants recommence respiring. As long as soil conditions are moist, the older roots close to the
surface allow the plant to survive.
Traditional Method
This method was used earlier for irrigation. They are cheaper but less efficient. It often includes pulley system that are used to deliver
water to soil, vegetation, flowers and/or other forms of plant life. Types of traditional methods are moat, dhekli, rahat and chain pump.
(i) Moat: It is based on pulley system. Moat is a deep, wide ditch that is usually filled with water and that goes around the walls of
a place (such as a castle) to protect it from being attacked. It has been used to collect water that was then taken directly to the
fields via buckets and placed over the crops. In other forms wells were used to keep water contained to draw on it.
(ii) Dhekli: Dhekli is mainly seen in rural areas. It is done manually. The person had to take out water through a bucket and pour it
into the field. This causes a lot of water wastage and now for water scarcity, people don't use this method of irrigation.
(iii) Rahat: It is based on lever system. The rahat system of irrigation was used in older times as a way to get water from a well by
using oxen. The Rahat System of irrigation requires a large well in which a wheel is used. The wheel is turned by oxen, buffalo
or cows to get the water out of the well and then spread out over the crops.
(iv) Chain pump: It is based on pumps. Chain pump is a type of water pump. The pump consists of a pipe connected to a water
supply, a circular chain and flat platters that are the same size and shape as the pipe. These platters are connected to the chain,
which is then drawn up through the pipe. Water is caught on the platter and brought up to the surface. The chain is circular, so
as the platters rise on one side of the chain, they drop back into the water.
Moat Dhekli
Rahat Chain pump

Traditional methods of irrigation
Modern Methods
Modern methods of irrigation are used for supplying water to fields.Types of modern method of irrigation are : sprinkler system of
irrigation and drip system of irrigation.
(i) Sprinkler system : This system of irrigation supplies water to plants (crops) in the form of rain. It consists of perpendicular pipe
which has a rotating nozzle on to and it is joined to main pipeline. Water escapes from the rotating nozzles when water is passed
through the main pipe. In this method, water is supplied using pipes to one or more central locations within the field. When water
is allowed to flow under high pressure with the help of pump, it gets sprinkled on the crops.
This method is more useful on uneven land that have fewer water supplies. Most of the crops such as wheat, grain, vegetable,
pulses etc are irrigated by this method of irrigation.
Advantages of sprinkler system of irrigation
(i) It provides efficient coverage of water from small to large areas.
(ii) It has a wide range of water capacity. Hence, they are used for nearly all soils.
(ii) Drip system : Drip irrigation systems are methods of microirrigation wherein water is applied through emitters to the soil surface
as drops or small streams. The discharge rate of the emitters is low so this irrigation method can be used on all soil types. This
method of irrigation is more efficient for irrigating fruits and vegetables. In this method, water is delivered at or near the roots of
the plant drop by drop. Water is passed through plastic pipes that have holes in it. These plastic pipes are then laid along the
rows of crop. This is the most efficient method of irrigation as there is no wastage of water at all.
Advantages of drip system of irrigation
(i) It saves water, as water is delivered at or near the roots of the plant.
(ii) It avoids random watering of crops.
(iii) It improves water holding capacity of soil and reduces soil erosion.
Net irrigation water requirement (NIWR) is defined as the quantity of water which is necessary for crop
growth. It is expressed in millimetres per year or in m3/ha per year (1mm = 10m3/ha). It can be supplied
through rainwater or through irrigation methods.
The water requirement of any crop depends on crop factors, soil factors, climatic factors and crop management
practices.
P oi n t
Why gardeners need to give more water to plants in summers?
SOLUTION
Gardeners give more water to plants in summers because in summers, the evaporation rate is high from soil and leaves. This
makes the soil deficient of of important nutrients required for the growth of plant. Hence, we need to give more water to plants
to prevent drying of plants.
CONNECTING TOPIC
EFFECT OF EXCESSIVE IRRIGATION OF WATER

The crops need to be irrigated with just the right amount of water, neither too little nor too much. Excessive irrigation of water is
harmful to crops because,
(i) Excessive supply of irrigation water to crop fields reduces the air trapped in the spaces between soil particles. As a result the
roots of crop plants do not get sufficient air to breathe and hence they die.
(ii) Also, excess of water in the fields increases the amount of salt on the surface of soil, which is formed due to excessive
evaporation. The accumulation of salt in the field lower the fertility of soil and hence reduces the crop growth and development.
It takes 100 pounds of rain water to produce a single pound of food from the food.
Between 10 and 20 tons of water must pass through the roots of an acre of corn before one bushel of corn will
be produced.
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P oi n t
Why potted plants in our homes do not grow well if they are given excess of water?
SOLUTION
It is because, excess of water expels most of the air from the spaces between soil particles. As a result, plant roots do not get
sufficient air to breathe and hence they do not grow well.
WHAT IS LODGING?
The falling of mature crop plants in the fields due to action of strong winds is called lodging. The correct timing of irrigation is very
important for a good crop yield. For example, if the irrigation of a wheat field is done when the crop has fully matured or if there is
heavy rainfall during harvesting season, then the wheat plants are unable to resist strong winds. In such cases, a strong wind
blowing over the fields make the matured wheat plants fall on the ground. As a result, the quantity and quality of wheat crop and
straw decreases. Thus, lodging decreases both the quantity and quality of crop. It also reduces yield and quality of straw. There are
many external factors that have influence on lodging including: wind, rain, topography, soil type, fore crop, tillage, nitrogen fertilizers,
diseases, sowing date, seed rate, and variety. Lodging has a negative influence on both the yield and the yield quality.
PROTECTION FROM WEED

When you grow a food crop in the field, you must have noticed the growth of certain other plants along with major cultivated crop.
What are these? These undesirable plant that grow along with crop are called weeds. Weeds compete with the crop for water, nutrient,
space and light. As a result of competition, crops gets lesser amount of nutrients, space and light that are required for survival. Hence,
the productivity of crop reduces. Therefore, it is necessary to remove the weeds from the crop. Wild oat, Grass, Amaranthus,
Xanthium, Parthenium are common weeds.
(a) Harrow (b) Trowel (Khurpi)

Implements used for weeding
The process of removing weeds from the cultivated field is called weeding. The best time to remove weeds is when the soil is damp and
moist, for example, the day after it has rained during spring time. Damp soils are loose and make it easier to remove weeds with their
roots. Otherwise, it may run the risk of cutting off the roots because they are stuck in the soil. If the soil is hard and there is no rain in
the next few days, consider hosing down the area with water and let the water soak overnight before you start removing weeds.
Manual weeding
Spraying weedicide Sickle (Used in harvesting)
VARIOUS WAYS OF WEEDING

(i) Removal of weeds by pulling them out with hand is the traditional method of weeding.
(ii) Proper ploughing before sowing seeds helps in uprooting weeds.
(iii) Removal of weeds by using a trowel (khurpi) and harrow. You must have seen farmers sitting in the field and uprooting certain
plant with Khurpi. What are they doing? Any guesses!! Farmers are uprooting the undesirable plants that are grown along with
main crops. This is a manual method of removing weeds.
(iv) Crop rotation is another method for controlling the growth of weed. The weeds are very choosy about the crops with which they
grow. Hence, by rotating the crops that have different nutrient requirements in the same field, disturb the weed’s life cycle and
reduces their growth in the field.
(v) Weeds can also be destroyed by spraying special chemicals called weedicides on weeds. Benthiocarb, butachlor, 2, 4-D (2, 4
Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) etc are some examples of weedicides. They are not harmful to crop but they can be harmful to
farmers. Hence, these chemical should be carefully used and sprayed. Farmers are advised to cover their nose and mouth with
a piece of cloth while spraying the weedicides on crops.
P oi n t
Why should weeding be done before flowering?
SOLUTION
Weeding is done before flowering so that weeds cannot produce seeds to multiply their number and these seeds cannot mix
with grains.
HARVESTING
The process of cutting and gathering of the matured food crop is called harvesting. Most of the crops are harvested in autumn season.
In harvesting, the crops like wheat or rice are cut close to the ground by hand using a tool called sickle. It is manual method of
harvesting crops. In large fields, the crops are harvested using machine called harvester.
In India, harvesting is done mostly by sickle. Sickle is made up of curved, plain blade of carbon steel. It has a wooden handle to hold
the sickle. The tang of the blade is lightly fixed into the handle with a ferrule.
Other methods of harvesting are – forage harvesters and combines.
(i) Forage harvesters : These are tractor drawn self propelled machines that are used to collect together, chop and then discharge
the crop into field as it moves through.
(ii) Combines : They are farm machines that are used to harvest seed crops and grains. Combines perform cutting, threshing,
separating, cleaning and grain handling operations in the field.
Forage harvesters Combine
The first combine harvester was designed in 1836 by America’s Hiram Moore and John Hascall. It was pulled
by horses.
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P oi n t
Can you name some of the festivals associated with the harvest season?
SOLUTION
The harvesting of crop is considered as an important celebration for farmers. It fills the heart of all farmers with happiness and
well being. Pongal, Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali, Nabomya etc are the festivals associated with the harvest season. These festivals are
celebrated by farmers with great enthusiasm.
THRESHING
After harvesting, the next step is threshing. You must have seen farmers rubbing the grain between palm
hands or beating the crops with a hard object. What are they doing? They are separating the grain seeds
from pods or chaff or plant. This process is known as threshing.
Threshing is the process of separating the grain seeds from the scaly, inedible chaff that surrounds it.
Threshing does not remove the bran from the grain. Threshing may be done by beating the grain using a
flail on a threshing floor. It is a slow and time consuming process if it occurs manually. Hence, it is carried
out with a machine called “combine”. Combine is actually the combined harvester and thresher.
WINNOWING Thresher
After grains are threshed, the chaff is removed from the grains. This process is known as winnowing. Hence, winnowing is the process
of separating grain from the mixture of threshed chaff.
When the grain mixed with chaff and hay is made to fall from a height in blowing wind, the grain being heavy, falls straight to the
ground, whereas chaff and hay, being much lighter, are carried some distance away by the wind. In this way, the grains forms a separate
heap and can be collected and packed in a gunny bag.
The machine that is used for doing winnowing is called winnower. It is the most efficient, quick and easy machine to separate grain
from chaff.
Winnowing Winnower
STORAGE OF FOOD GRAINS

Storage is the most important agricultural activity. The food grains obtained by harvesting the crops are dried in the sunshine before
storing. This is because higher moisture content in grain promotes the growth of fungus and moulds on the stored grain, which later
damages them. Hence, crops are dried in the sunshine before storing to reduce the moisture content of grains and to prevent their
spoilage during storage.
The farmers store the dried grains in metal bins and jute bags. The Government agencies like FCI (Food Corporation of India) buy
grains from farmers and store it in big godowns. It is done so that it can be supplied throughout the country, round the year. The large
scale storage of food grains is done in gunny bags and in grain silos.
Chemical Treatment : Pesticides are sprayed in the storage structure before storing food grain. This kills the
pests before the arrival of stocks and also eliminates chances of contamination of food grain with pesticides.
The pesticides which can be sprayed are – BHC (benzene hexachloride), malathion and pyrethrum.
(1) Fumigation is a method by which pests are exposed to fumes or vapours of chemicals, without
contaminating the stored food grains.
(2) Care should be taken that the grains for human consumption are not treated with poisonous chemicals.
iN THE LAB
How the viability of seed can be checked?
Take few stored seeds from the godowns. Count them and place then in a tray that contains fresh compost. Water the compost and
keep the tray in a warm lighted place.
Observe the growth of seeds.
Seeds sown in soil Germinating seeds
What did you observe?

You can see that more than half of the seeds sprout. It means that these stored seeds are viable and has good chances of
germinating in the garden or field.
The ability of the plant to produce new plants depends on the time of harvest and the conditions of seed storage. Hence, it is
important to take all necessary precautions while storing the seeds.
PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE STORING SEEDS

(i) Well-dried seeds should be stored. The viability of seeds depend on temperature and moisture. Hence, seeds should be stored
at proper temperature and with proper moisture, otherwise it will deteriorate quickly.
(ii) At homes or shops the seeds should be stored in a sealed, water resistant, air tight container, then container are kept in a cool
and dark place.
(iii) Protect the seed from the insects. The seeds can be protected from insects/pests by —
(a) storing the seed with wood ash. Wood ash prevents the entry of insect inside container.
(b) store seeds with lime. Lime has an insect repelling property.
(c) mix the seeds with vegetable or coconut oil.
(iv) The seeds that are in bulk quantity should be stored in silos and granaries. Silos and granaries are store house for storing
threshed grain that is present in large quantity. Silos are tall cylindrical containers for bulk storage of grains. Granaries are often
built above the ground. The distance of granaries from the ground protects the grains from mice and other pest.
(v) Sometimes, the dried neem leaves are added along with grain to protect it from insects or pests. The leaves and oil of the neem
are very effective against a wide range of storage pests.
One of the most controversial scientific discoveries of the 20th century is the genetic modification (GM) of
food. The genes of every living organism can be altered to change its characteristics. For example, farmers
can add anti-pest genes to crops, which enable them to survive longer or grow unusually large.
CONNECTING TOPIC
CROP IMPROVEMENT
The improvement in crop plants is necessary for increasing the crop yield and their quality.
Crop improvement can be done by breeding new varieties of crops having higher yields and resistance to pests and diseases. The
agricultural scientists or plant breeders can achieve this by artificial cross-breeding or hybridization.
For example, if you want to obtain an improved variety of a crop that has higher yield as well as is disease resistant, then you should
select two existing crops, one having higher yield and other having more resistance to diseases. When higher yielding plant is
crossed with disease resistant plant, then a new variety of plant is produced that contains qualities of both parents.
Thus, the new plant (hybrid) will produce higher yield as well as would be disease resistant.
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Cross-bred
High-yielding Disease resistant
variety × variety
Parent 1 Parent 2
High-yielding, disease
resistant variety
Hybrid
Table : Examples of high-yielding varieties of crops
Crops High yielding varieties in India

Wheat Sonalika, Kalyan sona, Sharbati Hira Moti Sonara
Paddy Jaya, Padma, Pusa 215
Maize Ganga 101, Rajit, Deccan hybrid
M. S. Swaminathan is known as "Indian Father of Green Revolution" for his leadership and success in
introducing and further developing high-yielding varieties of wheat in India.
WHAT IS HYBRIDIZATION?
Hybridization is the process of cross-breeding two different varieties of crop plant each having a desired characteristics to obtain a
new crop that has both the desired characteristics. It is used extensively in agriculture, where new forms of disease resistant plants are
produced commercially.
THE GREEN REVOLUTION

The average production of most of the crop in our country, India, has doubled during the last 30 years. But the production of wheat
crop has tripled during the last 30 years. This great increase in the production of food - grain crops (especially the wheat crop) in India
during the last 30 years is called green revolution. This is a sort of revolution taking place in Indian agriculture, leading to enormous
food grain production.
Green revolution is a large increase in crop production in developing countries achieved by the use of artificial fertilizers, pesticides,
and high-yield crop varieties. The beginnings of the Green Revolution are often attributed to Norman Borlaug, an American scientist.
In the 1940s, he began conducting research in Mexico and developed new disease resistance high-yield varieties of wheat. By
combining Borlaug's wheat varieties with new mechanized agricultural technologies, Mexico was able to produce more wheat than was
needed by its own citizens, leading to its becoming an exporter of wheat by the 1960s. Prior to the use of these varieties, the country
was importing almost half of its wheat supply.
Due to the success of the Green Revolution in Mexico, its technologies spread worldwide in the 1950s and 1960s.
NOTE
White revolution
The introduction of growth of milk production and encouraging Indian dairy farmers to keep more animals for increasing production
of milk is called white revolution.
Livestock
Livestock are those domesticated or farm animals that are kept for use or profit. The most important livestock of India are cattle,
buffaloes which yield milk and help in agriculture. On the basis of their utility animals are categorised as:
– Milk giving animals (Cows, buffaloes, goats)
– Meat and egg giving animals (Sheep, goat, pig, duck)
– Animals utilized as motive power (Buffaloes, horse, donkey, bullock, camel)
– Wool giving animals (Sheep)
Why green revolution is called green?

It is called green because it led to unprecedented greenery of crops everywhere in country. It has made our country self sufficient in
food production and even created buffer stocks of food grains for use in times of natural calamities like drought, and flood, when food
production is reduced.
FOOD OBTAINED FROM ANIMALS

Like plants, animal also provide us different types of food. The food provided by animals consists of milk, egg and meat. They are rich
source of proteins. In fact, animal food provides certain proteins that are not present in plant foods.
Hence, it is important to maintain the population of livestock as they provide various kinds of food to us. It includes various aspects
like feeding & breeding and disease control of various animals. This process is known as animal husbandry.
Animal husbandry is the science of caring, feeding, breeding and raising the livestock on a large scale. It includes animals like
cattle, goat, sheep, poultry and fish.
Objectives of animal husbandry are —
(i) To improve the breeds of domestic animals
(ii) To provide better nutrition and atmosphere to animals so that the yield of their product (like meat, eggs, milk etc) can be
increased.
Poultry farming:
The raising of birds such as chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese, domestically or commercially for the purpose of farming meat or eggs
for food is called poultry farming. Poultry are farmed in great numbers with chickens being the most numerous. More than 50 billion
chickens are raised annually as a source of food, for both their meat and their eggs.
Bee keeping or Apiculture:
Beekeeping is the maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, by humans. A beekeeper (or apiarist) keeps bees in order
to collect their honey and other products that the hive produces (like beeswax, propolis, pollen, and royal jelly), to pollinate crops, or
to produce bees for sale to other beekeepers. A location where bees are kept is called an apiary or "bee yard".
Fish farming:
Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially
in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a
species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery.
Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, catfish, tilapia, cod and others.
Basically, there are two kinds of aquaculture: extensive aquaculture based on local photosynthetical production and intensive
aquaculture, in which the fishes are fed with external food supply.
Cattle farming:
It is the act of raising and breeding cattle for the production of meat or milk. Beef farming is raising beef cattle for slaughter (meat),
and dairy farming is raising dairy cows for milk.
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Let us perform an activity to find out various types of animal food and their sources.
Collect the information from your surroundings to complete the given table.
Sl. No. Category of Animal Type of food/ material Sources

1. Meat yielding Meat Sheep, Coat, Fish
2. Milk yielding Milk Cow, Buffalo, Goat
3. Egg yielding Egg Hen
4. Honey and wax producing insects
5. Fibre yielding animals
6. Silk producing animals
SUMMARY
Plants of same kind that grow on a large scale in an area is known as crop. E.g. rice, wheat, maize etc.
The production of crops by cultivation of land is called agriculture.
In India, crop can be categorised into two types based on seasons – Rabi and Kharif crops.
l Rabi crops – Crops grown in rainy season (June – October). Examples – Pea, Mustard, Wheat, Gram etc.
l Kharif crops – Crops grown in winter season (November – April). Examples – Paddy, Maize, Groundnut etc.
The basic activities done by farmers in the crop field to raise a particular crop is called agricultural practices.
Seven agricultural practices done by the farmer to raise a particular crop are –
1. Preparation of soil 2. Sowing of seeds
3. Adding manure and fertilizer4. Irrigation
5. Protection from weeds and pests 6. Harvesting, Threshing
7. Storage of food grains
The process of loosening and turning of the soil is called tilling or ploughing. This is done by plough, hoe and cultivator.
The process of scattering seeds in the ground soil for growing the crop plants is called sowing.
The sowing of seed by hand is called broadcasting while the implement used for sowing is a seed drill.
The substances that are added to the soil in the form of nutrients for healthy growth of plants are called manure and fertilizer.
Process of converting dead organic matter into rich humus with the help of earthworm is called vermicomposting.
Practice in which leguminous and non-leguminous crops are grown alternately in the same field is called crop rotation.
Irrigation is the supply of water to crops at different intervals.
The sources of irrigation are wells, tube well, ponds, lakes, rivers, dams and canals.
The traditional methods of irrigation are moat, dhekli, rahat and chain pump.
The modern methods of irrigation are sprinkler system and drip system.
Process of transferring seedlings from a nursery to the main field, by hand is called transplantation.
The unwanted plants that grow along with a cultivated crop are called weeds. E.g. Grass, Xanthium, wild oat etc.
The process of removing unwanted plants from a crop is called weeding.
The cutting of crop after it get matured is called harvesting. It is done manually by sickle.
In large fields, crops are cut by a motorised machine called harvester.
In the harvested crop, the grain seeds need to be separated from the chaff. This process is called threshing.
Winnowing is the process of separating grain from chaff and hay with the help of wind.
The food grains obtained by harvesting the crops are dried in sunshine before storing.
l Small scale – Jute bags, metallic bins
l Large scale – Silos, granaries
The process of rearing animals to obtain food is known as animal husbandry.
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Fill in the Blanks : 9. The excessive use of manure causes water pollution.
10. Rabi crops are grown in winter.
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an Match the Following :
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s).
1. The excess water in the field is known as ______. DIRECTIONS : Question contain statements given in two
2. Crops such as ______ requires a constant supply of water. columns which have to be matched. Statements in column I have
to be matched with terms given in column II.
3. ______ crop is grown during the month of June to October.
4. ______ is the first step to be followed before growing a
crop. S.No. Column-I Column-II
5. The process of converting dead organic matter into rich
A. Plant that is grown in
humus with the help of earthworm is known as ______. large quantities
6. ______ are good source of nitrogen, phosphorus and (p) Rabi crops
especially as food or
potassium but are good for only short term use. fodder for livestock.
7. Rotation of leguminous crop with wheat or maize is an
B. Crops planted in June
example of ______. and harvested in (q) Transplantation
8. In ______ system of irrigation, water is delivered at or near October
the roots of the plant drop by drop.
C. Crops planted in
9. Weeds can be removed manually with a ______. November and (r) Kharif crops
10. The seeds of paddy are first grown in small plots called harvested in April
______.
D. Undesirable plants that
11. The substances that are added to the soil in the form of (s) Manure
grow with the crops
nutrients for the healthy growth of plants are called ______
and ______. E. Process of transferring
seedlings from a (t) Fertilizers
12. ______ is a simple tool which is used for removing weeds
nursery to the main
and for loosening the soil. field
13. ______ is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising
livestock. F. Process of supplying
water to crops at (u) Weedicides
14. ______ are like artificial rainmakers.
different intervals
15. Organisms that damage the crop are known as ______
G. Organic substance
True / False : obtained from (v) Weeds
decomposition of plant
and animal waste
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your
answer as true or false. H. Chemical substances
that are rich in plant (w) Agriculture
1. Cotton is a Rabi crop. nutrients like nitrogen,
2. The agricultural practice, called harvesting comes before phosphorus and
weeding. potassium
3. Groundnut enriches the soil with nitrogen. I. The chemical
4. Nitrogenous fertilizer is required for growing nitrogenous substance that controls (x) Crop
crops. the growth of weeds
5. In addition to gunny bags, metal bins are also used for J. The process of growing
storing food grains on large scales. plants and rearing
(y) Irrigation
6. Rotation of crop helps in controlling weeds. animals for food,
7. Combine is a combination of harvester and thresher. clothing and other
8. Plough is used for adding manure or fertilizers to the crop. useful products
Very Short Answer Questions : 5. Why is manure better than fertilizer?

6. How are weeds removed manually? When is the best time
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence. to remove them?
7. List the steps involved in crop production in sequential
1. Name two primary cropping pattern in India. order.
2. What is crop? 8. Differentiate between insecticides, rodenticides and
3. Which is the first step in the cultivation of a crop? fungicides.
4. What is tilling?
9. Why grains are dried before storage?
5. Name the implement used for ploughing the fields.
10. Which of the following are Kharif crops and which are Rabi
6. Which step in the preparation of soil loosens and turns the
crops?
soil in the fields?
7. What is sowing? Soyabean, Barley, Mustard, Peas, Cotton, Groundnut
8. Name the implement used in sowing. 11. What types of crops are grown :
9. Name the practice used for cultivating rice. (i) During November to April?
10. Name the various sources of irrigation in our country. (ii) During June to October ?
11. What is meant by term “water lodging” as used in agriculture? 12. Name three steps involved in the preparation of soil for
12. Name two substances that are added to fields by farmers to sowing the seeds.
maintain the fertility of soil. 13. Which of the following are cultivated by transplantation?
13. What is compost? Paddy, Chillies, Tomatoes, Maize, Wheat
14. Name two fertilizers. 14. State two advantages of the process of transplantation of
15. Which crop is grown between two cereal crops in crop growing crops?
rotation?
15. What is the necessity of irrigating the crops?
16. What is crop rotation?
16. How do weeds affect the growth of crops?
17. Xanthium, grown in a wheat field is known as_____.
17. What is weeding? State the various methods of weeding.
18. Give one advantage of drip system of irrigation.
18. Define the terms –
19. Name two implements used for weeding.
20. What are weedicides? (i) Harvesting (ii) Threshing (iii) Winnowing
21. Name the chemical substances that are sprayed on crops to 19. What is a “combine” that is used in agriculture? State its
protect them from damage. function.
22. Which agricultural practice is carried out with the help of 20. What is the advantage of storing food grains in gunny
sickle? bags?
23. Name the process in which grains are separated from chaff 21. What is done to protect the grains stored in gunny bags in
and hay with the help of wind. big godowns from damage?
24. Name the two ways in which farmers store food grains. 22. Explain the irrigational methods that are used in modern
25. Name the machine used both for harvesting and threshing. times.
26. Give two examples of Rabi crops. 23. How manure is prepared.
27. Give two examples of Kharif crops.
28. What do you mean by nitrogen fixation? Long Answer Questions :
29. Give two example of crop grown from June to October.
30. Name the nitrogen fixing bacteria in root nodules of DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
leguminous plants.
1. Explain how soil is affected by the continuous plantation of
Short Answer Questions : crops in a field? Why preparation of soil is considered to be
an important step in agricultural practices.
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in 2-3 sentences. 2. What are Rhizobium bacteria? Why are they useful? What
enables leguminous plants to fix nitrogen?
1. How Kharif crop is different from Rabi crop?
3. What precautions should be taken in sowing the seeds?
2. Give four importance of soil loosening.
4. What are pests? What steps are taken to protect crops from
3. What are the advantages of levelling?
pests? Why should the grains, fruits and vegetables be
4. Write down differences between fertilizers and manure?
washed properly before use?
EBD_7029
24 BIOLOGY
Text-Book Exercise : 5. Certain plants of the same kind grown on a large scale.
Across
1. Select the correct word from the following list and fill in the
3. A machine used for cutting the matured crop.
blanks. float, water, crop, nutrients, preparation
4. A rabi crop that is also one of the pulses.
(a) The same kind of plants grown and cultivated on a
large scale at a place is called _________. 6. A process of separating the grain from chaff.
1 2
(b) The first step before growing crops is ________ of I S
the soil. 3
H
(c) Damaged seeds would _________ on top of water.
(d) For growing a crop, sufficient sunlight and _______
and _______ from the soil are essential.
2. Match items in column A with those in column B.
A B
(i) Kharif crops (a) Food for cattle 4
G
(ii) Rabi crops (b) Urea and super phosphate
(iii) Chemical fertilisers (c) Animal excreta, cow dung,
urine and plant waste 5
C
(iv) Organic manure (d) Wheat, gram, pea
(e) Paddy and maize
3. Give two examples of each. 6
W
(a) Kharif crop (b) Rabi crop
4. Write a paragraph in your own words on each of the
following.
(a) Preparation of soil (b) Sowing Exemplar Questions :
(c) Weeding (d) Threshing 1. If you are given a dry piece of land for cultivation what will
5. Explain how fertilisers are different from manure. you do before sowing the seeds?
6. What is irrigation? Describe two methods of irrigation which 2. During which months do farmers grow mustard in India?
conserve water.
3. Which activity of the farmer can promote growth of
7. If wheat is sown in the kharif season, what would happen?
earthworms and microbes in the field?
Discuss.
8. Explain how soil gets affected by the continuous plantation 4. What are organic foods?
of crops in a field. 5. (a) Name the tool used with a tractor for sowing seeds in a
9. What are weeds? How can we control them? field.
10. Arrange the following boxes in proper order to make a flow (b) What are the advantages of using this tool?
chart of sugarcane crop production. 6 (a) Name the practice followed for large scale rearing of
farm animals.
Sending crop to
Irrigation Harvesting Sowing
sugar factory (b) What facilities are provided to farm animals?
1 2 3 4 7. Despite favourable climatic conditions, a farmer’s crop failed
Preparation of Ploughing the to give good yield. Give the possible reasons for this.
Manuring
soil field
8. As a part of eco-club activity students were asked to raise
5 6 7 a kitchen garden in the school premises. They were provided
11. Complete the following word puzzle with the help of clues with some materials given in the box. List the other materials
given below. you would require. How will you plan the garden? Write the
Down steps.
1. Providing water to the crops. khurpi, water-can, spade, shovel
2. Keeping crop grains for a long time under proper Note: You have been asked to use only environment friendly
conditions. materials.
HOTS Questions : Which method according to you can bring about the
maximum increase in crop production in our country?
1. Why do farmers normally use a mixture of manures and
fertilizers in the fields? Increase land Use more manure
2. Which method of irrigation will you use if you live in a dry under cultivation and fertilizers
area with shortage of water?
3. Discuss two methods of weeding in which poisonous
chemicals are not used.
4. Why does the government maintain a buffer stock of grains? Less wastage Use better varieties
in storage of crops plants
7. What happens if the farmer grows Mustard during rainy

Crop rotation is practised season instead of winter?
5. by farmers so that they have 8. “Indian farmers gamble with the monsoon”. Illustrate this
different products statement.
to sell in the market in 9. The recent incidents of farmers’ suicides in different states
every season of the country are the result of indebtedness. Do you agree
with this?
Do you agree? Give reason in support of your answer. 10. How do pest reduce crop productivity?
6. Four students proposed four different ways to fulfil the 11. How does continuous rainfall affect crop production?
food requirement to a large number of people in our country.
EBD_7029
26 BIOLOGY
Multiple Choice Questions : 10. The process of putting seeds in the soil for germination is
known as
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 18 multiple choice (a) sowing (b) manuring
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out (c) weeding (d) tilling
of which ONLY ONE is correct. Choose the correct option.
11. Ploughing in bigger fields is done by using
1. Person known for his pioneering efforts in promoting the (a) hoe (b) cultivator
green revolution in India is (c) combine (d) sickle
(a) Benjamin Franklin (b) Norman Borlang
12. Which of the following statements is not correct about
(c) Robert Brown (d) Albert Einstein
ploughing?
2. Which of the following is not a rabi crop?
(a) Wheat (b) Mustard (a) It facilitates deeper penetration of soils.
(c) Sugarcane (d) Peas (b) It maintains fertility of soil.
3. Which of the following crops would enrich the soil with (c) It helps in proper mixing of organic matter and nutrients
nitrogen? evenly.
(a) Apple (b) Beans (d) It helps in enriching the soil with organic matter and
(c) Paddy (d) Potato
nutrients.
4. The process of turning and loosening of soil is called
(a) tilling(b) harvesting 13. The process of removing weeds from the cultivated field is
(c) threshing (d) irrigation known as
5. Threshing is the process of (a) weeding (b) weedicide
(a) separating chaff from the grain (c) tilling(d) crop rotation
(b) cutting of mature crop 14. An example of manure is
(c) sowing seeds by hands (a) cow dung
(d) turning and loosening of soil
(b) urea
6. Which of the following statements is not correct about
fertilizer? (c) ammonium sulphate
(a) It enriches the soil with organic material. (d) super phosphate
(b) It provides nutrients to the soil immediately in 15. The large scale storage of food grains is done in
concentrated from. (a) Gunny bag + Jute bags
(c) It increases the crop production several times (b) Jute bags + Metal bins
(d) It is available in all seasons. (c) Metal bins + Grain silos
7. Which of the following is a modern method of Irrigation? (d) Grain silos + gunny bag
(a) Rahat (b) Moat
16. The last step in crop production is
(c) Chain pump (d) Drip system
8. Which of the following is incorrectly matched? (a) soil preparation (b) crop harvesting
(c) irrigation (d) sowing
Agricultural Implements 17. An example of fertilizer is
Steps Used
(a) cow dung (b) plant waste
(a) Ploughing Hoe
(c) urea (d) urine
(b) Irrigation Sprinklers
18. Which of the following statement is incorrect?
(c) Weeding Trowel
(a) Always use certified seeds to maintain the quality of
(d) Harvesting Harrow
crop.
9. The simple tool used for removing weeds and for loosening
(b) Harvest the crop when grains are fully matured.
the soil is called.
(a) plough (b) sickle (c) Use recommended dose of fertilizers.
(c) harrow (d) trowel (d) Irrigate the soil with polluted water.
Assertion & Reason : 2. Assertion : Fertilizers provide quick replenishment of plant

nutrients in the soil and restore its fertility.
DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion Reason : They are easily absorbed by the plants.
followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question 3. Assertion : A fertilizer provides a lot of organic matter like
on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that humus to the soil.
best describes the two statements. Reason : They are very rich in plant nutrients like NPK.
4. Assertion : Crop improvement can be done by breeding
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
new varieties of crops having higher yields.
correct explanation of Assertion.
Reason : The main aim of plant breeding is to produce new
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not crops superior to existing ones.
the correct explanation of Assertion. 5. Assertion : When the crop is changed during crop rotation,
(c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. the weeds associated with it usually disappear.
(d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. Reason : The weeds are very choosy about the crop with
1. Assertion : Gram and Barley are Rabi crops. which they grow.
Reason : They are grown during the months of November 6. Assertion : Earthworm are called a farmer’s friends.
to April. Reason : The burrowing action of earthworms helps to loosen
the soil particles.
EBD_7029
28 BIOLOGY
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
13. Compost is a mixture of various decaying organic substances,

as dead leaves or manure, used as a fertilizer for growing
plants.
Fill in the Blanks : 14. Urea, Ammonium sulphate
1. Water logging, 2. Paddy, 3. Soyabean, 4. Preparation of soil, 15. Leguminous crops
5. Vermicomposting, 6. Fertilizers, 7. Crop rotation, 16. Crop rotation is a practice designed to minimise pests and
8. Drip, 9. Harrow/Khurpi, 10. Nurseries, 11. Manure, fertilizers, diseases, reduce chemical use, aid in building and maintaining
12. Hoe, 13. Animal husbandry, 14. Sprinklers, 15. Pests. healthy soil, and manage nutrient requirements-all which will
True / False : maximise yield.
17. Weeds
1. False. Cotton is a Kharif crop.
2. False. Harvesting comes after weeding. 18. It avoids random watering of crops.
3. True 19. Harrow and Trowel
4. False. Nitrogenous fertilizer is not required for growing 20. Weedicides are pesticides that are used to kill weeds.
nitrogenous crops, since leguminous crops can fix the 21. 2, 4 - D (2, 4 - Dichlorophenoxy acetic Acid)
atmospheric nitrogen themselves by using nitrogen fixing 22. Harvesting
bacteria present in their root nodules. 23. Winnowing
5. False. In addition to gunny bags, silos are also used for
24. Small scale – Jute bags, metallic bins
storing food grains on large scales.
Large scale – Silos, granaries
6. True
7. True 25. Combine
8. True 26. Pea, mustard
9. False. The excessive use of fertilizer causes water pollution. 27. Paddy, Maize
10. True 28. Nitrogen fixation is the chemical processes by which
atmospheric nitrogen is assimilated into organic compounds,
Match the Following :
especially by certain microorganisms as part of the nitrogen
A – (x), B – (r), C – (p), D – (v), E – (q), F – (y), G – (s), H – (t), cycle.
I – (u), J – (w) 29. Groundnut, Maize (Kharif crops)
Very Short Answer Questions : 30. Rhizobium
1. Kharif and rabi crops. Short Answer Questions :
2. Large scale cultivation of plants of same kind at one place is 1.
called crop.
Rabi Crop Kharif Crop
3. Soil preparation
(i) Grown in winter season Grown in rainy season
4. Turning and loosening of soil.
(ii) Seeds are sown in Seeds are sown in
5. Plough / Hoe
6. Ploughing October and harvested June and harvested
7. Process of placing seed in the ground soil for growth of crop in march. in September.
plants. (iii) E.g. pea, mustard, E.g. paddy, maize,
8. Seed drill wheat, gram etc. groundnut etc.
9. Transplantation 2. Importance of soil loosening are –
10. Wells, canals, rivers, dams, ponds and lakes (i) Roots penetrate deep into the soil and breathe easily,
11. Water logging refers to saturation of the soil by groundwater water holding capacity of soil increases.
sufficient to prevent or hinder agriculture. (ii) Helps in the growth of microbes and earthworm which
12. Manure and fertilizers help in turning the soil and add humus in soil.
(iii) The nutrient rich soil comes up and nutrients are 11. (i) Kharif crops. These crops are sown in the rainy season.
absorbed by plants. Example: paddy, maize, soyabean.
(iv) Proper mixing of manure in the soil. (ii) Rabi crops. These crops are grown in winter season.
3. Levelling is a process for ensuring that the depths and Example : wheat, mustard, and pea.
discharge variations over the field are relatively uniform 12. Ploughing, levelling and manuring.
and, as a result, that water distributions in the root zone are 13. Chillies and tomatoes are cultivated by transplantation.
also uniform. It improves the efficiency of water, labour and Transplantation usually refers to the practice of taking very
energy resources utilization. young plants that have been started in pots or a nursery
4. and moving them to a large production field.
Manure Fertilizer
14. The process of replanting the seedling from the nursery in
(i) Obtained by the Obtained from
the main field is called transplantation. Its advantages are :
decomposition of plant inorganic salt. (i) It enables us to select only healthy seedlings.
and animal waste (ii) It promotes better penetration of roots in the soil.
(ii) Prepared in fields Prepared in factories 15. Irrigation makes agriculture possible in areas previously
(iii) Provides humus to soil Does not provide humus unsuitable for intensive crop production. Irrigation
(iv) Rich in plant nutrient Less rich in plant nutrient transports water to crops to increase yield, keep crops cool
under excessive heat conditions and prevents freezing.
5. Manure is better than fertilizer because it
16. Weed affects crops by competing for water, minerals and
(i) enhances water holding capacity of soil. sunlight. They also spread pests on the crops and
(ii) makes soil porous due to which exchange of gases sometimes produce poisonous substances harmful to crops.
become easy. All these results in low yield of crop production.
(iii) increases number of friendly microbes. 17. Removal of unwanted plants that grow along with the crops
(iv) improves texture of soil. are called weeding. Weeding can be done by
6. Weeds are unwanted plants that grow along with crops. (i) Manually removing seeds by using hand or trowel or
They are removed manually by using hand, khurpa, hoe or harrow.
a rake in small field and in large area they can be removed by (ii) Spraying weedicides which destroy weeds but not the
ploughing, harrowing etc. The best time to remove weeds is crops.
when the soil is damp and moist. 18. (i) Harvesting : Cutting of crop plants after maturation is
7. Steps involved in crop production are : called harvesting. It is done by cutting the crop plants
(i) Preparation of soil close to the ground or pulling the crop plants.
(ii) Seed selection and sowing (ii) Threshing : Separation of grains from chaff is called
(iii) Manuring threshing.
(iv) Irrigation (iii) Winnowing : Separation of grains from chaff with the
(v) Weeding help of wind is called winnowing.
(vi) Protection from animals, birds, pest and disease 19. Combines are farm machine that aids in the harvesting of
grain crops by combining three separate functions into one
(vii) Harvesting, threshing and winnowing
piece of equipment. The combine harvester performs the
(viii) Storage processes of reaping, threshing, and cleaning. This allows
8. An insecticide is a substance used to kill insects. They the crop to be harvested more quickly and efficiently, and
include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs enables farmers to harvest larger amounts. Some crops that
and larvae, respectively. Rodenticide is a chemical or other can be harvested using this machine include wheat,
agent used to destroy rats or other rodent pests or prevent soyabeans, oats and rye.
them from damaging food, crops, etc. Fungicides are biocidal 20. Gunny bags are jute bags which protect the food grains
chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or from rodents and other damage while their storage.
inhibit fungi or fungal spores. 21. To protect the grains stored in gunny bags in big godowns
9. Grains are dried before storage to reduce the moisture from damage, following should be done –
content of gains because moisture attracts fungus and (i) Fumigation with chemicals which repel pest or kill
bacteria resulting in its destruction. without affecting grain
10. Kharip crops : Soyabean, Cotton, Groundnut (ii) Neem leaves are kept along with grains.
Rabi crops : Barley, Mustard, Pea (iii) Storage area can be sprayed regularly.
EBD_7029
30 BIOLOGY
22. The irrigational method that are used in modern times are – (b) The first step before growing crops is _ preparation__
Sprinkler system and drip irrigation. Sprinkler system of of the soil.
irrigation is useful for sandy soils and drip irrigation is best (c) Damaged seeds would __float__ on top of water.
technique for watering fruit plants, gardens and trees. (d) For growing a crop, sufficient sunlight and _ water __
and ___ nutrients_ from the soil are essential.
23. Manure is obtained from the decomposition of plant or animal
2. A B
wastes. Plant and animal wastes are dumped in pits at open
(i) Kharif crops (e) Paddy and maize
places and allowed to decompose by microbes. The
(ii) Rabi crops (d) Wheat, gram, pea
decomposition product is manure. (iii) Chemical fertilisers (b) Urea and super phosphate
Long Answer Questions : (iv) Organic manure (c) Animal excreta, cow dung,
urine and plant waste
1. Continuous plantation of crops in field makes the soil poorer 3. (a) Kharif crop ® Paddy, maize
in important nutrients required for the growth of crops. It (b) Rabi crop ® Wheat, gram
leads to decrease in soil fertility and hence the crop yield. 4. (a) Preparation of soil:
Preparation of soil is considered to be an important step in It is the first method to be followed before growing a
agricultural practices because it helps in loosening the soil. crop. This method is used for loosening the soil so
Loosened soil allows growth of microorganism and that the root can penetrate deep into it. The loosening
earthworm thus leading to its enrichment. It also helps the of the soil helps in the growth of several soil microbes,
roots to breathe proper. earthworms etc., which enrich the soil with humus and
2. Rhizobium bacteria are soil bacteria. It forms a mutually other essential nutrients. Plants require nutrients for
beneficially association with plants. It plays an important their proper growth and functioning. The process of
loosening is called ploughing. This brings the nutrient-
role in fixing nitrogen after becoming established inside root
rich soil to the top, which helps the plants to utilize the
nodules of legumes. Rhizobium bacteria enable leguminous
nutrients for their growth.
plants to fix nitrogen. Leguminous plants have bacteria
(b) Sowing:
named Rhizobium which lives in their roots. It takes in Sowing is an important step in crop production. In this
atmospheric nitrogen and then converts it into a soluble process the seed is placed in or on the soil for future
form which the plant can absorb. These bacteria cannot growth. The seeds that are selected should be of good
make their own food so they provide nitrogen to the plant quality. This improves the net yield of the crop. Sowing
and in return they get food and shelter. is usually done with the help a traditional tool or a
3. Precautions taken in sowing the seeds are : seed drill. The traditional tool is like a funnel and was
(i) Seed should be sown at right spacing to get sufficient used earlier. Nowadays, seed drills that make the use
of tractors are used for sowing. This tool disperses
amount of sunlight, water and nutrients.
seeds uniformly and sows seeds at proper depth. This
(ii) Seed should be planted at proper depth in the soil. If method saves time and also protects the seeds from
they are planted deep in the soil then they cannot birds.
respire properly and if planted on surface then can be (c) Weeding:
eaten by birds. Undesirable plants that grow along with the crop are
(iii) Seed should be clean, healthy and free from disease. known as weeds. The process of removing these
(iv) Seeds require water for germination. The soil therefore weeds is called weeding. Xanthium, Parthenium, etc.
should have water in it. are some common weeds. Weeds compete with the
crop for nutrients, light, and space. As a result, crop
4. A pest is any organism that spreads disease, causes
plants get lesser nutrients, light, and space for their
destruction or is otherwise a nuisance. Some examples of
development which reduces their productivity. This is
pests are mosquitoes, rodents, and weeds. Crops can be why, various weeding methods are employed.
protected by using pesticides. Grains, fruits and vegetables Some important weeding methods are:
should be washed properly before using to remove (i) Weeds can be controlled by using weedicides. It is a
pesticides coated on them. Because pesticides are harmful chemical, which is sprayed in the fields to kill all the
poisonous chemicals which affect our health. weeds without causing any harm to the crop.
(ii) Tilling before sowing of crops also helps in removing
weeds. Tilling uproots the weeds. The best time for
removal of weeds is before flowering.
Text - Book Exercise : (iii) The manual method of weeding is with the help of a
khurpi. It involves regular uprooting of weeds close to
1. (a) The same kind of plants grown and cultivated on a the ground.
large scale at a place is called _ crop _.
(d) Threshing: 8. Continuous plantation of crops in a field makes the soil

Threshing involves the process of separating grains deficient in certain nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
or seeds from chaff. It is done after harvesting. It is potassium, etc. This is because plants require nutrients for
done with the help of a machine known as ‘Combine’. their proper growth and functioning. When a farmer
This machine is a combined harvester and thresher. It continues to grow crops one after the other, all the nutrients
harvests plants as well as cleans grains. available in the soil reduces and the crop yield decreases
5. Differences between fertilisers and manure: automatically.
Fertiliser Manure 9. Undesirable plants that grow along with crop plants are
Fertilisers are commercially M anure is a natural substance. It known as weeds. Xanthium, Parthenium, etc. are some
available plant nutrients. is prepared by the decomposition common weeds. Weeds compete with the main crop for
of animal excreta and plant nutrients, light, and space. As a result, crop plants get lesser
wastes. nutrients, light, and space for their development. This in
They can be organic or M anure is known to have a large turn, reduces their productivity. Thus, various weeding
inorganic in nature. quantity of organic materials and methods are employed.
very little amount of plant Some important weeding methods are:
nutrients. (i) Weeds can be controlled using weedicides. These are
They ensure healthy growth They help in enriching the soil chemicals, which can be sprayed in the fields to kill all
and development of plants with organic matter and nutrients. available weeds. Weedicides are not harmful to the
by providing them with main crops.
nitrogen, phosphorus, (ii) Tilling before sowing of crops also helps in removing
potassium, etc. weeds. Tilling uproots the weeds. The best time for
The addition of fertilisers to The addition of manure does not the removal of weeds is before flowering.
the soil requires special require any special guidelines. (iii) The manual method weeding is with the help of a khurpi.
guidelines such as dose time, It involves regular uprooting or cutting of weeds close
post addition precautions, to the ground.
etc., to be followed. 10. Flow chart of sugarcane crop production:
A fertiliser does not provide M anure provides humus to the Preparation of Ploughing the Sowing Manuring
any humus to the soil. soil and increases soil fertility. soil field
Its excessive use causes It protects the environment and

water pollution. It cannot helps in recycling farm waste. Sending crop to
Harvesting Irrigation
replenish organic matter of sugar factory
soil. 11. Down

6. Irrigation is the method of supplying water to crops at 1. Irrigation
different intervals. The time and frequency of irrigation 2. Storage
varies according to different seasons, crops, and soil types. 5. Crop
There are various sources of irrigation such as wells, canals, Across
rivers, dams, ponds, and lakes. Two important methods of 3. Harvestor
irrigation which are helpful in conserving water are: 4. Gram
(a) Sprinkler system: 6. Winnowing
In this method, water is supplied through pipes to one 1 2
or more central locations within the field. When water I S
is allowed to flow under high pressure with the help of 3
H A R V E S T O R
a pump, it gets sprinkled on the crops. This system is
R O
more useful on uneven land, having fewer water
supplies. I R
(b) Drip system:
G A
In this method, water is delivered at or near the roots
4
of plants, drop by drop. This is the most efficient G R A M G
method of irrigation as there is no wastage of water at
T E
all. This method is important in areas having water
5
scarcity. I C
7. If wheat is sown in the kharif season (from June to October),
O R
then the whole crop might get destroyed because of many
6
factors such as lack of optimum temperature, in appropriate W I N N O W I N G
day length, availability of pests, excess of rain etc. Therefore,
P
wheat crop should not be sown during this season.
EBD_7029
32 BIOLOGY
Exemplar Questions : 4. An extra stock called buffer stock is maintained so that
grains are available in plenty even if there is a short fall in
1. The field will be watered, tilled and ploughed before sowing
seeds. production in a particular year, for example due to monsoon
2. October to March. failure.
3. Loosening the soil/maintaining high moisture levels in soil. 5. No, this is not true. Crop rotation helps replenishment of the
4. Crops cultivated without using any chemicals like fertilisers, soil with nitrogen.
pesticides, weedicides etc. are called organic foods. 6. To fulfil the food requirement of increasing population in
5. (a) Seed drill. our country we need to constantly increase the food grain
(b) The advantages are, production. This can be done by increasing the land under
(i) seeds are sown at a uniform distance and depth to cultivation. But we cannot indefinitely go on increasing
avoid over crowding. farmland, as this leads to environmental problems.
(ii) after sowing, seeds are covered by soil which
prevent them from being eaten by birds. Hence, improvement in the methods of agricultural practices
(iii) It saves time and labour. is the most suitable alternative to increase crop produce.
6. (a) Animal husbandry. Better irrigation methods, proper use of manure and fertilizers
(b) Animals are provided with proper food, shelter and etc will help improving the crop produce.
care. Also, by providing better storage methods, we can reduce
7. (i) He did not use good quality seeds. wastage of food grain. However, recently, an increase in crop
(ii) His field was not well irrigated. produce has come about from using better varieties of crops
(iii) Manures/fertilisers were not properly applied. that have higher yield and more resistance to diseases.
(iv) Weeds were not removed. More can be added to the Hence, these days, use of better varieties of crop plants has
list.
brought about maximum increase in crop production in our
8. The following items are required – seeds and seedlings of
country.
vegetable plants from nursery, kitchen waste, water.
Step for raising the garden: 7. Mustard is a Rabi crop which requires cold and dry weather.
1. Kitchen waste will be collected and composted in a Therefore, in rainy season it will not grow well and gets
pit. destroyed in excess water.
2. A patch of land will be identified for the garden.
3. Soil will be dug up and levelled with the help of a 8. (i) Uneven distribution of rainfall-spatial and temporal
spade. (ii) Uncertainty of monsoon.
4. Sowing of seeds / transplanting of seedlings. (iii)Lack of irrigation facilities
5. Select seeds/seedings as per the season. Water the (iv) Frequent flood and drought is a common phenomenon
plants regularly with a water-can.
associated with the monsoon.
6. Compost will be applied.
7. Weeds will be removed periodically with the help of 9. Yes, the reasons are as follows :
khurpi. (1) Less income or savings.
(2) Crop failure
HOTS Questions :
(3) Difficult procedure of financial institution which has
1. Farmer use a mixture of manures and fertilizers in the field so pushed them to borrow from private money lenders at
that the nutrients which cannot be fulfilled by the manures high rate of interest.
can be fulfilled by the plants and the nutrients which are (4) Inadequate support price of procurement of crops
not in the fertilizers can be fulfilled by the manures, e.g. - (5) Low returns from agriculture.
NPK [nitrogen, phosphate and potassium] fulfil the nutrients
(6) Lack of implementation of land reforms.
which are not present in the manures.
2. Sprinkler system of irrigation. This system is used on the 10. Pests are organisms that attack and damage crops. They
uneven land where less water is available. Sprinkler irrigation can limit crop productivity.
is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to 11. Continuous rainfall will make cultivation difficult and reduces
natural rainfall. Water is distributed through a system of agricultural output. All plants need at least some water to
pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into the air survive; therefore rain (being the most effective means of
through sprinklers so that it breaks up into small water drops watering) is important to agriculture. While a regular rain
which fall to the ground. pattern is usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too
3. Crop rotation and proper ploughing before sowing seeds little rainfall can be harmful, even devastating to crops.
helps in removing weeds. In these methods poisononous Drought can kill crops and increase erosion, while overly
chemicals are not used. wet weather can cause harmful fungus growth. Plants need
varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, certain 11. (b) Ploughing in bigger field is done by cultivator.
cacti require small amounts of water, while tropical plants Cultivator is a mechanical implement for breaking up
may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive. the ground and uprooting weeds. Hoe is a long-handled
gardening tool with a thin metal blade, used mainly for
weeding. Sickle is a hand-held agricultural tool with a
variously curved blade. It is used for harvesting grain
crops or cutting succulent forage chiefly for feeding
Multiple Choice Questions : livestock. Combine is a farm machine used for both
1. (b) Dr. Norman Borlang, an American agricultural scientist threshing and harvesting.
was the first to promote the green revolution in India. 12. (d) Manuring helps in enriching the soil with organic
2. (c) Sugarcane is not a Rabi crop. It is a Kharif crop. Kharif matter and nutrients.
crops are grown in rainy season. 13. (a) Weedicide is a chemical or organic substance which is
3. (b) Beans is a leguminous crop that enriches the soil with used to remove unwanted plants mainly like weeds
nitrogen. Leguminous crops fix the atmospheric which effect the healthy growth of the plant. Tilling is
nitrogen themselves by using nitrogen fixing bacteria to prepare (land) for the raising of crops, as by plowing
present in their root nodules. and harrowing. Crop rotation is the practice of growing
4. (a) The process of turning and loosening of soil is called different crops in succession on the same land chiefly
ploughing or filling. Harvesting is the process of to preserve the productive capacity of the soil.
cutting the crop and gathering them to transport it to 14. (a) Cow dung is an example of manure. Manure is organic
the market. Threshing is the process of separating the matter used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. It
chaff from the grain. Irrigation is the process of watering contributes to the fertility of the soil by adding organic
the plants in a field. matter and nutrients, such as nitrogen, that are trapped
5. (a) Threshing is the process of separating the grain seeds by bacteria in the soil. Urea, ammonium phosphate
from pods or chaff. The process of cutting of mature and superphosphate are fertilizers.
crop is known as harvesting. The process of sowing 15. (d) The large scale storage of food grains is done in grain
seeds by hands is known as broadcasting while silos and gunny bags.
ploughing is the process of turning and loosening of
16. (b) Crop harvesting is the last step in the production of
soil.
crop. Harvesting is the cutting and gathering the
6. (a) Manure enriches the soil with organic material (humus).
mature crop.
A fertilizer does not provide any humus to soil.
17. (c) Urea is an example of fertilizer. Fertilizer is a manmade
7. (d) Drip system of irrigation is a modern method of
mineral salt which are added to the soil to provide
irrigation. In this method water is delivered at or near
the roots of the plant drop by drop. Moat, Rahat and nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.
chain pump are traditional methods of irrigation, they 18. (d) Appropriate supply of water to the crop is called
are cheaper but less efficient. irrigation. Soil cannot be irrigated with polluted water.
8. (d) Harrow is used for removing unwanted plants (weeds) Assertion & Reason :
from the crops. The implements used for harvesting
are sickle and harvesting machine. 1. (a) Rabi crops refer to agricultural crops sown in winter
9. (a) Plough is an implement made of wood. It is drawn over and harvested in the spring. It is the spring harvest
soil to turn it over and cut furrows in preparation for (also known as the "win ter crop") in Indian
the planting of seeds. Sickle is an implement for cutting subcontinent. The Rabi crops are grown between the
grain, grass, etc., It consists of a curved, hook like months mid-November to April. The water that has
blade mounted in a short handle. Harrow is a cultivating percolated in the ground during the rains is main source
implement set with spikes, spring teeth, or disks and of water for these crops. Examples of Rabi crop are
used primarily for pulverizing and smoothing the soil. wheat, gram, pea, mustard, linseed, barley.
Trowel is a small tool with a curved blade that is used 2. (a) Fertilizers are any of a large number of natural and
by gardeners for digging holes. synthetic materials, containing the chemical elements
10. (a) Manuring is addition of manure to the soils to improve that improve growth and productiveness of plants.
its fertility. Weeding is the removal of undesirable, Fertilizers enhance the natural fertility of the soil or
unattractive, or troublesome plant especially one replace the chemical elements taken from the soil by
growing where it is not wanted. Tilling is to prepare previous crops. Modern chemical fertilizers include one
(land) for the raising of crops, as by plowing and or more of the three elements most important in plant
harrowing. nutrition: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
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34 BIOLOGY
3. (d) Refer answer 2 6. (a) Earthworms are called farmer’s friend because they play
4. (b) Crop improvement refers to the genetic alteration of an important role in breaking down dead organic matter
plants to satisfy human needs. It proposes to obtain in a process known as decomposition. Decomposition
higher yield, better quality, resistance to disease and releases nutrients locked up in dead plants and animals
shorter duration which are suitable to a particular and makes them available for use by living plants.
environmental condition. Earthworms are also responsible for mixing soil layers
5. (a) Weed species are typically associated with crops, and and incorporating organic matter into the soil. Charles
crop rotations determine their specific weed population Darwin referred to earthworms as 'nature's ploughs'
over time. Crop rotation is the system of growing a because of this mixing of soil and organic matter. This
sequence of different crops on the same ground so as mixing improves the fertility of the soil by allowing the
to maintain or increase its fertility, to avoid depleting organic matter to be dispersed through the soil and
the soil and to control weeds, diseases, and pests. the nutrients held in it to become available to bacteria,
fungi and plants.
Chapter MICRO-ORGANISMS
2
INTRODUCTION
Doctors often advise us to use aqua-guards, water purifying systems for drinking safe water; wash your hand before having
food etc. Why? Because there are still some small number of organisms living around us and even inside our bodies that we can
not see them with our naked eyes. These organisms are so small in size that we have to use magnifying glasses or microscopes
to see them. These tiny organisms are called microorganisms or microbes. Microbes are every where. They live in the water you
drink, food you eat and the air you breathe. The water that seems to be clear and transparent is not always safe for drinking. It
may contain some of the disease causing germs and other dissolved impurities that can not be seen with our naked eyes.
However if you view the water, with the magnifying glass, you can see several small organisms in it.
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36 BIOLOGY
a b c
a: Clean and transparent glass of water; b and
c: Glass and hand respectively showing microorganisms with magnifying glass
MICROORGANISMS
Microorganisms are microscopic, living, single celled organisms. Microorganisms have adapted to inhabit almost every corner of the
world. They are invisible to naked eyes. Such small organisms can be observed through a microscope.
Microscope is a device that produces enlarged images of very small objects. The simple student’s microscope that is often used in
schools are called compound microscope. A compound microscope has two lens system — The eye piece and the objective lenses.
The microscope can normally make an object look 25 to 400 times its actual size. So, while you are observing a object in a microscope,
you are observing its magnified image.
The lens of a compound microscope is made up of convex (magnifying) lenses. Microscopes use light (generally sunlight) to
illuminate the object, so these compound microscopes are called light microscope.
Eyepiece
Rough adjustment
Disc Fine adjustment

Objective lenses
Aperture
Stand Clips
Mirror
A compound microscope
After the invention of microscope it was found that microorganisms occur every where. Microorganisms were observed for the first
time by Anton Von Leeunwenhoek of Holland. Microorganisms are very diverse and include all the bacteria and archae and almost all
the protozoa. They also include some members of fungi, algae and animals such as rotifers. Many macroanimals and plants have
juvenile stages which are also microorganisms.
• Microbes are the oldest form of life on earth. They have been here for 3.8 billion years.
• Most microorganisms are microscopic, but there are some bacteria such as Thiomargarita namibiensis
and some protozoa such as Stentor, which are macroscopic and visible to the naked eye.
• Microbes comprise ~60% of the earths biomass.
• Microbial cycling of such critical chemical elements as carbon and nitrogen helps keep the world habitable
for all life forms.
• Microbes generate at least half the oxygen we breathe.
Micro-organisms 37
• Microbes thrive in an amazing diversity of habitats in extremes of heat, cold, radiation, pressure, salinity,
acidity, and darkness, and often where no other life forms could exist and where nutrients come only from
inorganic matter.
• Microbes offer unusual capabilities reflecting the diversity of their environmental niches. These may prove
useful as a source of new genes and organisms of value in addressing bioremediation, global change,
biotechnology, and energy production.
• Diversity patterns of microorganisms can be used for monitoring and predicting environmental change
• The study of microorganism is called microbiology and the scientist involved in the study are called
microbiologists.
Fun Time
Name three advertisement that you see in television where germs are shown.
iN THE LAB
Let us perform an activity to observe some common microbes.
Collect some moist soil from your garden in a beaker and add little water to it. Shake the beaker to mix soil and water thoroughly.
Now allow the soil particle to settle done. Then take a drop of water from the beaker and spread it over a clean glass slide. Place
a coverslip over the slide and observe it under microscope.
Microscope
Moist soil
Soil
mixed
in water
Water
Pour a drop of water
on a glass slide
What did you observe?
You can observe several minute organisms floating in water. These tiny organism are called microbes.
WHERE DO MICROORGANISMS LIVE?

Microorganisms are present every where in our environment, in soil, hot springs, on the ocean floor, in air, deep inside the rocks with
in the earth’s crust. They are also present in our house, in refrigerator, in the bathroom, in foods, floors, toys, and even in our body.
They make up the largest living organism in the planet. They are not just billions or trillions around the earth but are trillions of trillions
and many more.
CONNECTING TOPIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROORGANISMS
Sometimes some seeds (for example, rice, tomato, chilli, cabbage, bringal etc) are not directly planted in the fields, instead they are
planted in the seed beds called nurseries and when they grow into seedlings they are transferred in the field.
You must have seen farmers transplanting paddy (rice) seedlings in the fields. This method is known as transplantation.
In case of paddy (rice) crops, the seeds are first sown in a small plot of land and then allowed to grow into tiny plants called s
(i) Microorganisms can be unicellular or multicellular. Bacteria, some algae and protozoan are single celled organism while algae
and fungi are multicellular organism.
(ii) They can be solitary or colonial. A protozoan, say Amoeba can spend its whole life alone moving in water whereas others like
fungi and bacteria live and work together in colonies to help each other.
(iii) Microorganism can be autotrophic or heterotrophic. Some bacteria, few fungi and viruses are heterotrophs while algae and
some fungi are autotrophs. They can prepare their own food by the process of photosynthesis.
(iv) Microorganisms can reproduce sexually, asexually or both. Sexual reproduction involves formation of new individual by fusion
between their parent gametes while asexual reproduction involves the splitting of microbes into two identical pieces by itself.
A bacterium, for example, reproduces asexually by binary fusion or sexually by conjugation.
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38 BIOLOGY
CLASSIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS
There is a huge variety of microorganisms on the earth. Hence, based on their size and shape they are classified into four major groups.
Microorganisms
Bacteria Fungi Protozoa Algae

Bacteria
Bacteria are small, single-celled organism, present everywhere, on land, in water and in the air. Some live in or on other organisms
including plants and animals (including humans). A lot of these bacterial cells are found in the lining of the digestive system.
Bacteria are heterotrophic in nature i.e., they get their food from eating other organisms or from eating organic matter. Their size
vary from 0.2 to 100 m in diameter..
Plasma membrane
Cell wall
Capsule
Flagellum
DNA Ribosomes
Nucleoid
Structure of a bacteria
NOTE
Aerobic & anaerobic bacteria
The bacteria which need oxygen for their respiration are called aerobic bacteria. Those bacteria which do not need oxygen for
respiration are called anaerobic bacteria.
Coliform bacteria are used as indicator of waste water pollution in water as well as the bacteria responsible for typhoid fever.
Bacteria play a vital role in maintaining the Earth as a suitable place for inhabitation by other forms of life,
and protozoa play a vital role in controlling their numbers and biomass.
GRAM STAIN
Bacteria are viewed under a light microscope using a special stain. The stain that is traditionally used for this is the Gram Stain.
In 1884, a Scientist named Christian Gram developed a stain or dye called “Gram stain” that showed that all bacteria are divided into
two groups. They poured purple dye (Gram’ stain) over bacterial smear on a microscope slide. The cell wall of the bacteria take up
the colour. Now, if a solvent is applied to the slide, bacteria that have got a cell wall keep their purple colour, but bacteria that have
got an extra cell membrane outside their cell wall quickly lose the purple stain and become colourless.
Hence, on the basis of the response to Gram’s stain, all the bacteria are divided into two groups –
(i) Gram positive bacteria :- Bacteria that manage to keep the original purple dye (Gram’ stain) are called gram positive bacteria.
Example – Staphylococcus, Streptococcus.
(ii) Gram negative bacteria :- Bacteria that do not retain the original purple dye (Gram’ stain) are called Gram negative bacteria.
Example – Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Pseudomonas.
Micro-organisms 39
Some fungi look like plants, but they cannot make their food like plants do. Unlike algae or plants, fungi lack
the chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis and must therefore live as parasites or saprobes. Saprobes are
organisms that derive their nourishment from dead, decaying organic matter.
Rhizopus fungus is commonly known as bread mould.
CONNECTING TOPIC
FUNGI
Fungi are multicellular non-green plant-like organisms that do not contain chlorophyll
and are unable to synthesize their own food. Fungi are found in just about any habitat Spores Sporangium
but most live on the land, mainly in soil or on plant material rather than in sea or fresh
Hyphae
water.
The main body of most fungi is made up of fine, branching, and usually colourless
threads called hyphae. Each fungus will have vast numbers of these hyphae, all intertwining
to make up a tangled web called the mycelium.
Most of the fungi are invisible to the naked eyes. For example, Bread mould (Rhizopus)
yeast and bread moulds. However, there are some examples
of fungi that are not microscopic and hence can be seen through naked eyes. For example, mushroom.
Mushroom is a fleshy fungus that comprises a cap at the end of a stem. It arises from an underground
mycelium and are used extensively in cooking.
Mushroom You all must have noticed the presence of whitish grayish patch on the slice of bread. What are these?
Any guesses? The whitish grayish patches are fungus, a multicellular organism that has developed on
the surface of slice of bread. If you carefully observe the slice of bread under microscope or magnifying glass, you can see several
tiny thread like structures called hyphae.
A huge fungus called Armillaria bulbosa is reportedly formed

in Michigan USA. It covers an area of 15 hectors, weighs
around 10,000 kg and survives 150 years. This makes it one
of the oldest, largest and heaviest living things known on this
planet.
LICHEN AND MYCORRHIZA

Some fungi are involved in symbiotic relationships. For example, lichens and mycorrhiza. Lichens show an ultimate mutualistic
relationship between a fungus and an algae or a cyanobacterium. Here, the fungus, helps in absorption of nutrients and provides
protection, while algae prepares the food. Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between fungi and roots of higher plants.
CYANOBACTERIA
Cyanobacterium is a group of photosynthetic bacteria. They are widespread in marine and freshwater environments, with
some species capable of nitrogen fixation. Though classified as bacteria, they resemble the eukaryotic algae in many ways,
including some physical characteristics and ecological niches, and were at one time treated as algae. They contain certain
pigments, which, with their chlorophyll, often give them a blue-green colour, though many species are actually green, brown,
yellow, black or red.
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40 BIOLOGY
CONNECTING TOPIC
Protozoa
Protozoa are microscopic eukaryotic organisms that have relatively complex internal sturcture and carry out complex metabolic
activities. They can be unicellular or multicellular. They are animal like, just as algae are plant like. They come in many different
shapes and sizes ranging from an Amoeba (which can change its shape) to Paramecium (with its fixed shape and complex
structure). They live in a wide variety of moist habitats including fresh water, marine environments and the soil. Their sizes vary
from 2 to 200m.
Protozoans are motile, nearly all possess flagella, cilia, or pseudopodia that allow them to navigate their aqueous habitats.
Amoeba Paramecium
Euglena is a protozoan, which contains chlorophyll and can photosynthesize.
CONNECTING TOPIC
Algae
Algae is a large group of simple, plant like organisms. The algae have chlorophyll and can manufacture their own food through the
process of photosynthesis. Algae occur in most habitats, ranging from marine and freshwater to desert sands and from hot boiling
springs to snow and ice. They vary from small, single-celled forms to complex multicellular forms. The simplest algae are single cells
(e.g., the diatoms); the more complex forms consist of many cells grouped in a spherical colony (e.g., Volvox ), in a ribbon like
filament (e.g., Spirogyra ), or in a branching thallus form (e.g., Fucus ). The giant kelps of the eastern Pacific grow to more than 61
meters in length and form dense marine forests.
(a) Anabaena
(b) Nostoc (c) Chlamydomonas (d) Spirogyra (e) Oscillatoria

Types of Algae
Micro-organisms 41
Algae are important as primary producers of organic matter at the base of food chain. They also provide
oxygen for other aquatic life.
The branch dealing with the study of algae is called phycology or aloglogy.
The gelatinous substance “agar” used in culture medium for growing microorganisms (such as bacteria) in
laboratory is made from red algae.
What is algal bloom?
An algal bloom is a rapid increase in the density of algae in an aquatic system. Algal blooms sometimes are
natural phenomena, but their frequency, duration and intensity are increased by nutrient pollution. Algae
can multiply quickly in waterways with an overabundance of nitrogen and phosphorus, particularly when
the water is warm and the weather is calm. This proliferation causes blooms of algae that turn the water
noticeably green, although other colours can occur.
CONNECTING TOPIC
VIRUSES
Virus (means poisonous fluid) is the smallest microorganisms that is visible only through electron microscope. Viruses are
distinguished from free living microbes such as bacteria and fungi by their small size and relatively simple structures. They do not
show most of the characteristics of living things. For example, they do not respire, feed, grow, excrete or move on their own. They
are just capable of reproducing. Viruses can multiply and reproduce only inside the cells of other organisms like plant, animal and
bacterial cells. The cell in which they multiply is called host-cell. Thus as long as viruses are outside the living cells, they behave
as non-living things but as soon as viruses enter the living cells of other organisms, they start behaving as living by carrying out
the process of reproduction. The virus gets inside the host cells and makes hundred and thousand copies of itself by using the host
machinery. Hence, viruses are said to be on the border line dividing the living things from non-living things. Rous Sarcoma virus
and HIV are examples of viruses.
A virus is made up of a core of genetic material, either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protective coat called a capsid which is made
up of protein. Sometimes the capsid is surrounded by an additional spikey coat called the envelope.
Viral Structure
MICROORGANISMS AND US
By now, we have learnt that there is a huge variety of microorganisms on Earth. These organisms play a vital role in keeping the planet
running. Let us now discuss, how Microorganisms are beneficial to mankind and how they keep the planet Earth running?
BENEFICIAL ORGANISMS
Microbes or microorganisms carry out about 90% of the biochemical reaction that occurs in our planet. They are useful in the following
ways —
(i) Food and beverage industry.
(ii) Making medicines and vaccines.
(iii) Increasing soil fertility.
(iv) Cleaning of environment.
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42 BIOLOGY
• Curd is a nutritious food that helps in digestion. Lactobacillus bacteria inhibit the growth of disease –
causing microorganism inside intestinal tract and promote beneficial bacteria needed for digestion.
• Streptococcus and Lactobacillus species are involved in the manufacture of most cheese.
Food and Beverage Industry

(i) Bacteria help us in making food. They play an important role in formation of curd and cheese. You must have seen your mother
adding a teaspoon of curd to lukewarm milk. Have you ever thought why she does so? She adds curd to the warm milk because
curd contains a bacterium called Lactobacillus. This bacteria multiplies and converts the milk into curd. Similarly, there is
another bacterium called Rennin that is used for making cheese from milk. Rennin ferments the milk sugar to produce lactic acid.
This lactic acid separates the milk into solid curd and liquid called milk whey. Whey is the watery part of the milk that is separated
from curd during cheese formation. Later on, this separated curd from the milk is used to make cheese.
(ii) Idli, dosa and dhokla are also require yeast for its preparation. Yeast makes dhokla soft and fluffy when it is added to its mixture.
Mixture of dal and rice for making idli and dosa is allowed to stand for few hours, as fermentation occurs (due to presence of
bacteria) the mixture rises and becomes sour.
(iii) Bacteria and yeast also helps in the process of fermentation.
Fermentation is the process of converting a complex organic substance into simpler substance with the action of bacteria or
yeast. Both of these organisms can ferment the sugar present in various foods like fruits, milk, grain etc. During the process of
breaking down of sugar, alcohol is formed and carbon dioxide is given off.
without
Glucose Alcohol + Energy + CO 2
Oxygen
Yeast is commonly used in baking of cake or bread as it ferments the sugar present in the dough into carbon dioxide. The carbon
dioxide released from the yeast fills the dough and increases its volume. When this dough is baked, more bubbles of gas are
formed due to the heat. As the gas escapes, the bread rises and becomes soft and fluffy.
Maida mixed with yeast powder Raised maida
Baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is used in baking industry.
iN THE LAB
Let us perform an experiment to observe the increase in volume during fermentation of sugar by yeast cells.
Take two test tubes and mark them as A and B. Clamp both the test tubes on a stand and keep it in a safer place. Pour about 4-5
drops of yeast and sugar mixture in test tube B only. Test tube A acts as control test tube, with only water in it. Now take two
stretched balloon and tie them on the mouth of each test tube. Now set both the test tubes aside in a warm place and record your
observations.
Sugar +
Yeast +
water solution
A B A B
(control)
Observation : You will observe that balloon in test tube B inflates after few minutes whereas balloon in test tube A remains deflated.
Result : This happens because yeast cells present in the solution of test tube B ferments the sugar present in it. As the yeast
keeps on feeding sugar, it produces carbon dioxide. Since, there is no place for carbon dioxide to go except for going up, so it fills
the balloon. This process is known as fermentation.
Micro-organisms 43
Microbes in the healthy human body

Some microbes line in the human body without causing any harm and help in keeping our body functioning
normally. However, if their numbers become unbalanced, they may make us sick.
Ear (outer) Aspergillus (fungus)
Skin Candida (fungus)
Small intestine Clostridium
Intestines Escherichia coli
Vagina Gardnerella vaginalis
Stomach Lactobacillus
Urethra Mycobacterium
Nose Staphlococcus aureus
Mouth Streptococcus salivarius
Large intestine Trichomonas hominis (protozoa)
(iv) Microorganisms are also used for commercial production of alcohol like beer and wine. Beer is prepared by the fermentation of
sugar in barley and wine by fermentation of sugar in grapes.
Microbes used in the process of fermentation

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iN THE LAB
Let us perform an experiment to show that fermentation of sugar by yeast produces alcohol.
Take some warm water in a flask so that it is one-third full. Then add 2-3 teaspoons of sugar into it and mix well. Now add half a
teaspoon of yeast to it. Cover the flask and keep it in a warm place for 4 to 5 hours. Now smell the solution.
Yeast + sugar +
warm water Yeast + sugar + water
solution
solution
Observation : The solution smell like alcohol because the yeast in the solution converts the sugar into alcohol and releases
carbon dioxide. This process is known a fermentation.
In the
Glucose Alcohol + Energy + CO 2
absence of oxygen
Thus, yeast is used in the manufacture of alcoholic drinks such as beer and wine.
Making Medicines and Vaccines

Bacteria and fungi are used for making antibiotics and vaccines.
(i) Antibiotics :
Antibiotics are produced by certain microorganisms, to kill other disease-causing microorganisms. These medicines either kill or
stop the growth of disease – causing microorganisms. Penicillin, tetracycline, streptomycin and erythromycin are some examples
of antibiotics. Antibiotics destroy the bacteria by weakening their cell wall. As a result of weakened cell wall, the immune cells
such as white blood cells enter into the bacterial cell and causes cell lysis. Cell lysis is the process of destruction of cells such
as blood cell and bacteria.
Though antibiotics are used to kill disease causing microorganisms but it is necessary to take certain precautions while using
antibiotics.
• Edward Jenner developed the smallpox vaccination method in 1796. In 1788, the English town
Gloucestershire was plagued with smallpox. Jenner observed that milkmaids who suffered the mild disease
of cowpox never contracted smallpox. Subsequently, Jenner proved that on having been inoculated with
cowpox, one could remain immune to smallpox. The invention of this method of vaccination ultimately
resulted in the eradication of smallpox.
• Jenner coined the term “vaccination,” which comes from the latin world “vaccinia” meaning ‘cowpox’.
• The inoculation of a vaccine in the body to produce immunity is called vaccination.
Precautions that need to be taken while using antibiotics are –

(i) Always take antibiotics on the advice of well-qualified doctor.
(ii) Courses of antibiotic should be completed as per the prescription given by the doctor.
(iii) Always take antibiotics in the right amount and at the right time. An inappropriate dose of antibiotic makes it ineffective.
Also, its excessive consumption may kill the useful bacteria present in our body.
(ii) Vaccines :
Microorganisms are also used as vaccines. You must have heard about pulse polio programme organised by government. Have
you ever thought what are these programmes all about? Polio drops given to children are actually vaccines. Vaccines protect
humans and other animals from several diseases such as cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis, hepatitis, chicken pox, measles, polio
and small pox. Vaccines are the suspension of killed microbes that mimics the disease causing microorganisms and produce
immunity to a particular disease. When they are swallowed or injected into the body of patient, the body produces antibodies
to fight them. Antibodies are body’s defensive cells that fight against several infectious foreign substances mostly germs. The
antibodies remain in the body and protect it from any future attack of germs.
Micro-organisms 45
Vaccines are given A vaccine prepares the Body is prepared to

as injection or body to fight germs fight any further
oral drops infection of the disease
Use of vaccine
Anthrax vaccine
The anthrax vaccine was developed by Louis Pasteur in 1881. Anthrax was the first disease for which the
causative agent was isolated in 1863 by C.J. Davaine and for which an effective vaccine was developed.
Pasteur studied about the bacteria that cause the disease and performed many experiments. Finally he
produced a weak and harmless anthrax bacterium and tested the vaccine on cattle and sheep.
P oi n t
Why do we take antibiotics?
SOLUTION
Antibiotics are chemicals. When these chemicals are put into the body they kill or stop the growth of certain kinds of germs.
In other words they help our body to fight off diseases. The body is then said to have developed immunity against the
disease. Vaccine is therefore called as immunization. Hence, vaccines teach our immune system, to fight against that microbe.
If ever you get sick with a particular disease, you will be able to fight off the infection because you are vaccinated against that
microbe.
It is important to get rid of the fever as quickly as possible as it destroys vital proteins in our body.
FEVER
Our body has an average temperature of 98.6° Fahrenheit or 32°C when it is healthy. Some diseases make this temperature rise and
we call this higher temperature fever. So, what exactly is fever?
Fever actually helps us fight off sickness. Fever makes the vital processes and organs in the body work faster. The body produces
more hormones, enzymes and blood cells. As our blood circulates faster, we breathe faster and so we get rid of wastes and poisons
in our system.
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HOW PENICILLIN WAS DISCOVERED?

Penicillin was the first antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1929. He got nobel prize for the discovery of penicillin in 1945.
How penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming?
Alexander Fleming accidently discovered penicillin. He was actually working on a culture of disease-causing microorganisms called
Staphylococci. He left the culture and went for a holiday. When he returned from the holiday, he noticed that petri dishes were
contaminated by a fungus and bacteria. Staphylococcus could not grow into the area because of invaded mould (fungus). The
fungus invaded into the culture dish from nearby opened window. Fleming extracted the antibiotic substance from the mould and
named it as penicillin. Penicillin was named because it came from a species of a mould called Penicillium.
NOBEL PRIZE
Alexander fleming, Howard florey and Ernst Boris chain recieved Nobel Prize in 1945 for the discovery and development of penicillin.
Increasing Soil Fertility

Microorganisms such as bacteria and algae enriches the soil with essential nutrients.
These nutrients are required by plants for their normal growth and development.
How microorganisms enrich the soil with nutrients? There are million and trillions of
tiny bacteria in soil. These bacteria feed upon dead plants and animals and break them Root
into their component parts. Then these rotting parts of plants and animals get mixed nodules
with the soil and enrich the soil with nutrients. These nutrients are then recycled back containing
in the atmosphere through food chains. Bacteria that helps in breaking down of dead bacteria
plants and animals are called decomposing bacteria or decomposers. The decomposers
convert dead organic matter into rich humus, thereby enriching the soil with nutrients.
Some bacteria such as Rhizobium live in the root nodules of plants such as gram, pea,
etc. These bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into usable nitrogenous
compounds. These nitrogenous compound then can be easily absorbed and utilized by
plants for synthesis of proteins and other compounds. Such type of bacteria are called
nitrogen fixers. They produce nitrogen in exchange for carbohydrate produced by pea
and bean plants. Some blue green algae can also fix atmospheric nitrogen. Nitrogen Fixation
Cleaning of Environment
Microbes like bacteria and fungi play an important role in cleaning the environment. Bacteria and fungi break down complex pollutants
into simpler substances to gain energy and nutrients by the process called biodegradation. They clean up hazardous waste from
industries, farms, and cities and oil spills. The Scientists also use bacteria to remove pollutants from the soil. They help recycle dead
animals and plants.
Some microbes are also used in biological treatment of sewage and industrial effluents. They break down the waste material into
certain usable form and helps in cleaning of environment. This is nature’s method of keeping the environment free from pollution.
NOTE
Bioremediation
Bioremediation is the use of organisms to metabolise pollutants. It involves break down and consumption of pollutants into harmless
natural substances by the help of microorganisms. The microbes used for bioremediation are called bioremediators which include
bacteria and fungi.
Bioaugmentation
Bioaugmentation is the process of adding genetically engineered microbes to a system to act as bioremediators.
Micro-organisms 47
iN THE LAB
Let us perform an activity to understand how microbes help in cleaning of environment
Collect the garbage from your house and separate them into two groups called A and B. Group A contains wastes like dead leaves,
peels of fruits and vegetable, newspaper etc. Group B contains wastes like polythene bags, glass, aluminium foil, plastic toys etc.
A B
Plant and animal wastes, Polythene bags, glass,

newspaper etc. aluminum foil, plastic toy etc.
Put these garbage into two different bins and label then as A and B. Now cover both the pots with soil and leave it aside for 2-3
weeks.
A B
Plant and Polythene bag, glass,
animal waste foil, toys etc.
Observation after 2-3 weeks : The waste in bin A decomposes whereas waste in bin B does not get decomposed.
Explanation – The microorganism present in the soil decomposes the organic matter in waste A and turns them into dark brown
manure. This manure add nutrients to soil and increase its fertility. This process is known as decomposition. Decomposition is the
process of breaking down organic matter from dead bodies of plants and animals into raw materials like carbon dioxide, water and
nutrients. This process occurs with the help of decomposing organisms like bacteria and fungi. The decomposing organisms
contain enzymes that are able to digest plant and animal waste. But, these bacteria are not able to digest some of the substance
such as polythene bag, plastic toys, aluminium foil etc. It is because, they do not have enzymes for digesting these substances.
So the waste present in pot B does not get degraded or decomposed by decomposing bacteria and hence remains in its usual form.
CONNECTING TOPIC
Some other Uses of Microorganisms
(i) Certain bacteria and protozoan are found in the digestive system of some animals like cows, goats and sheep. These bacteria
help the animals digest grass and plants.
(ii) Bacteria are useful in tobacco, leather and jute industries. Tanning, a process to make animals skin into leather by treating it with
chemicals, is done with the help of bacteria.
(iii) Some bacteria decomposes, animals waste, leafy waste from crops etc. in the absence of oxygen to produce methane. Methane
is used as a fuel and is one of the chief constituents of biogas.
HARMFUL MICROORGANISMS
By now, you have learnt that some microorganisms are beneficial to humans. But are all microorganisms helpful? No, not all
microorganisms are helpful because there are some microorganisms that causes disease in humans, animals and plants. The disease
causing microorganisms are called pathogen or germs.
At times, germs enter the human body. If the germs are present in large numbers, the person is said to be infected. These germs do not
allow the body to function properly and the person becomes sick. A particular disease is caused by a specific kind of germ. For
example, typhoid is caused by a kind of bacteria which is different form that which causes cholera. Let us discuss about agents that
spread diseases. Diseases can spread through various means such as air, water food and vector.
Means of Spread of Diseases
(i) Air : Certain disease causing microorganisms are expelled into air by coughing, sneezing, talking etc. When a person suffering
from common cold or flu sneezes, coughs or spits, germs are released in the air. As a result, the person breathing this air can get
infected. The diseases that can spread through air are common cold, flu, chicken pox, mumps, measles, tuberculosis, polio etc.
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(ii) Water : Sometimes, the causal microorganism get mixed with water and spreads water-borne diseases like, cholera, typhoid,
hepatitis etc.
(iii) Food : Sometimes, the disease is transferred from the food that we eat. The bacteria may survive in the food that is not properly
cooked and hence causes food – borne diseases.
(iv) Vector : Vector is an organism that carries microbes and is responsible for its transmission. Diseases such as malaria are spread
by animals called vector or carrier. The vector for malarial disease is female Anopheles mosquito. Aedes mosquito acts as a carrier
for the dengue virus. Another example of vector that spread disease is housefly. Housefly sits on uncovered food and transfers
microorganisms or pathogen to it. Hence, it is always advised not to leave the food uncovered.
(a) Contact
GERMS
SPREAD THROUGH
(d) Contaminated air,
(b) Insects like flies and food and water
mosquitoes
(c) Sharing objects such as utensils, toys,

bed sheets or towels
Different ways of spreading germs.
During sneezing, a germ can travel at 50 miles per hour across a room.
Aedes mosquito has small, black and white strips on its legs and back. It bites during day time in early hours
of morning and late hours of afternoon.
Communicable Diseases
The diseases that can be transferred from an infected person to a healthy person through air, water, food and vector are called
communicable diseases. An airborne disease is any disease that is caused by pathogens and transmitted through the air. Waterborne
diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms that most commonly are transmitted in contaminated fresh water. Infection
commonly results during bathing, washing, drinking, in the preparation of food, or the consumption of food thus infected. Vector-
borne disease describes an illness caused by an infectious microbe that is transmitted to people by blood-sucking arthropods. The
arthropods (insects or arachnids) that most commonly serve as vectors include: 1.) blood sucking insects such as mosquitoes, fleas,
lice, biting flies and bugs, and 2.) blood sucking arachnids such as mites and ticks. Cholera, tuberculosis and common cold are
communicable diseases.
Micro-organisms 49
P oi n t
Why it is advised to stay away from the person who is suffering from cough and cold?
SOLUTION
Methods to prevent the spread of communicable disease

I. Preventive measure to be taken for air-borne diseases
(i) Stay away from infected person.
(ii) Keeping a handkerchief on the nose while sneezing.
(iii) Complete isolation from diseased person.
(iv) Get vaccinated at right time.
II. Preventive measures for water borne diseases
(i) Ensure proper disposal of sewage.
(ii) Ensure safe supply of drinking water.
(iii) Maintain good sanitary habits.
(iv) Always drink boiled water.
(v) Get vaccinated at right time.
III. Preventive measures for vector–borne diseases
(i) Do not allow water to stagnate in your surroundings.
(ii) Keep your surroundings neat and clean.
(iii) Use mosquito repellant.
Why do people say “Do not let the water to collect anywhere in your house or locality”.
SOLUTION
Because the stagnant water is place for mosquito breeding and the female Anopheles mosquito is the carrier of malarial parasite.
iN THE LAB
There are certain Don’ts that make conditions unfavourable for growth of microorganisms and certain Do’s that will help destroying
diseases causing microorganisms. Find out those Don’t and Do’s and write your answers in the space provided below.
"Don'ts" that make conditions

"Do's" that destroys disease causing
unfavourable for the growth of
Microorganisms
Microorganisms
1. Do not keep your surroundings dirty. 1. Get Vaccinated at right time.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
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Table : Some common human diseases caused by microorganisms

Causative
Human Transmitting
Micro- Preventive Measures (General)
Diseases agents
organisms
(i) Tuberculosis Bacteria Air (i) Isolation of the infected person.
(ii) Vaccination at suitable age.
(ii) Measles Virus Air
(iii) Chicken Pox Virus Air/Contact
(iv) Polio Virus Air/Water
(v) Cholera Bacteria Water/Food (i) Maintaining personal hygiene.
(ii) Consuming properly cooked food.
(iii) Drinking boiled water.
(vi) Typhoid Bacteria Water (iv) Vaccination
(vii) Hepatitis A Virus Water (i) Drinking boiled water.
(ii) Vaccination
(viii) Malaria Protozoa Mosquito (i) Using mosquito nets or repellents.
(ii) Spraying insecticides.
(iii) Destroying breeding grounds of
mosquitoes such as stagnant water.
Table : Microorganisms causing disease in plants

Plant disease Means of transmission
Bacterial diseases
Soft Rot / Red stripe of sugarcane Air
Citrus canker Air / water / insects
Bacterial Blight of gram Air
Viral diseases
Tobacco mosaic disease Wind / water
Yellow vein mosaic of bhindi (okra) Insect
Tomato mosaic Air
Fungal diseases
Rust of wheat Air / seeds
Late blight of potato Rain / wind
Fungal blight of gram Wind / water
Hepatitis-B virus causes many deaths in only one day as by AIDS virus in one year. In India, about 4.30 crore
people suffer from hepatitis-B. The vaccine against hepatitis-B is available.
FOOD PRESERVATION
Food which is left in the open for a few days often goes bad. It becomes blackish, smelly and mushy, i.e., it becomes soft and wet. This
is because of the action of microbes like bacteria and fungi. They feed on the food and break it down into simpler substances. During
the process, carbon dioxide and poisonous substances are produced. This is called food spoilage. Consuming such food can cause
food poisoning. Therefore food should be preserved to avoid getting these infections. Food preservation is the process of treating and
handling food to stop or slow down spoilage (loss of quality, edibility or nutritional value).
Micro-organisms 51
Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, yeasts, fungi, and other micro-organisms (although some methods
work by introducing benign bacteria, or fungi to the food), as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which cause rancidity. Food
preservation also includes processes which inhibit natural discoloration that can occur during food preparation, such as the enzymatic
browning reaction in apples after they are cut.
Expiry Date & Best Before !!!

You must have noticed that most of the food items that we get from market have “expiry date” or “best before”
on them. What are these?
Expiry data refers to the date before which the supplier wants the food to be consumed. It is unhealthy to
consume food after the expiry date because they are likely to have deteriorated either in flavour, texture,
appearance or nutrional value.
P oi n t
Why we get very sick if we eat food that has gone bad?
SOLUTION
It is because of food poisoning. Food poisoning is a food-borne illness that occurs suddenly after you consume a
contaminated food or drink. Sometimes, the food is spoiled by some microorganisms producing certain toxic substances.
These toxic substances make the food poisonous. The typical symptoms of food poisoning are nausea, vomiting, abdominal
cramp and diarrhea. But how do decomposers get onto the food? The spores of bacteria and fungi are small and light. They
are blown about in the air. Food left in the open is exposed to them and they start to grow when they land on the food.
Bacteria and fungi grow and multiply quickly when there is sufficient air, water and warmth. Under these conditions food
decays very quickly.
iN THE LAB
If you take a piece of bread, sprinkle a few drops of water and leave it undisturbed in a warm place for a few days, what do you
think will happen? You will observe a cotton like mesh growing on the surface of slice of bread. This thread like structures is a type
of mould (fungus). Fungus spoils the bread and makes it unfit for consumption.
Microorganisms are one of the major causes of food spoilage. Therefore, it is advised to preserve the food properly before storing.
Food preservation creates conditions unfavourable for the growth of microbes. Different food preservation techniques are employed
for different types of food.
Advantages of preserving food are —
(i) It avoids wastage of food.
(ii) Preservation techniques facilitates the distribution of food like fruits and vegetables to other countries.
(iii) This allows the availability of food every year. For example, frozen strawberries are available in all year.
(iv) It maintains nutritional value, texture and flavor of food.
Pasteurization
Pasteurization is process in which food is heated to a temperature that kills harmful germs and then cooled
quickly. Heating does not harm the flavour and quality of food. Pasteurization is also used with beer, wine,
fruit juices, cheese and egg products.
French chemist and biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) who invented pasteurization, developed the germ
theory, founded the field of bacteriology and created the first vaccines against anthrax and rabies.
COMMON METHODS FOR FOOD PRESERVATION

Heating
Heating food at high temperature kills microbes. For example, milk and water are boiled to kill microbes.
The milk stored in packets does not get spoiled as it has been pasteurized. The pasteurized milk can be consumed directly as it is free
from microbes. The milk is made sterile by heating it at 70°C for about 15 to 30 seconds. Then the boiled milk is suddenly chilled and
stored inside the packets. This process is known as pasteurization.
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Cooling
Storing of food in refrigerator slows the bacterial action because of low temperature. All food and drinks like meat, fruits and
vegetables and beverages are preserved by this method. However, once the food is taken out of freezer and warmed, microbes start
growing again.
Chemical preservatives
Certain chemical preservatives like sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphite helps to control the microbial growth. These are used
to preserve jams, squashes and ketch ups.
Other examples of preservatives used are –
(a) Salting : It checks the growth of bacteria by forcing microorganisms to lose water by a process called osmosis. It is used to
preserve meat, fish, pickles, chips etc.
(b) Sugar : It inhibits the growth of bacteria and therefore is used as preservative in jams, jellies and squashes. Sugar also makes
microbes lose water by osmosis.
(c) Pickling : Pickling is used to preserve pickles. It uses preservative qualities of salt along with the preservative qualities of acid,
such as vinegar. Vinegar provides acidic medium to pickles and inhibits the growth of bacteria. Cucumber, for example is
preserved for several years when it is soaked in a 10% of salt water brine for several days.
Drying
Drying is the oldest method of food preservation. It removes all the moisture from the food. As a result, there will be no bacterial
growth. Cereals, pulses, spices and dry fruits are stored by drying method.
Canning
Canning stores the food for a long time. It is a process whereby you boil the food to kill the bacteria and then store it in a can with a
seal. Many canned food items are available in market. However note that after breaking the seal of the can, bacteria can enter and spoil
the food. So it is advised to refrigerate the food contents as soon as the can is opened.
Freeze drying
It is a special type of preserving food. In this, the food is frozen and then placed in a vacuum to change the ice crystals directly into
vapour form. It involves the direct conversion of solid form into vapour without going into liquid stage. This method is used to make
instant cooling.
Give an example of each of these preserving methods of food.
Method How it works Example

Pickling The food is mixed with vinegar. The acid
in vinegar stops microbes growing
Drying Microbes cannot grow without water.
Preservatives are chemicals that kill
Preservatives
microbes or stop them from growing.
Food is cooked and then sealed so that no
Canning
more bacteria can get in.
Food is cooked in sugar. The sugar is too
Sugar
concentrated for microbes.
Radiation Radiation kills microbes.
Microbes cannot grow in salt. It is too
Salting
concentrated.
P oi n t
Why it is advisable to consume sweets made from milk like rasagulla within 24 hours of preparation?
SOLUTION
Every food item has a specific shelf life, beyond which it may become unsuitable for consumption. Shelf life is the length of
time a product may be stored such that it remains suitable for use or consumption.
Micro-organisms 53
Look up the packets of food items listed in the given table. Try to fill in the required information.
Sl. Type of Food Method of Packaging Storage Shelf

No. (Bottles, Cans, Cartons) area life
1. Crispy items
(Chips, Biscuits)
2. Diary products
(Butter, Ghee, Chocolates)
3. Jam, Sauce
Based on your observation answer the following questions :–

(i) Which type of food items have the shortest “best before” or “expiry date”?
(ii) Which type of food have the longest “best before” or “expiry date”?
NITROGEN FIXATION
Nitrogen fixation is a process that causes free nitrogen, which is a relatively inert gas plentiful in air, to combine chemically with other
elements to form more reactive nitrogen compounds such as ammonia, nitrates, or nitrites.
Normally nitrogen does not react with other elements. Nitrogen is fixed, or combined, in nature as nitric oxide by lightning and
ultraviolet rays, but more significant amounts of nitrogen are fixed as ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates by soil microorganisms, like
Rhizobium, etc.
Rhizobium is a soil bacterium that is involved in nitrogen fixation from atmosphere.
Now as some of the atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by the bacteria present in soil and some by lightning, you must be wondering how
this fixed nitrogen is recycled back into the atmosphere. There are certain other bacteria that convert the nitrogenous compound
present in soil to nitrogen gas. To understand the process refer nitrogen cycle.
NITROGEN CYCLE
The nitrogen cycle is a cyclic process that transforms nitrogen and nitrogen containing compounds in nature. Earth’s atmosphere has
about 78% of nitrogen gas. It forms essential constituents of all living organisms and is essential for many biological processes. It is
present in all amino acid, proteins, nucleic acid and vitamins. In plants, nitrogen is a part of chlorophyll molecule. Fixation of nitrogen
is an essential process as nitrogen cannot be directly taken by plants and animals. So it needs to be fixed and then converted into some
usable compounds. Certain bacteria and some blue green algae are able to fix the nitrogen and assimilate it as organic nitrogen. An
example of N2 fixing bacteria is Rhizobium. This process is called biological fixation. Once the nitrogen is converted into usable form
it is absorbed from the soil by the plant. Animals obtain this nitrogen directly or indirectly from the plants. When a plant or animal dies,
nitrifying bacteria and some fungi present in the soil converts all the organic nitrogen into ammonia, nitrites and nitrates. Another type
of bacteria then convert these nitrites and nitrates into elemental nitrogen which is then released into atmosphere, completing the
nitrogen cycle.
Hence, nitrogen passes from atmosphere to soil and water in the form of simpler compounds and then back into the atmosphere in the
form of nitrogen molecule.
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Nitrogen Cycle
Hence, nitrogen cycle involves the following steps-

(i) Nitrogen fixation - It is the process of converting free nitrogen gas of atmosphere into nitrogen compunds using nitrogen fixing
bacteria.
(ii) Nitrogen assimilation :- It is the proces of conversion of inorganic nitrogen compounds into organic compounds like proteins.
(iii) Ammonification : It is the process of conversion of complex organic compounds like proteins into ammonia and ammonium
compounds by bacteria and fungi. Bacillus ramosus, B. Vulgaris and Actinomycetes are ammonifying bacteria and fungi
respectively.
(iv) Nitrification : It is the process of conversion of ammonia into nitrates using nitrifying bacteria like Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter.
(v) Denitrification : It is the process of converting nitrates to free nitrogen gas using denitrifying bacteria like Pseudomonas.
NOTE
Two kinds of nitrogen fixer bacteria
– Free-living (non-symbiotic) bacteria [such as cyanobacteria (or blue-green algae) Anabaena and Nostoc, Azotobacter,
Beijerinckia, and Clostridium]
– Mutualistic (symbiotic) bacteria [such as Rhizobium, associated with leguminous plants, and Spirillum lipoferum, associated
with cereal grasses.]
Micro-organisms 55
SUMMARY
Microorganisms are too small to be seen through naked eyes.

Bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa and algae are five major groups of microorganisms.
Microbes can survive in all conditions - hot, cold, wet, dry and humid.
Air, water and moisture are the three main requirements for microbial growth.
Bacteria play an important role in making curd, bread, cheese and pickles.
Fermentation is the process of converting a complex organic substance into simpler substance with the help of bacteria or
yeast.
Antibiotics are medicines that are produced by certain microorganisms, to kill other disease causing microorganisms.
Vaccines are suspension of killed microbes that mimics the disease causing microorganisms.
Vaccination is the protection of the body from infectious disease by administration of vaccines.
Antibodies are protein molecules produced in the blood by immune system to fight against the antigen.
Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi enrich the soil with nutrients.
Decomposition is the process of break down of organic matter from the dead bodies of plants and animals into raw materials
such as CO2, H2O and nutrients.
Bacteria play an important role in cleaning of environment.
Microorganisms cannot decompose materials like polythene bags, glass, bottles etc.
Disease causing microorganisms are called pathogens.
Communicable diseases are diseases that spread by harmful microbes from an infected person to a heathy person through
air, water or physical contact.
Food preservation is the process of protecting food from the growth of microorganisms.
Various modes of food preservation :
1. Salt – Meat, fish, amla, raw mangoes
2. Edible oil and vinegar – Pickles
3. Sugar – Jams, jellies, squashes
4. Chemical like sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphite
5. Refrigeration
6. Air tight packaging
Pasteurization is the process of heating milk at 70°C for about 15 to 30 seconds and then rapidly cooling it.
The cyclic process of nitrogen being fixed, used by plants and animals and later returned to atmosphere is termed as
nitrogen cycle.
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Fill in the Blanks : Match the Following :
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an DIRECTIONS : Each question contains two columns which have
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s). to be matched. Statement terms given in column I have to be
matched with statement terms given in column II.
1. ____________ can reproduce and multiply only inside the
cells of other organisms. 1. Column-I Column-II
2. ____________ spreads by the bite of female, Anopheles (Microorganisms) (Examples)
mosquito. A. Bacteria p. Plasmodium
3. The protection of the body from infectious disease by B. Protozoan q. Yeast
administration of vaccines is called ____________. C. Fungi r. Staphylococci
4. ____________ accidently discovered penicillin. D. Algae s. HIV
5. ____________ teaches our immune system to fight against E. Viruses t. Spirogyra
the microbe.
6. Bacteria such as ____________can fix atmospheric nitrogen 2. Column-I Column-II
and convert it into usable nitrogenous compounds. (Term) (Feature)
7. The process of breakdown of organic matter from the dead A. Virus p. Fungus which is used to
bodies of plants and animals into raw materials is known as make a drug.
____________. B. Cyanobacteria q. A kind of protozoan
8. The causative microorganism of disease, measles, is a C. Plasmodium r. They are bacteria having
____________. chlorophyll
9. Common cold is a/ an ____________ borne disease. D. Spirogyra s. An ultramicroscopic
10. Raw mangoes and tamarind can be preserved by _________. organism that is visible
only through electron
True / False : microscope.
E. Penicillium t. Green filamentous alga
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your commonly found in fresh
answer as true or false. water habitats
1. Microorganisms live only in air. Very Short Answer Questions :
2. All the microorganisms are harmful.
3. Bacteria and fungi have the ability to decompose organic DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
matter.
1. Which term is used to refer the tiniest organisms that can
4. Amoebic dysentery is caused by a protozoan called
only be seen through a microscope?
Entamoeba histolytica.
5. Viruses are non-cellular organisms. 2. Name the instrument used to see microorganisms.
6. Rabies is a fatal disease caused by bacteria. 3. Name a food product prepared by the action of bacteria.
7. Pasteurization is a technique of preserving food especially 4. Which of the two is a spherical bacteria :- coccus or bacillus?
milk.
5. Name the microorganisms which are much smaller than
8. Algae is able to convert sugar into alcohol and carbon bacteria and cause diseases.
dioxide.
6. To which category of microorganisms do the given organism
9. All blue green algae have the ability to fix nitrogen.
belongs – mushroom and yeast?
10. Rennin converts milk into curd.
7. Name the disease caused by
11. Viral fever can be treated by giving antibiotics.
(i) Plasmodium (ii) Entamoeba
(iii) Trypanosoma
Micro-organisms 57
8. Which Anopheles mosquito (male or female) transmits 10. Name two microorganism which act as decomposer? How is
Plasmodium through its bite? this activity useful to us?
9. Which microorganism is used in the production of alcohol
11. How do the following help in food preservation?
from sugar?
(a) Salt (b) Sugar
10. Name one fungus which is used as a food.
11. Name two plant diseases caused by fungi. (c) Heating (d) Drying.
12. Name an antibiotic manufactured from fungi. 12. How penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming?
13. What are pathogens? 13. How decomposers help in enriching the soil with nutrients?
14. What do you understand by “expiry date” written on packed 14. All fungi are not microscopic. Do you agree? Explain.
food items?
15. How do fungi help in recycling of dead organic materials in
Short Answer Questions :
nature?
DIRECTIONS : Give answers in 2-3 sentences. 16. Yeast is capable of converting sugar into two products. Name
these two products. Explain the process involved?
1. What are major groups of microorganisms? Give two examples
of each. 17. What are vectors ? How do they spread diseases?
2. How is nitrogen utilized by living organisms? 18. Why it is advised to keep distance from a person suffering
3. Define antibodies and antibiotics. What precautions should from tuberculosis?
be taken while taking antibiotics?
19. Why it is advised to maintain good sanitary habits?
4. What is food poisoning?
Long Answer Questions :
5. What are preservatives? List the various methods of
preservation. DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
6. How does bacterium Lactobacillus helps in curd formation?
1. How nitrogen is recycled back into atmosphere? How
7. Identify the types of bacteria shown in the given figure. Rhizobium helps in nitrogen fixation?
2. List down ten diseases and their causative agents.
3. Write down preventive measures for
(a) Air–borne diseases
(b) Water–borne diseases

(a) (b) (c)
(c) Vector – borne diseases
8. Write three ways by which bacteria are useful to us and
4. Write a short note on vaccines.
three ways by which they are harmful?
5. Explain the role of bacteria in nitrogen cycle.
9. Which organism makes the bread soft and fluffy?
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58 BIOLOGY
Text - Book Exercise : 9. Can microorganisms be seen with the naked eye? If not,
how can they be seen?
1. (a) Microorganisms can be 10. What are the major groups of microorganisms?
seen with the help of a 11. Name the microorganisms which can fix atmospheric
______.
nitrogen in the soil.
(b) Blue green algae fix
12. Write 10 lines on the usefulness of microorganisms in our
______ directly from air to
lives.
enhance fertility of soil.
(c) Alcohol is produced with 13. Write a short paragraph on the harms caused by
the help of ______. microorganisms.
(d) Cholera is caused by 14. What are antibiotics? What precautions must be taken while
______. taking antibiotics?
Exemplar Questions :
2. Yeast is used in the production of
(a) sugar (b) alcohol 1. Unscramble the jumbled words underlined in the following
(c) hydrochloric acid (d) oxygen statements.
3. The following is an antibiotic (a) Cells of our body produce santiidobe to fight
(a) Sodium bicarbonate pathogens.
(b) Streptomycin (b) curbossulite is an air-borne disease caused by a
(c) Alcohol bacterium.
(d) Yeast (c) Xanrhat is a dangerous bacterial disease.
4. Carrier of malaria - causing protozosan is (d) Yeasts are used in the wine industry because of their
(a) female Anopheles mosquito property of meronettinaf.
(b) cockroach 2. Name one commercial use of yeast.
(c) housefly 3. Name the process in yeast that converts sugars into alcohol.
(d) butterfly 4. Pollio drops are not given to children suffering from
5. The most common carrier of communicable diseases is diarrhoea. Why?
(a) ant (b) housefly 5. What will happen to ‘pooris’ and ‘unused kneaded flour’ if
(c) dragonfly (d) spider they are left in the open for a day or two?
6. The bread or idli dough rises because of
6. (a) Name two diseases that are caused by virus.
(a) heat
(b) Write one important characteristic of virus.
(b) grinding
7. Give reasons for the following:
(c) growth of yeast cells
(a) Fresh milk is boiled before consumption while
(d) kneading
processed milk stored in packets can be consumed
7. The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is called
(a) nitrogen fixation (b) moulding without boiling.
(c) fermentation (d) infection (b) Raw vegetables and fruits are kept in refrigerators
8. Match the organisms in column-I with their action in whereas jams and pickles can be kept outside.
column-II. (c) Farmers prefer to grow beans and peas in nitrogen
Column-I Column-II deficient soils.
(i) Bacteria (a) Fixing Nitrogen (d) Mosquitoes can be controlled by preventing
(ii) Rhizobium (b) Setting of curd stagnation of water through they do not live in water.
(iii) Lactobacillus (c) Baking of bread Why?
(iv) Yeast (d) Causing Malaria 8. How can we prevent the following diseases?
(v) A protozoan (e) Causing Cholera (a) Cholera
(vi) A Virus (f) Causing Aids (b) Typhoid
(g) Producing antibodies (c) Hepatitis A
Micro-organisms 59
HOTS Questions : 9. Manish forgot his lunch box in school on Friday. His lunch
box has a leftover rice and some vegetables. What do you
1. Priya wants to see the apples that are kept cold will rot or think would have happened to the leftover food by Monday
stay edible. So she places the apple in the refrigerator and morning? Give reasons.
records the date. What she should use as a control? 10. Microorganisms helps in keeping the planet Earth running.
2. Sonia noticed that the milk she brought from the market is Justify, giving two examples.
lumpy and tastes sour. What inference should Sonia make?
11. What is food poisoning? What precautions should be taken
3. Shashi and her friends wonder if pond water smells bad
to avoid food poisoning?
because it has microorganisms in it. Describe a way they
could find out this. 12. Why is virus called a mysterious microorganism?
4. Why do curd sets faster in summer than in winter? 13. Mention the discoveries made by following scientists.
5. The sealed packets in which food items such as chips are (i) Louis Pasteur
sold are usually filled with nitrogen. What is the use of this (ii) Alexander Fleming
nitrogen? (iii) Edward Jenner
6. Why it is advised to wash your hands before handling food 14. Why the Garbage that includes plant and animal waste
and after going to the toilet?
smells very bad after few days.
7. How will you determine whether or not food inside a sealed
can is infested with microbes? 15. Microbes are too many to count and too small to find.
8. There are few indicators that tell us whether a given sample Comment.
of food is suitable for consumption or not. List down five
indicators of food spoilage.
EBD_7029
60 BIOLOGY
Multiple Choice Questions : (d) Viruses

11. The process that releases free nitrogen back into the air is
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 26 multiple choice known as
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out (a) ammonification (b) nitrification
of which ONLY ONE is correct. Choose the correct option. (c) denitrification (d) purification
12. Which of the following is a nitrifying bacteria?
1. Which of the following organisms is considered to be on the (a) Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter
borderline of living and non-living? (b) Nitrosomonas and Pseudomonas
(a) Bacteria (b) Algae (c) Nitrobacter and Pseudomonas
(c) Virus (d) Fungi (d) Nitrobacter and Lactobacillus
2. Amoeba and Paramecium belongs to group 13. The suspension of killed microbes that mimics the disease
(a) bacteria (b) algae causing microorganisms is known as
(c) fungi (d) protozoan (a) antibiotics (b) vaccines
3. Which microbe is used to make curd from milk? (c) vector (d) pathogen
(a) Bacteria (b) Virus 14. Which microorganism is smaller than bacteria?
(a) Protozoan (b) Virus
(c) Fungi (d) Protozoan
(c) Fungi (d) Algae
4. Which of the following makes bread soft and fluffy?
15. Which of these elements help to increase the soil fertility?
(a) Finely ground flour
(a) Hydrogen (b) Nitrogen
(b) Alcohol given off during fermentation of sugar
(c) Carbon (d) Oxygen
(c) Carbon dioxide gas given off during fermentation of sugar 16. Which of the following describes the most ideal location for
(d) Oxygen gas microorganisms to live?
5. The gas released during fermentation of sugar by yeast cells (a) Nearly everywhere (b) In warm, humid places
is (c) Sunny, dry areas (d) Underwater
(a) carbon dioxide (b) carbon monoxide 17. Microbes are an important part of the environment because
(c) hydrogen (d) oxygen they
6. Which of the following bacterium is responsible for the (a) break down waste products
formation of moulds on moist bread? (b) cause the water cycle
(a) Lactobacillus (b) Streptococcus (c) protect the ozone layer
(c) Rhizobium (d) Rhizopus (d) block global warming
7. Which disease is caused by virus? 18. Infectious diseases can spread
(a) Tuberculosis (b) Common cold (a) from one person to another.
(c) Typhoid (d) Malaria (b) by eating only frost fruit.
8. Which of the following is not the preventive measure for (c) from washing your hands.
water borne disease? (d) by inheritance.
(a) Proper disposal of sewage 19. The mode of transmission of dengue is
(b) Maintenance of good sanitary habits (a) air (b) contact
(c) Drinking boiled water (c) water (d) vector
(d) Covering mouth or nose while sneezing 20. What is the most important way to stop infections from being
9. Bacteria can be seen only spread?
(a) Cleanliness (b) Heating
(a) in light
(c) Eating (d) Taking tablets
(b) in darkness
21. What does your stomach use to kill microbes?
(c) under a microscope
(a) Acid (b) Water
(d) under a magnifying glass
(c) Salt (d) Alkali
10. Which of the following microorganisms cannot multiply on 22. Which of the following correctly describes the size of fungi
their own? compared to the size of bacteria?
(a) Bacteria and Protozoa (a) Fungi are larger
(b) Algae and Fungi (b) Bacteria are larger
(c) Fungi and Virus (c) They are about the same size
(d) They are of the same size but of different shapes
Micro-organisms 61
23. Most bacteria can be killed by Assertion & Reason :

(a) cooking (b) refrigeration
(c) freezing (d) salting DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion
24. When a person is made immune to a disease by an injection followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question
they have usually been on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that
(a) vaccinated (b) infected best describes the two statements.
(c) infectious (d) communicable
25. How do bacteria help our bodies to function? (a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
(a) They make our muscles and lungs stronger. correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) They help to digest food in the intestines. (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
(c) They circulate in our blood and help carry oxygen. the correct explanation of Assertion.
(d) They make our skin flexible and clean. (c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
26. Study the given diagram of the nitrogen cycle. (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
nitrogen in 1. Assertion – Viruses can be seen with the help of electron
the air microscope.
P Q Reason – It is much smaller than bacteria.
herbivore
2. Assertion – Pathogens are harmful to mankind.
Reason – They either kill or prevent the growth of
microorganisms.
3. Assertion – Rhizobium lives in the root nodules of
dead organic
leguminous plants.
matter Reason – It fixes nitrogen through a symbiotic relationship.
R bean plant
with 4. Assertion – Salting is used for preserving meat and fish by
nitrate root nodules common salt.
Reason – It does not allow the growth of bacteria.
Which arrow indicates nitrogen fixation and denitrification 5. Assertion – Salt is added to chips and pickles.
respectively? Reason – Salting removes oxygen from the food item.
6. Assertion – Fermentation is the process of decomposition
Nitrogen Fixation Denitrification
of sugar molecules by microorganisms to produce an acid or
(a) P Q alcohol.
(b) P R Reason – Cheese is prepared by the bacterial fermentation
(c) Q P of milk.
(d) Q R
EBD_7029
62 BIOLOGY
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
organisms until it has been fixed, that is reduced (combined

with hydrogen), to ammonia.
The nitrogen cycle is a series of processes that convert
Fill in the Blanks : nitrogen gas to organic substances and back to nitrogen in
1. Virus, 2. Malaria, 3. Vaccination, 4. Alexander Fleming, nature. It is a continuous cycle that is maintained by the
5. Vaccine, 6. Rhizobium, 7. Decomposition, 8. Virus, 9. Air, decomposers and nitrogen bacteria.
10. Salt. 3. Antibodies are proteins generally found in the blood that
detect and destroy invaders, like bacteria and viruses.
True / False : Antibiotics are chemical substance that in dilute solutions
1. False, 2. False, 3. True, 4. True, 5. True, 6. False, 7. True, can inhibit the growth of microorganisms or destroy them
8. False, 9. False, 10. False, 11. False with little or no harm to the infected host.
4. Food poisoning is when someone gets sick from eating food
Match the Following : or drink that has gone bad or is contaminated. There are two
1. A® r, B® p, C®q, D®t, E® s kinds of food poisoning: poisoning by toxic agent or by
2. A®s, B® r, C® q, D®t, E® p infectious agent. Food infection occurs when the food
contains bacteria or other microbes which infect the body
Very Short Answer Questions : after it is eaten.
1. Microbes / Microorganisms 5. Preservatives are substance used to preserve foodstuffs,
2. Microscope wood, or other materials against decay. Various method of
food preservation are: heating, cooling, salting, pickling,
3. Curd, prepared by Lactobacillus.
drying, canning and freeze drying.
4. Coccus
6. Lactobacillus bacteria can convert a sugar into an acid by
5. Virus means of fermentation. Milk contains a sugar called lactose,
6. Fungi a disaccharide (compound sugar) made by the glycosidic
7. Plasmodium – Malaria bonding between glucose and galactose (monosaccharides).
Entamoeba – Amoebic dysentery When milk is heated to a temperature of 30-40 °C and a small
Trypanosoma – Sleeping sickness amount of old curd added to it, the Lactobacillus in that
8. Female Anopheles curd sample starts to grow. These convert the lactose into
9. Yeast, a fungus lactic acid, which imparts the sour taste to curd.
10. Mushroom 7. a. cocci; b: bacilli, c: spiral
11. Rust of wheat and Rust of rice 8. Useful bacteria: They are useful in cleaning the environment;
12. Penicillin making of medicines and vaccines; and in combination with
yeasts and fungi, have been used in the preparation of
13. Pathogens are disease causing microorganisms.
fermented foods such as cheese, curd, pickles, soy sauce,
14. Expiry date refers to the date which the supplier intended the vinegar, wine, and yogurt.
food to be consumed.
Harmful bacteria: They are harmful in causing communicable
Short Answer Questions : diseases like cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis etc; food
poisoning etc.
1. Major group of microorganism are:
9. Yeast makes the bread soft and fluffy. The yeast uses sugar
Bacteria, eg. E.coli and Diplococcus. for its food. In the process of breaking down of sugar alcohol
Fungi, eg. Rhizopus and Penicillium. is formed and carbon dioxide is given off. If the yeast is
Protoza, eg. Plasmodium and Amoeba. added to dough it breaks down sugar present in the dough.
Algae, eg. Spirogyra and Chlamydomonas. The bubbles of carbon dioxide given off cause's dough to rise.
Virus, eg. HIV and Rous sarcoma virus 10. Bacteria and fungi acts as decomposers. They both play an
2. Nitrogen is required by all living organisms for the synthesis important role in nature. They break down the unused dead
of proteins, nucleic acids and other nitrogen containing material and turn them into nutrients in the soil, which plants
compounds. The Earth's atmosphere contains almost 80 % use to grow. Decomposers are an important part of the food
nitrogen gas. It cannot be used in this form by most living chain.
Micro-organisms 63
11. Salt: Check the growth of bacteria by forcing microorganisms are returned to the soil, where they may be absorbed by
to lose water by process called osmosis. Sugar: By inhibiting plants again. Rhizobium plays a very important role in
the growth of bacteria. agriculture by inducing nitrogen-fixing nodules on the roots
Heating: Kills microbes present in the food. Eg, milk and of legumes such as peas, beans, clover and alfalfa. They use
water are boiled to kill the microbes. the nitrogen in the air and convert it to a form the plants can
Drying: Stops the growth of microorganisms by removing use, like a biological fertilizer.
the water present in the food. 2. Refer inside the chapter.
12. 1926, Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, a substance 3. Preventive measures to be taken for air borne disease include
produced by fungi that appeared able to inhibit bacterial washing hands, using appropriate hand disinfection, getting
growth. While working on Staphylococcus he found that regular immunizations against diseases believed to be locally
mould had developed on an accidentally contaminated present, wearing a respirator and limiting time spent in the
Staphylococcus culture plate. Upon examination of the presence of any patient likely to be a source of infection.
mould, he noticed that the culture prevented the growth of Preventive measures to be taken for water borne disease
Staphylococci. Then he extracted the antibiotic substance includes drinking boiled water, proper disposal of sewage,
from the mould and named it as penicillin. maintain good sanitary habit.
13. Many of the millions of organisms that live in the soil, Preventive measures to be taken for vector borne disease
including bacteria, fungi, insects, and earthworms, are known includes use of mosquito repellent, keeping surroundings
as decomposers. They live on the remains of dead plants neat and clean etc.
and animals and break down these organic remains into 4. Vaccines are biological preparation of killed microorganisms,
simple chemicals that are released into the soil. Some of these living attenuated organisms, or living fully virulent organisms,
chemicals provide nutrients for new plants to grow, so its toxins or one of its surface proteins that is administered
decomposers can recycle plant material. to produce or artificially increase immunity to a particular
14. No, not all fungi are microscopic. Fungi such as mushroom disease. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to
can be seen through naked eyes. recognize the agent as foreign, destroy it, and "remember" it,
15. Fungi together with bacteria decompose the organic matter so that the immune system can more easily recognize and
present in dead plants and animals and convert it into simple destroy any of these microorganisms that it later encounters.
soluble minerals, water and gases, which then go into the (Refer examples from the chapter)
soil, water bodies and air. Hence, fungi help in recycling 5. Bacteria present in the soil or in plant roots change nitrogen
dead organic materials in soil. gas from the atmosphere into solid nitrogen compounds that
16. Yeast ferments the sugar present in various food and plants can use in the soil. The symbiotic nitrogen-fixing
produces alcohol, with the release of carbon dioxide and bacteria invade the root hairs of host plants, where they
little energy. multiply and stimulate formation of root nodules, enlargements
without oxygen of plant cells and bacteria in intimate association. Within the
Glucose Alcohol + Energy + CO2 nodules the bacteria convert free nitrogen to nitrates, which
Yeast
The process involved is known as fermentation. the host plant utilizes for its development.
Fermentation is the process of converting complex organic
substances into simpler substances.
17. Vector is any agent (person, animal or microorganism) that
carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another Text - Book Exercise :
living organism. Vector spreads diseases while feeding on
infected vertebrates (e.g., birds, rodents, other larger animals, 1. (a) microscope (b) nitrogen
or humans), and then pass on the microbe to a susceptible (c) yeast (d) Bacteria
person or other animal. 2. (b)
18. Tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium bacteria, is 3. (b)
an infectious disease. The bacteria get into the air when 4. (a)
someone who has a tuberculosis lung infection coughs, 5. (b)
sneezes, shouts, or spits. Therefore, it is advised to keep 6. (c)
distance from a person suffering from TB. 7. (c)
19. To prevent the communication of communicable diseases. 8. e®a®b®c®d®f
9. No, the microorganisms cannot be seen with the naked eyes.
Long Answer Questions : They can be seen only with the help of a microscope.
1. Nitrogen is recycled in nature by a natural phenomenon called 10. The major groups of microorganisms are :
the nitrogen cycle. When animals and plants die, their 1. Virus 2. Bacteria
nitrogen compounds are broken down by soil bacteria, fungi 3. Fungi 4. Protozoa
and other decomposers. In this way, nitrogen compounds 5. Some algae
EBD_7029
64 BIOLOGY
11. The microorganisms which can fix atmospheric nitrogen 7. (a) Fresh milk is boiled before consumption to kill the
include bacteria like Rhizobium and some blue green algae. microorganisms in it. But packed milk is pasteurised
They are commonly called biological nitrogen fixers and help and does not contain any microorganisms. It can thus
increase the fertility of the soil. be consumed without boiling.
12. Microorganism play a very important role in our lines helps. (b) Raw vegetables and fruits get easily infected by
Some of their uses are mentioned below : microorganisms and get spoilt. They are kept in
1. The bacterium Lactobacillus promotes the formation refrigerator as low temperature inhibits growth of
of curd. microbes. Jams and pickles contain sugar and salt as
2. Bacteria are also involved in the making of cheese, preservatives. They do not get infected by microbes easily.
pickles and many other food items. (c) Beans and peas are leguminous plants and have
3. Yeast is used for commercial production of alcohol are Rhizobium in their root nodules. These bacteria can fix
wine, for baking breads, cakes etc. atmospheric nitrogen to enrich the soil with nitrogen
4. Microorganisms are used for the manufacturing of and increase its fertility.
antibiotics. (d) Though mosquitoes live on land, their larvae grow in
5. Vaccines for various diseases are prepared from water. If water stagnation is prevented the larvae cannot
microorganism. survive.
6. Some bacteria like Rhizobium and blue green algae are 8. (a) Cholera: By maintaining personal hygiene and good
sanitation practices.
able to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and help in
increasing the fertility of the soil. (b) Typhoid: Eating properly cooked food, drinking boiled
food, getting vaccinated against the disease.
7. Some microorganism help decomposing the organic
(c) Hepatitis A: Drinking boiled water and getting
waste and dead plants and animals into simple
vaccinated against the disease.
substance help clean up the environment.
8. The bacteria present in our intestine help in digestion HOTS Questions :
of food.
9. Some algae provide food for aquatic animals. 1. Priya should keep another apple in a warm place for the same
13. Microorganisms through very useful to us may also cause length of time.
harm to our lives. For instance some microorganisms cause 2. Milk is lumpy and tastes sour so it means that milk is old or
diseases in plants, animals as well as human beings. Diseases has been left in a warm place.
caused in human beings – cholera, typhoid, tuberculoses, 3. Shashi and her friend could use a microscope and look at the
common cold, chicken pox etc. Diseases caused in Plants – pond water to see if microorganisms are visible or not. Also,
Rust of wheat (caused by fungi). Loose smut of sugarcane they can boil the pond water to kill or get rid of microorganisms
(caused by fungi), bacterial blight of citrus fruits caused by to see if it still smells.
bacteria. Some microorganism spoil food, clothing and 4. The bacteria needs warmth to turn the milk into curd.so in
leather. The microbes that grow on our food produce toxic summer the temperature is higher which helps the bacteria to
chemicals which are poisonous and lead to illness. multiply faster. This faster division of bacteria helps to change
the milk into curd, but in winter the temperature is not warm
14. The medicines produced by microorganisms that kill or stop
and favourable that's why it takes more time in winter than in
the growth of disease causing are called antibiotics. A
summer.
number of antibiotics are produced by bacteria and fungi.
5. Nitrogen is a non-reactive gas. It has no colour, odour or
Few precautions which must be takes while using antibiotics.
taste. Potato chip packages are filled with nitrogen gas to
• They should be taken on the advice of a qualified doctor.
stop oxidation, and thus spoilage, of the chips. It retards
• We must complete the course prescribed by the doctor. bacterial growth and keeps he food from decaying.
Exemplar Questions : 6. Germs easily spread through poor hygien e, cross
contamination between raw and ready-to-eat foods and
1. (a) antibodies (c) Anthrax animal handling. The number of germs on fingertips doubles
(b) tuberculosis (d) fermentation after using the toilet. Therefore, washing hands properly
2. Baking bread/manufacture of alcoholic drinks helps prevent the spread of various forms of germs which
3. Fermentation can cause serious health problems. Use soap and warm
4. If the child is suffering from diarrhoea, the orally given running water and wash hands for at least 10 seconds. Liquid
vaccine may be excreted out because of frequent motions. soap is best.
5. The ‘unused kneaded flour’, if left in warm conditions, gets 7. Any kind of swelling of the sealed can is a cause of suspicion
infected by microbes which cause fermentation and spoils as this indicates the formation of gas inside the tin. This
the flour. The pooris would remain in relatively good swelling could be due to the production of gaseous
condition because they were deep fried in heated oil that byproducts due to microbial growth.
kills microbes. 8. Indicators of food spoilage –
6. (a) Polio/Chicken Pox/Influenza (i) Odour : Repulsive odours are produced when the bacteria
(b) Virus can reproduce only inside the cells of host. break down the protein present in food.
Micro-organisms 65
(ii) Sliminess : It occurs due to bacterial growth. 3. (a) A bacterium, called Lactobacillus, is used to make curd
(iii) Discolouration : Microbial growth may result in from sour milk.
discolouration of food. 4. (c) Yeast ferments the sugar present in the dough into carbon
(iv) Souring : Food items become sour due to production of dioxide. The CO2 released from the yeast fills the dough
acids by bacteria. and increases its volume. Once, the bread has baked,
(v) Gas formation : Bacteria and yeast produces gaseous the heat causes the bubbles to break and makes the
by-products that affects the texture of food items. bread soft and fluffy.
9. Cooked rice gives out moisture. Since, moisture is one of the 5. (a) Fermentation is the process of converting complex
main requirements for microbial growth, so the leftover food organic substance into simpler substance with the action
will start producing repulsive odours, become slimy and of yeast or bacteria. Yeast ferments the sugar into alcohol,
sometimes may have coloured spores that give the food a carbon dioxide and little energy.
distinctive colour. 6. (d) The fungus Rhizopus is responsible for the formation of
10. Microorganisms play a vital role in the lives of plant and moulds on moist bread.
animals. They carry about 90% of the biochemical reaction 7. (b) Common cold is caused by virus. Tuberculosis and
that occurs in our planet. For example, typhoid are bacterial diseases and Malaria is a protozoan
(i) Microorganisms enrich the soil with nutrients. disease.
(ii) Certain microbes are also used in the biological treatment 8. (d) Covering mouth or nose while sneezing, coughing is a
of sewage and industrial effluents. preventive measure for air-borne disease.
11. Food poisoning is a food borne illness that occurs suddenly 9. (c) Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that can exist
after you consume a contaminated food or drink. To avoid either as independent (free-living) organisms or as
food poisoning – parasites (dependent on another organism for life). Most
(i) wash fresh food items well before eating them. bacteria are so small that they are only visible under a
(ii) avoid eating leftovers after a long time. light microscope.
(iii) eat properly cooked and heated food items. 10. (d) Virus is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside
(iv) check the shelf life of packaged food items. the living cells of other organisms.
12. Viruses are mysterious because they fall on the threshold of 11. (c) Denitrification is the biological conversion of nitrate to
living and non-living beings. They are tiny microorganisms, nitrogen gas, nitric oxide or nitrous oxide. These
about thousand times smaller than bacterial cells. Viruses do compounds are gaseous compounds and are not readily
not have enzymes or the chemicals, which are important for available for microbial growth; therefore they are
life sustaining chemical reactions. Thus, viruses need a host typically released to the atmosphere.
cell such as bacteria, plant or animal to exist, grow and 12. (a) Nitrifying bacteria are Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus,
reproduce to act like a living being. Nitrobacter, Nitrococcus.
13. Louis Pasteur: Germ theory of disease; Pasteurization 13. (b) Vaccine is a biological preparation that improves
Alexander Fleming: Antibiotic (Penicillin) immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically
Edward Jenner: Vaccine (small pox). contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing
14. Because of incomplete fermentation and bacterial processes. microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed
15. Microbes are single-cell organisms and too small to be seen forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface
with the unaided eye. They include bacteria, protozoa, fungi, proteins.
algae and virus that are too small to be seen without the aid 14. (b) Virus is the smaller than bacteria. Virus is an
of a microscope. In terms of numbers, most of the diversity ultramicroscopic (20 to 300 nm in diameter), metabolically
of life on Earth is represented by microbes. They live inert, infectious agent that replicates only within the cells
everywhere in the soil, air, land. They even live inside our of living hosts, mainly bacteria, plants, and animals.
digestive systems. Therefore, they are too many to count 15. (b) Nitrogen (N) is essential for plant growth. It increases
and too small to find. the soil fertility.
16. (c) Microbes thrive on land, in the oceans and on human
skin. They even survive in extreme places like near deep-
sea vents.
17. (a) Microbes are essential components of every ecosystem.
Multiple Choice Questions :
They break down garbage and dead organisms.
1. (c) Virus is considered to be on the borderline of living and Microorganisms are important in decay because decay
non living. recycles important nutrients for plant growth.
2. (d) Amoeba and Paramecium belong to protozoa. Protozoans 18. (a) Infectious diseases can spread from one person to
are microscopic eukaryotic organisms. another through air, water and food.
EBD_7029
66 BIOLOGY
19. (d) A vector is a vehicle that carries and transmits a 26. (c) Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of atmospheric
disease to its host organism. The dengue virus is nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds by living
transmitted to humans via the bite of an infected organisms. Eg, Rhizobium. Denitrification is the process
mosquito. Only a few mosquito species are vectors in which some of the nitrates are absorbed and rest are
for the dengue virus. converted to free nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria.
20. (a) Cleanliness is the most important way to stop infection Eg, Pseudomonas, Micrococcus.
from being spread.
Assertion & Reason :
21. (a) The major way the stomach kills microbes is by secreting
stomach acid. The acid in the stomach is important in 1. (a) Virus do not have a cellular structure. They are so small
the first stages of digesting food, but also acts to kill a that they can only be seen through an electron
lot of food-borne microbes that could potentially harm microscope.
us. 2. (c) Pathogens are harmful to mankind as they cause death
22. (a) Fungi are diverse in terms of their shape, size and means and severe fatal diseases. Antibiotics either kill or prevent
of infecting humans. They are larger than bacteria. the growth of microorganisms.
23. (a) If the temperature is high enough and the cooking is 3. (a) Rhizobium are soil bacteria that lives in the root nodules
reasonably prolonged, the majority of bacteria will be of leguminous plants. It fixes nitrogen through a
killed. Refrigeration of 4°C does not kill bacteria but symbiotic relationship.
slows down the rate of reproduction so that food 4. (a) Salting is used for preserving meat and fish by common
remains safe for longer period. Freezing and salting salt as it does not allow the growth of bacteria.
stops bacteria from reproducing but does not kill 5. (c) Salt is added to chips and pickles. Salting forces micro
them. organisms to lose water by a process known as osmosis,
24. (a) To inoculate with a vaccine in order to produce immunity thus preventing their growth and reproduction. Chemical
to an infectious disease, is called vaccinated. preservatives act as antioxidants and remove oxygen
25. (b) Microorganisms inhabit various sites of the human body, from the food item.
including the skin, nose, mouth and the gut. Bacteria 6. (b) Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar
such as Escherichia coli and Clostridium are normally to acids, gases or alcohols. It occurs in yeast and bacteria
found in the colon. Bacteria help to digest food in but also in oxygen starved muscle cells as in case of
intestine by breaking down the undigested fibre into lactic acid fermentation. Cheese is an important product
glucose. of fermentative lactic acid bacteria.
Chapter
CONSERVATION OF
3 PLANTS AND ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
The world is full of plants and animals. A variety of plants and animals exist in our environments. They both depend on each
other which are essential for maintaining the ecological balance and important for survival of mankind. This means that the
destruction of either of the two will affect the life of the other. Several kinds of plants and animals live in the forest. Forests
provide them with home and food. The plant or animal lives of any particular region or time are called flora and fauna respec-
tively. Sal, teak, mango, jamun, silver ferns, arjun, etc are the flora and chinkara, blue bull, barking deer, cheetah, leopard, wild
dog, wolf, etc. are examples of the fauna. The existence of diverse variety of plants, animals and other living organisms is known
as biodiversity.
EBD_7029
68 BIOLOGY
CONNECTING TOPIC
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity comprises all the millions of different species that live on our planet, as well as the genetic differences within species.
Biodiversity of Earth includes all organisms-big and small, from an Amoeba to a blue whale and from algae to the Sequoia tree, that
exist on our planet. The biodiversity of a region depends on the environment of that region. For example, plants, animals and even
microorganisms living in a desert region are very different from those living in a forest. Similarly, organisms living in a grassland are
entirely different from ocean. This means every different region on Earth has its own biodiversity.
• India is sixth on a list of 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world.

• Tropical rainforests are rich storehouse of biodiversity.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Conservation is the protection, preservation, management or restoration of wild life and natural resources. Natural resources are
those living and nonliving resources of the Earth which have the potentiality to be used by human beings to fullfill their requirements
of food, shelter and clothing etc. The common natural resources include energy, air, water, land, minerals, microorganisms, plants and
animals. Wild life and Forest constitute the biotic resource of nature, while air, water, land etc. are abiotic resource of nature.
To conserve biodiversity, we need to establish protected areas for plants and animals, restoring ecosystems and managing already
existing plant and animals.
Through the conservation of biodiversity the survival of many species and habitats which are threatened due to human activities
can be ensured.
IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS (PLANTS) AND WILDLIFE (ANIMALS)

(i) Roots of trees help to bind the soil. It helps to prevent the topsoil from getting eroded by wind, and water.
(ii) Trees and other vegetation form the habitat of many animals. Hence, destroying forest would lead to destruction of natural
habitat of many species of plants and animals.
(iii) Forest maintains a balance between carbon dioxide and oxygen levels on atmosphere.
(iv) It provide us useful products such as gum, timber, medicines, etc from trees.
(v) Plants and animals form vital links in food chains and food webs.
SUN
Solar energyis trapped by

green plants during
photosynthesis
GREEN PLANTS absorbed by Simple

store energy in the Substances
form of food
produce
PLANT-EATERS die and DECOMPOSERS
get energy from feed on dead plants
decay
green plants and animals
ANIMAL-EATERS
get energy from the
animals they eat
Importance of biodiversity Energy Pathway

Conservation of Plants and Animals 69
Food Webs
A food web is a system of interconnected and interdependent
food chains. It can also be defined as a network of food
relationships through which nutrients and energy are passed
from one living organism to another. Lion
Jackal
The destruction of either of the two, plant or animal, will affect
the life of other. Hence, we need to conserve biodiversity to
maintain the balance of nature. But since, due to the Goat
overgrowing demands of over-population and urbanization
our forest covers and wild life are under threat. One of the Wild Cat
major threat to biodiversity is deforestation.
Rabbit Kite
DEFORESTATION
Owl
Deforestation is the cutting or removal of trees or other Green Plant Snake
Poducer Mouse
vegetation from an area for industrial, agricultural or other
purposes. It involves permanent end of forest cover to make Food Web in a Forest
that land available for residential, commercial or industrial
purpose. Deforestation is considered to be one of the contributing factors to global climate change.
How interaction among different species help in conserving biodiversity. An increase or a decrease in the
population of one member of a food chain affects the populations of the other members of the food chain. For
example, in a given community the population of plant-eaters will increase when there are more plants
available as food. As the plant-eaters increase in number, more plants are eaten up. After some time there may
not be enough plant food for the animals. When this happens, many of the plant-eaters will die or move away
from the area. With fewer animals eating them, the plants have a chance to grow and increase in number. Once
again there will be much plant food available for the plant-eaters. The plant-eating population will
correspondingly start to increase. This is how the population of plant-eaters depends on the population of
plants and vice versa.
In the same way the population of animal-eaters depends on the population of plant-eaters and vice versa.
CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION
The causes of deforestation can be classified into two classes :- Man made and natural causes of deforestation.
(i) Man-made causes of deforestation – These are the primary and the most common reason of deforestation.
(a) Forests are cleared for accommodating expanding urban areas and for fulfilling their ever-increasing requirements.
(b) Forests are destroyed to clear lands for crops and cattle grazing.
(c) Trees are also cut down to be used for firewood and fuel.
(ii) Natural causes of deforestation – These includes
(a) Forest fires – These are started by lightning and strong winds that help to spread the flames. Hundred of trees are lost each
year due to forest fires in various portions of the world. This happens due to extreme warm summer and milder winters.
(b) Severe droughts – Drought in the forest has increased the amount of flammable bush and debris on the forest fires. As a
result, the forest catches fire easily and destroys the immeasurable amount of valuable timber. Drought reduces the
humidity and rainfall. If drought is long enough the leaf litter dries out killing off decomposers and reducing the effectiveness
of nutrient cycling.
(c) Volcanic eruption – It is one of the several natural forces that are capable of causing damage to forests. The ashes emitted
during the eruption coat tree leaves, which in turn interfere with photosynthesis and destroy the plants.
(d) Typhoon or heavy storm – These are violent storms that destroys much of the rain forest.
NOTE
Habitat is the natural surroundings of a plant or animal, where it grows, multiplies and thrives naturally.
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70 BIOLOGY
CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION
(i) Climate change & global warming : Deforestation increases the temperature and pollution level on Earth. Plants absorb CO2
from the atmosphere to perform photosynthesis. If the plants are destroyed then the level of CO 2 in the atmosphere will rise. As
a result, CO2 will trap more radiations, there by adding to global warming. Global warming refers to an average increase in earth’s
temperature. Global warming is caused largely due to emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
(ii) Loss of biodiversity : Deforestation leads to loss of biodiversity. If we go on cutting trees, the natural habitats of many animals
will get completely destroyed. As a result the biodiversity of many areas will be severely affected.
(iii) Loss of habitat : Deforestation also destroys the habitat of many wild animals. The habitat of an animal provides shelter, food
and protection to animals. If the habitat of an animal is disturbed then it will force the animals to go other places in search of food
and shelter. As a result, the animal could get killed easily by other animals in this process.
(iv) Soil erosion : Deforestation increases soil erosion. Roots of plants hold soil particles together. In the absence of plants, the top
layer of the soil will be easily removed by the action of high speed winds or water flow.
(v) Desertification : Deforestation leads to desertification. In the absence of trees, soil erosion occurs more rapidly exposing the
lower hard and rocky layer. As a result, soil loses humus and becomes less fertile. Hence, a fertile land, which act as a source of
living for farmers, gets converted into a desert. This process is known as desertification of land.
Facts on deforestation
• Forests cover 30% of the earth's land.
• Agriculture is the leading cause of deforestation.
• Deforestation has considerably stopped in places like Europe, Pacific, North America and some parts of
Asia due to lack of agricultural land.
• Poverty, over-population and unequal land access are the main causes of manmade deforestation.
• Worldwide more than 1.6 billion people rely on forests products for all or part of their livelihoods.
• The world's forests store 283 billion tons of carbon present in the biomass.
(vi) Disruption of the water cycle: Trees plays an important role in maintaining the water cycle. They draw up water via their roots,
which are then released into the atmosphere. A large part of the water that circulates in the ecosystem of rainforests, for example,
remains inside the plants. When these trees are cut down it results in the climate getting drier in that area. The level of
groundwater tables are affected and soon get depleted. The trees help in prevention of running off of water and help the soil
absorb the flowing water. When there are no trees, water just runs off, leaving no chance for the groundwater tables to absorb
more water. This, ultimately leads to reduction in water resources.
(vii) Scarcity of product : It causes the shortage of products we get from forests.
(viii) Flooding and Drought: One of the vital functions of forests is to absorb and store great amounts of water quickly when there are
heavy rains. When forests are cut down, this regulation of the flow of water is disrupted, which leads to alternating periods of
flood and then drought in the affected area thus, leading to disruption of human settlements and loss of life in thousands.
Therefore, we need to conserve the biodiversity for our survival and to maintain the natural ecological balance.
Forest reserves aim at protecting natural habitats, while botanical gardens are zoos of plant world.
CONNECTING TOPIC
Laws to Conserve Forest
For conservation of forest different types of laws have been implanted, like
(i) Indian Forest conservation act (1980): According to this act no forest land can be deserved or diverted to nonforest purpose
without the approval of central government.
(ii) Indian Forest conservation act (1927): Basic objectives of this act are -
– establishment and management of three types forests - village forest, reserved forests, and protected forest.
– control of movement of forest product and control of grazing.
– protection of nongovernment forest and forest land against over exploitation.
If the deforested area is left undisturbed, it re-establishes itself. This is known as natural reforestation. There
is no role of human being in it.
WILDLIFE AND ITS CONSERVATION

Wildlife includes those animals that have not been domesticated or tamed and are usually living in a natural environment, including
both game and nongame species. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems. Deserts, forests, rain forests, plains, grasslands, and other
areas including the most developed urban sites, all have distinct forms of wildlife. Wildlife is important because it balances population,
maintain food chains, natural cycle's, biodiversity, and prevents soil erosion etc.
Species is a group of population that are able to reproduce offsprings only with members of a species that
share common characteristics. For example, Homo sapiens or human beings form.
CONNECTING TOPIC
THREATENED SPECIES
A threatened species is a native species that is at risk of becoming endangered in the near future. A threatened species may have a
declining population or be exceptionally rare. Like endangered species, the cause of its rarity is variable, but may be due to threats
such as habitat destruction, climate change, or pressure from invasive species.
The black rhino has been reduced down to about 2,550 due to poaching. Most of the ones that survive today
live in protected areas.
Giant panda and the island fox are two examples of species whose existence on Earth has been threatened due
to destruction of their habitat.
Extinct Species
You must have heard about dinosaurs. Have you ever thought what happened to the dinosaurs that once existed on the Earth? Yes,
dinosaurs died and gradually disappeared from Earth because they were not able to reproduce and adapt to climate changes. When
species are unable to compete with other organisms, and no longer exist on Earth then such species are called extinct species. Dodo,
passenger pigeon etc are some examples of extinct species. Dinosaur got extinct due to natural reasons and Dodo became extinct
mainly due to people hunting it for food.
Exotic species
An exotic species is any species intentionally or accidentally transported and released by man into an environment outside its
present range. These plant and animal species are considered to be among the most servere agents of habitat alteration and
degradation, and they are a major cause of the continuing loss of biological diversity throughout the world.
Endangered Species
Endangered species are those species that are on verge of becoming extinct. For example, blue whale, tiger, leopard etc are examples
of endangered species.
Vulnerable Species
Vulnerable species are those species that already exists in low number and are likely to move into endangered category in the near
future, if causal factors such as habitat destruction, over-exploitation and other environmental disturbances, continues over a period
of time. Musk deer, sambhar deer, black buck etc are examples of vulnerable species.
Rare Species
Rare species includes those species whose population in the world is very small. So if they are not protected then they might fall into
the category of vulnerable or endangered species. For example, Indian elephant, wild buffalo, bengal fox, gaur etc are rare species.
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72 BIOLOGY
Endemic Species
Endemic species are those species of plants and animals that are found exclusively in that particular area and no where else in the
world. For example, Bison and Indian giant squirrel are endemic flora of Pachmarhi Biosphere reserve whereas sal and wild mango are
endemic fauna of this area.
The Great Indian Bustard is endemic to India. However it has been classified as endangered species that are on verge of extinction.
Exotic species
An exotic species is any species intentionally or accidentally transported and released by man into an
environment outside its present range. These plant and animal species are considered to be among the most
severe agents of habitat alternation and degradation and they are a major cause of the continuing loss of
biological diversity throughout the world.
RED DATA BOOK

The Red Data Book is the state document established for documenting rare and endangered species of animals, plants and fungi as
well as some local sub-species that exist within the territory of the state or country. This book provides central information for studies
and monitoring programmes on rare and endangered species and their habits. Species are classified into different categories of
perceived risk. Each Red Data Book usually deals with a specific group of animals or plants (e. reptiles, insects, mosses). Red data book
has pink pages for critically endangered species.
In red data book, ‘red’ stands for ‘danger’. The 2000 Red List contains assessments of more than 18,000
species, 11,000 of which are threatened. According to the Red List, in India –
44 Plant species – Critically endangered
113 Plant species – Endangered
87 Plant species – Vulnerable
18 Animal species – Critically endangered
54 Animal species – Endangered
143 Animal species – Vulnerable
STRATEGIES FOR WILDLIFE CONSERVATION

Wildlife conservation is the practice of protecting endangered plant and animal species and their habitats. Wildlife conservation has
become an increasingly important practice due to the negative effects of human activity on wildlife.
Several steps have been taken by government towards the conservation of our biodiversity (forest and wildlife). Wildlife protection
act was passed in 1972 and amended in 1981. Forest protection act was passed in 1980 while environment protection act was passed
in 1986. Under the wild life protection act a large number of sanctuaries, national parks and biosphere reserves were established in
different parts of the countr.
NOTE
In-situ conservation
In-situ conservation is on-site conservation. It is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural habitat,
either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators. It can be done through a network of
protected area. It includes biological reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, National parks, sacred grooves and sacred parks.
Ex-situ conservation
Ex-situ conservation means literally, "off-site conservation". It is the conservation and maintenance of samples of living organisms
outside their natural habitat, in the form of whole plants, seeds, pollens, vegetative propagules, and tissue or cell cultures. Ex situ
conservation normally takes place in zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, nurseries, wood and banks (seed, pollen, gene etc...)
Moreover, they play a key role in providing material for scientific research which provides both a better understanding of the biological
cycles of diverse species and for the ex situ preparation of in situ conservation strategies to recreate or restore damaged natural
ecosystems.
Important steps for wildlife conservation are:

(i) Protection of life in natural as well as artificial habitat.
(ii) Maintenance of life supporting system like air, water and land.
(iii) Protection of migratory animals by international agreements.
(iv) Preservation of an ecosystem rather than a single species.
(v) Discouraging the overexploitation of species of ecosystem.
(vi) Stopping trade of rare species.
(vii) Setting up national park, sanctuaries etc.
(viii) Integration of national conservation programmes with international ones.
Conservation are categorised into in-situ and ex-situ conservation.
Conservation
In-situ conservation Ex-situ conservation
includes includes
Biosphere Wild life National Sacred groove Offsite collection Gene banks
reserves sanctuaries parks sacred takes
Zoological Botanical Arboretum

park garden
Flow chart : Categories of corservation

In-situ Conservation
(i) Biosphere reserves – Biosphere reserves are multipurpose protected area of land or water to support the conservation of
ecosystems, as well as the sustainability of mankind's impact on the environment. These areas were created by the United
Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) under a program called Man and the Biosphere (MAB) in
1968. The first biosphere reserve in India was set up in 1986 in Nilgiri. There are about 243 biosphere reserves in 65 countries of
the world. At present 14 biosphere reserves are identified in our country.
Table : Some biosphere reserves and their location in India.
Biosphere Reserves Location
Nilgiri Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Nanda Devi Uttar Pradesh
Uttara Khand (Valley of flowers) Uttar Pradesh
Nokrek Meghalaya
Kaziranga Assam
Sunderbans West Bengal
Thar desert Rajasthan
Kanha Madhya Pradesh
Namdapha Arunachal Pradesh
Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu
Rann of Kutch Gujarat
Great Nicobar Andaman and Nicobar
North Islands of Andamans Andaman and Nicobar
Manas Assam
• The Bharatpur bird sanctuary is known as the largest bird sanctuary in Asia.
• Ashoka was the first ruler to order the establishment of wildlife sanctuary.
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74 BIOLOGY
Biosphere reserves are divided into:
(i) Core zone: It is strongly protected for the conservation of biological diversity - to make sure that different types of plants and
animals are safe from human impact. In this area no human activity is allowed.
(ii) Buffer zone: It surrounds the core zones and provides a space for environmental research, recreation, and tourism. Only limited
human activity is allowed.
(iii) Transition or manipulation zone: This area is for local communities that have a hand in managing the resources of the area
through farming, fisheries, and other non-governmental activities. Several human activities can occur in the manipulation zone.
(ii) Wildlife Sanctuaries – It is an area within which animals are protected from all possible dangers such as hunting. Sanctuaries
provide protection and suitable living conditions to wild animals. These sanctuaries protects some of the threatened wild
animals such as black buck, Indian elephant, Pink headed duck, Gharial, Python, One horned rhinoceros etc.
At present there are 508 sanctuaries in India.
Table : Wildlife sanctuaries of India
S. No. Name of the Sanctuary Organisms for which they are known
(i) Dachigam Sanctuary (J & K) Kashmir Stag (Hangul)
(ii) Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary Rajasthan) Siberian Crane, egrets herons (Famous for aquatic birds)
(iii) Rann of Kutch Sanctuary Wild ass, the Flamingo, the Star tortoise and the Desert fox
(iv) Gir Sanctuary (Gujarat) Asiatic lion, Chital, Sambhar and Neelgai.
(v) Bandipur Sanctuary (Karnataka) Indian elephant.
(vi) Madumalai Sanctuary (Tamilnadu) Indian elephant.
(vii) Sanctuaries in Annamalai region (Tamil Elephant, tiger, panther, gaur etc
Nadu)
(iii) National Parks – A national park is an area of land that is protected by the government to conserve wild life. In national park,
animals can freely roam about and use the natural resources. Cultivation grazing, forestry and habitat manipulation are not
allowed in the national parks. At present there are 97 national parks in India.
Table : National parks of India
S. No. Name of the National Park Organisms for which they are known
(i) Kaziranga National park (Assam) One horned rhinoceros.
(ii) Desert National Park [(Jaisalmer, Rajasthan)] Neelgai, Chinkara, Black buck and Great Indian Bustard
(iii) Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand) First national Tiger, elephant, panther
park of India and is famous for tiger.
(iv) Kanha National park (Madhya Pradesh) Wild Tigers, chinkara
(v) Gir National park (Gujarat) Asiatic lion, panther, sambher
(vi) Sundar bans (West bangal) Royal Bengal tiger
• The World's first national park is yellow stone national park.

• The first national park of India was set up in the foot hills of Himalayas in Uttar Pradesh and was known
as Hailey national park. It is now known as Jim Corbett national park.
The main aim of establishing these protected areas is to preserve plant and animal life in their natural habitat. They are allowed to breed
and multiply so that their numbers increases. The cutting down of trees and hunting animals in these protected areas are strictly
prohibited.
Table : Difference between Wild life sanctuary and Biosphere reserve
S. No. Wildlife sanctuary Biosphere reserve
(i) It is an area within which animals are protected from It is a large protected area constructed for the conservation of
possible dangers such as hunting. Their habitat is also biodiversity.
conserved in this area.
(ii) It provides protection and suitable living conditions to It helps in the conservation of various life forms such as plants,
wild animals. animals, and microorganisms.
(iii) An example of wild life sanctuary is Pachmarhi sanctuary. An example of biosphere reserve is Pachmarhi biosphere reserve.
(iv) Sacred Groves – Sacred grove is an area with particular types of trees dedicated to local deities or ancestral spirits that are
protected by local communities through social traditions and taboos incorporating spiritual and ecological values.
Sacred Groves of India comprise trees like Deodara (considered to be the "abode of Gods") Sal, Rudraksha,
Bael, and Ashok and kadam, Pipal, Neem, Banyan tree: native to India, Mango tree and bushes like, Basil
(native to India and Iran) and grass like Doob or Durva etc.
Ex-Situ Conservation
(i) Zoological park (Zoo) – A zoo or zoological park refers to any park, cage or an enclosure in which live animals are kept for public
exhibition. It plays a major role in creating awareness among common people about the need to conserve nature. It is an artificial
habitat that serve as breeding centres for some rare and endangered animals. Here, animals are bred under controlled conditions
so that babies are well protected and preserved.
(ii) Botanical Gardens – Botanical gardens are large protected areas established to conserve rare and threatened plants. It is a place
where wide variety of plants are cultivated for scientific, educational and ornamantal purposes.
They serve as seed banks and have reserve of seeds of several species of plants. Here, seeds are preserved under controlled
conditions.
(iii) Arboretum – An arboretum is a place where trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants are cultivated for scientific and educational
purposes.
(iv) Gene banks – Gene banks are institutes that maintain stocks of viable seeds (seed bank), live growing plants (orchard), tissue
culture and frozen germplasm with the whole range of genetic variability.
P oi n t
1. If a fish is to be conserved outside its habitat, where should it be kept ?
2. What is the difference between zoo and wild life sanctuary?
SOLUTION
1. Fishes and aquatic organisms can be conserved in large aquaria.

2. Zoological Park (Zoo) Wild Life S anctuary
(i) It is a facility where animals are kept for It is an area within which animals are protected from
public exhibition possible dangers such as hunting.
(ii) It is an artificial habitat. It conserves the natural habitat of animals.
It takes seventeen full grown trees to make one ton of paper.
iN THE LAB
Try to identify the various type of flora and fauna present in your locality. Click their photo and make a scrap book.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) It is an organisation founded by 1961 by Sir Peter Scott. It aims at
conservation of nature. It also plays a large role in raising funds towards projects concerned with saving
wildlife in various parts of the globe.
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76 BIOLOGY
CONNECTING TOPIC
PROJECT TIGER
Population of tiger is declining day by day or we can say that they have become an endangered species that are on verge of
extinction and or will become extinct sooner or later. Due to this rapid decline in populations of tigers across the world, the
government has started certain conservation programmes that aimed at saving tigers. For example, Project tiger.
Project Tiger is the most famous wildlife conservation project of India, which was launched on 1st April, 1973 to protect the
diminishing population of Indian tigers.
Gir Lion Project

The Gir forest in saurashtra perinsula of Gujarat is unique as it is the only survining habitat of the Asian lion
Panthera leon pressica. This lion is found only in Gir forest of Gujarat.
OBJECTIVES OF PROJECT TIGER

The main objective of Project Tiger is to ensure a viable population of tiger in India for scientific, economic, aesthetic, cultural and
ecological values and to preserve for all time, areas of biological importance as a natural heritage for the benefit, education and
enjoyment of the people. Main objectives under the scheme include wildlife management, protection measures and site specific
ecodevelopment to reduce the dependency of local communities on tiger reserve resources.
Then several plans were made such as –
(i) All forms of human exploitation is removed from core areas.
(ii) To restore the natural ecosystem of these reserves, human beings were restricted from the sites. The government decided to
shift villages that came under the reserves to different areas.
(iii) The flora and fauna of these areas were monitored and were researched if they show any change.
Achievement – You will be surprised to know that due to this programme, tiger population in Satpura tiger Reserve showed a
significant increase.
P oi n t
How do the given animals become extinct?
GIANT PANDA YELLOW-EYED PENGUIN RED WOLF

(Less than 1,000 (About 3,000 left in (Only 200 exist in capacity,
remaining) the wind) none in the wild)
SOLUTION
According to the theory of evolution, some animal species become extinct because they are less successful than other
species that gradually replace them. These so-called “failed” animals are also unable to adapt the changing circumstances or
environment. Also, humans have speeded up this extinction by changing the environment so rapidly that animals do not
have the time to adapt.
Hunting is another main reason for the reduced numbers and probably extinction of animals such as tiger, the blue whale and
the giant panda.
MIGRATION
The process of movement of animals in large numbers from one place to another to overcome unfavourble conditions is called
migration.
You must have heard of the Siberian crane that are actually endemic to Siberia. Do you know, they travel large distances and come to
India in groups during winter. Why do they travel large distances and come to India? Actually, they travel long distances and come
to India to escape the cold, unfavourable conditions of Siberia.
Migration is caused by the need to find food, by climatic changes during the year, and by the need to breed. Every autumn, for
example, Swallows gather in large flocks to rest before they begin their long migration to Africa. Swallows, and their relatives, swifts
and martins, all migrate to Africa when the weather becomes too cold for them to catch their insect prey. They return in the spring when
the weather in northern Europe begins to warm up.
The Arctic tern makes the longest known migration of any bird, by travelling from the Arctic to the Antarctic and then back again. On
it flight it passes through Japan, Alaska, Canada and Fiji before returning home again to breed.
• Many fishes migrate in both fresh water and the ocean.

• Tuna make some of the longest migrations. They need to migrate due to sea temperature, as fish need the
correct temperature in order to breed.
ADVANTAGES OF MIGRATION
(i) It provides the migrating species with more favourable conditions of temperature, food and water. For example, Siberian crane
migrates to India during winters.
(ii) It also provides suitable place for reproduction that may not be available in their native place. For example, salmon migrates from
salt water to freshwater to lay eggs and then comes back.
Hence, we can say organisms migrate from one place to another to avoid inhabitable climatic conditions or for breeding.
P oi n t
Migratory birds are susceptible to become endangered. Can you give the reason, why ?
SOLUTION
Migratory birds are susceptible to become endangered because many of the places they used to migrate have been altered
by human actions. As a result, these animals don’t have any place to go when weather condition become harsh or food in
their habitat becomes scarce.
RECYCLING OF PAPER
Trees, as we know, are important to maintain the balance of nature. Therefore, in order to save tree and to prevent the impact of their
loss, we need to use paper intelligently.
Methods to save paper
(1) Recycling of paper : Recycling is the process of collecting waste paper and to regain materials in order to use them again. By
recycling of paper, not only we can save trees but also can save energy and water needed for manufacturing paper. Hence collect
used paper and recycle it.
(2) Use both the sides of paper for writing.
(3) Use paper intelligently.
(4) Spread awareness among people regarding the importance of paper.
For every ton of paper that is recycled, the following are saved :
• 17 trees.
• 275 pounds of sulphur.
• 350 pounds of limestone.
• 9000 pounds of steam.
• 60,000 gallons of water.
• 225 kilowatt hours.
• 3.3 cubic yards of landfill space.
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78 BIOLOGY
SUMMARY
Conservation is the wise use of natural resources with an aim to preserve living and non-living resources.
Biodiversity refers to variety of living organisms in a specific area.
Plants and animals depend on each for survival.
Deforestation is the process of cutting trees from an area for industrial, agricultural or other purposes.
Causes of deforestation are – man-made; and natural like, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, drought etc.
Consequences of deforestation are –
• Soil erosion
• Loss of biodiversity
• Floods and droughts
• Climate change due to global warming
• Disruption of water cycle
• Desertification
Under the wild life protection act, a larger number of sanctuaries, national park and biosphere reserve were established in
different parts of the country.
Sanctuaries are areas where animals are protected from any disturbance to them and their habitat.
National park are areas reserved for wild life where they can freely use the habitats and natural resources.
Biosphere reserves are large protected areas for conservation of wildlife, plant and animal resources and traditional life of the
tribals living on the area.
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural resources) works towards assessing the global conservation
status of plants and animals.
Red data book is the source book which keeps a record of all the endangered plants and animals.
Plants and animals of a particular area are known as flora and fauna, respectively, of that area.
Endangered animals are animals whose numbers are diminishing to a level that they might face extinction.
Endemic species are those species of plants and animals that are found exclusively in a particular area.
Extinct animals are animals that no longer exist in nature.
Project tiger was launched on 1st April 1973 by government to protect the tigers of our country.
Migration is the phenomenon of movement of a species from its own habitat to some other habitat for a particular time period,
every year for a specific purposes like breeding.
We should save, reuse and recycle paper to save trees, energy and water.
Reforestation is the restoring of destroyed forests by planting new trees.
If a forest area is left undisturbed for a long time, it restablishes itself.

Fill in the Blanks : Column I Column II

(Terms) (Feature)
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an 1. A. Biodiversity (p) Conversion of fertile land
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s). into deserts
B. Desertification (q) Movement of species
1. The diverse plant species found in a particular area is known C. Deforestation (r) Variety of living
as ________. organisms in specific
2. In a wild life sanctuary, poaching of animals is ________. area.
3. ________ results in depletion of wild life. D. Reforestation (s) Clearing of forests
4. Animals whose numbers are rapidly falling are called E. Biosphere reserve (t) Plantation of new trees.
________ species. F. Migration (u) Large protected area
5. Illegal hunting of animals for their valuable body parts is meant for conservation
called ________. of biodiversity
6. The natural surroundings of a plant or animal species is 2. Column I Column II
called ________. (Terms) (Definition)
7. Group of population capable of interbreeding is called A. Biosphere (p) Areas where animals
________. Reserve are protected from any
True / False :
disturbance to them and
their habitat.
B. National parks (q) Areas reserved for
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your animals where they can
answer as true or false.
freely use the habitats
1. Afforestation can cause desertification. and natural resources.
C. Wildlife (r) Large protected areas
2. An average increase in Earth’s temperature is known as global
warming. sanctuaries for conservation of
wild life, plant and animal
3. Tiger is an endangered species.
resources and traditional
4. An animal that is widely distributed over the earth is said to life of the tribals living in
be endemic. that area.
5. Saving paper means saving trees. 3. Column I Column II
6. Wildlife conservation and soil conservation are closely A. Arctic tern (p) Extinct species
related. B. Homo sapiens (q) Endemic to Assam
7. Migratory birds fly to far away places every year during a C. Dodo (r) Threatened species
particular time for a holiday. D. Giant panda (s) Forest reserves
8. The red data book show species that are at the risk of E. Pachmarhi (t) A species
extinction. biosphere reserve
F. One-horned Rhino (u) A migratory bird
Match the Following : Very Short Answer Questions :
DIRECTIONS : Each question contains statements/terms given DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
in two columns which have to be matched. Statements/terms
in column I have to be matched with statements/terms given in 1. Define biodiversity.
column II. 2. If one wants to conserve an organism outside its habitat,
where should it be kept?
3. Name one endemic animal of India.
4. Are migratory animals susceptible to become endangered?
5. Name two animals that have become endangered due to
poaching.
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80 BIOLOGY
6. When an animal is said to be an extinct? 13. How wild life conservation and forest conservation related
7. What results in desertification, global warming and shortage to each other ?
of forest products? 14. Why forests are useful to us?
8. Expand IUCN. 15. Why did IUCN prepare red data book?
9. Give two examples of each flora and fauna of Pachmarhi 16. How can governments ensure the preservation of
biosphere reserve. biodiversity?
10. Why do birds migrate?
11. Who publishes the Red list of Threatened species? 17.
12. Name three programmes that have gained recognition for
conservation of nature.
13. What is conservation?
14. Which term refers to illegal hunting of animals?
15. What is the main aim of the IUCN Red list?
16. Name one international organization that aim at conservation
of nature.
17. What does “Red” in Red Data book stands for? Do you agree with this? Give reason.
Short Answer Questions : Long Answer Questions :
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in 2-3 sentences. DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
1. Why is biodiversity under threat? 1. How deforestation leads to reduced rainfall?

2. How forest reserves help in conserving biodiversity? 2. List four causes and consequences of deforestation. What
3. Define are the causes of extinction of wild life?
(a) Sanctuaries 3. Define
(b) Zoological park (1) Threatened species
4. Name few sanctuaries in India, along with animals they (2) Extinct species
protect? (3) Endemic species
5. Write a short note on Project Tiger. (4) Endangered species
6. What is recycling of paper? How recycling of paper helps in 4. Differentiate –
saving trees? (i) Flora and Fauna
8. Why it is necessary to conserve Wild Life? (ii) Endangered and threatened species
12. How deforestation can lead to desertification? (iii) Endemic and extinct species
(iv) Wildlife sanctuary and zoological park.
Text - Book Exercise : 10. Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by
which you can save paper.
1. (a) A place where animals are protected in their natural
11. Complete the word puzzle :
habitat is called ______.
DOWN
(b) Species found only in a particular area is known as
1. Species on the verge of extinction.
______.
2. A book carrying information about endangered
(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because of
species.
______ changes.
5. Consequence of deforestation.
(d) Information about endangered species is recorded in
the ______. ACROSS
(e) ______ is the restocking of destroyed forests by 1. Species which have vanished.
planting new trees. 3. Species found only in a particular habitat.
2. Differentiate between the following: 4. Variety of plants, animals and microoganisms found
(a) Wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve in an area.
(b) Zoo and wildlife sanctuary Exemplar Questions :
(c) Endangered and extinct species
1. Why is it important to conserve forests?
(d) Flora and fauna
2. Can a forest regenerate naturally in a short period of time.
3. Discuss the effects of deforestation on the following :
3. Name the first Reserve Forest of India.
(a) Wild animals
4. Why are wildlife sanctuaries important for conservation of
(b) Environment
plants and animals?
(c) Villages (Rural areas)
5. Why are endemic organisms in greater danger of becoming
(d) Cities (Urban areas)
extinct?
(e) Earth
6. A new species X is introduced in a forest. How is it likely to
(f) The next generation
affect the local species of that area?
4. What will happen if :
7. Does soil erosion affect the fertility of soil? How?
(a) we go on cutting trees.
8. Is deforestation associated with global warming? Explain.
(b) the habitat of an animal is disturbed.
9. How does deforestation lead to frequent floods and
(c) the top layer of soil is exposed. droughts?
5. Answer in brief :
(a) Why should we conserve biodiversity? HOTS Questions :
(b) Protected forests are also not completely safe for wild
animals. Why?
(c) Some tribals depend on the jungle. How? 1.
(d) What are the causes and consequences of
deforestation?
(e) What is Red Data Book?
(f) What do you understand by the term migration?
6. In order to meet the ever-increasing demand in factories
and for shelter, trees are being continually cut, is it justified
to cut trees for such projects? Discuss and prepared a brief Is this statements correct? Explain using example.
report. 2. Introduction of an exotic species to a habitat has a negative
7. How can you contribute to the maintenance of green wealth impact on the diversity of that region. Comment.
of your locality? Make a list of actions to be taken by you. 3. How is diversity related to environmental health?
8. Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.
4. Captive breeding programmes help in maintaining
9. Find out the information about the national parks in your
biodiversity. How?
state. Identify and show their location on the outline map
of India. 5. Why are migratory animals susceptible to face extinction?
EBD_7029
82 BIOLOGY
6. Suppose an animal species ‘X’ not normally found in your Do you agree with the statement given. Give reason in
area is released where you live. If that animal has no natural support of your answer.
enemies there, what might happen? 9. A tiger from wildlife sanctuary was shifted in a Zoological
7. Why Indian Rhinoceros and Asian elephants are placed in garden. Where do you think the tiger will be happier.
the Red List. Explain, giving example.
10. A construction company used to cut 10 trees every month
8. and planted 10 new saplings every month as replacement.
Do you think they are successful in maintaining the number
of trees in a forest. Justify.
11. State the laws that your state has for the protection of
endangered wildlife. Find out if there is a state endangered
species list. Report your findings in your class.
Multiple Choice Questions : 11. The variety of forms of life found in a region is
(a) biodiversity (b) flora
DIRECTIONS : This section contains multiple choice questions. (c) fauna (d) endemic
Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out of which 12. Decrease in population size over few years and decrease in
ONLY ONE is correct. the size of its habitat indicates that an organism is
(a) threatened (b) vulnerable
1. The human activity that is responsible for loss of
(c) extinct (d) endemic
biodiversity is
13. An area made up of living components like plants, animals
(a) urbanization and microorganisms along with non-living component such
(b) afforestation as climate, soil etc is known as
(c) establishment of biosphere reserve (a) ecosystem (b) population
(d) respiration (c) community (d) organism
2. Species native to a particular habitat is known as 14. Which is not a consequence of deforestation?
(a) endemic species (b) endangered species (a) Desertification (b) Global warming
(c) threatened species (d) extinct species (c) Poaching (d) Floods
3. An example of extinct species is
(a) The Royal Bengal tiger Assertion & Reason :
(b) The Giant Panda
(c) The African elephant DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion
followed by Reason. Read them carefully and answer the question
(d) The Dinosaur
on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that
4. The Kaziranga wildlife sanctuary preserves best describes the two statements.
(a) elephant (b) rhinoceros
(c) asiatic lions (d) royal bengal tiger (a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
5. The endangered species are listed out in correct explanation of Assertion.
(a) blue data book (b) red data book (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
(c) yellow data book (d) green data book the correct explanation of Assertion.
6. The diverse animal species found in their natural (c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
surroundings is called (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
(a) flora (b) fauna 1. Assertion : Spotted dear and black buck belongs to category
(c) endemic species (d) endangered species of vulnerable species.
7. Which of these is not caused by deforestation? Reason : They are species whose number is declining and if
(a) Global warming not protected they can become endangered species.
(b) Desertification 2. Assertion : The Earth was once dominated by dinosaurs.
(c) Reduction in ground water Reason : Dinosaurs got extinct due to natural calamities.
(d) Storms 3. Assertion : The great Indian Bustard has been threatened.
8. Which one of these is not included under Red list? Reason : It is due to introduction of new species in their
(a) Extinct (b) Endemic habitat.
(c) Endangered (d) Vulnerable 4. Assertion : IUCN publishes a comprehensive list known as
9. World wild fund for Nature Works in the field of IUCN Red list of endemic species.
(a) Wildlife conservation Reason : IUCN Red list is to focus the attention of
(b) Forest conservation conservationists towards species that are under threat of
(c) Water conservation becoming extinct.
(d) Soil conservation 5. Assertion : Afforestation is a positive step towards
10. The Indian Government launched “Project Tiger” in restoration of forest and wildlife.
(a) 1970 (b) 1973 Reason : Afforestation is a slow process.
(c) 1974 (d) 1975
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84 BIOLOGY
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
15. Main aim of IUCN is to identify and documentation of

endangered species.
16. WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature)
Fill in the Blanks : 17. “Red” stands for “Danger”.
1. Fauna 2. Prohibited 3. Deforestation Short Answer Questions :
4. Endangered 5. Poaching 6. Habitat 1. Biodiversity is under threat due to the following reasons
7. Species. (i) Increase in human population.
True / False : (ii) Pollution of air, water and land.
(iii) Climatic changes, example, global warming.
1. False. Deforestation can cause desertification. (iv) Poaching.
2. True 3. True (v) Natural disasters such as earthquake, floods, droughts
4. False. Endemic species are found only in a particular area. etc.
5. True 2. Forest reserves helps in conserving biodiversity by serving
6. True the following purposes :
7. False. Migratory birds migrate to find food, escape the (i) Prevention of deforestation.
inhospital winter condition and reproduction. (ii) Replenishment of lost forest by afforestation
8. True (iii) Protection of food and shelter meant for wildlife.
3. (a) A sanctuary is a protected land area where animals are
Match the Following : brought to live and be protected for the rest of their
1. A. (r), B. (p), C. (s), D. (t), E. (u), F. (q) lives. Hunting is strictly prohibited there.
2. A. (r), B. (p), C. (q) (b) Zoological park is a collection of wild animals kept in
3. A. (u), B. (t), C. (p), D. (r), E. (s), F. (q) close or open confinement, usually for public viewing.
4. Wildlife sanctuaries in India have been extremely successful
Very Short Answer Questions : in conserving the wildlife of India. They are the ideal place to
1. The variety of life forms found on our planet in a particular witness the imposing beauty of the forests and their endless
area is called bidiversity. range of wildlife. Examples are :
(i) Dachigham, Jammu and Kashmir : Hangul
2. Zoological park
(ii) Bharatpur bird sanctuary, Rajasthan : Siberian crane
3. Great Indian Bustard
(iii) Bandipur sanctuary, Karnataa ; Elephant.
4. Yes
5. Project Tiger was launched on 1st April, 1973 to protect the
5. Rhinoceros and Tiger diminishing population of Indian tigers. Tiger is one of the
6. When an organism, no longer exists in nature, it is said to be endangered species so to preserve it project tiger was
extinct. launched. The project aims at ensuring a viable population
7. Deforestation of bengal tigers in their natural habitats and also to protect
8. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural them from extinction, and preserving areas of biological
Resources. importance as a natural heritage forever represented as close
9. Sal and teak are the flora and chinkara and leopard are as possible the diversity of ecosystems across the tiger’s
examples of Fauna of Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve. distribution in the country.
10. Birds migrate from one place to another to beat unfavourble 6. One tonne of paper requires the chopping of 17 full grown
conditions and for breeding. trees. Therefore, our huge need of paper would require more
11. IUCN cutting down of trees. This in turn would lead to deforestation
and disruption in the balance of nature. Hence, in order to
12. Vanmahotsav Programme, the Chipko Andolan and Project
save trees, we should minimize the wastage of paper or we
Tiger.
should use recycled paper.
13. Conservation refers to use of natural resources with an aim
7. Wild life refers to living organisms plants, animals and
to preserve or protect living and non-living resources.
microorganisms other than the cultivated plants and
14. Poaching
domesticated animals. Wild life needs to be conserved for
(i) maintaining the ecological balance for supporting life. Causes of extinction of wildlife are –
(ii) preserving different kinds of species (biodiversity). (i) Habitat loss
(iii) preserving economically important plants and animals. (ii) Poaching
(iv) conserving the endangered species. (iii) Introduction of new species
8. Deforestation causes soil erosion or removal of fertile top (iv) Natural calamities
layer of the soil. This leaves the soil devoid of humus and (v) Lack of strict wildlife laws.
makes it infertile, gradually converting it to a desert. This 3. (1) Threatened species is a native species that is at risk of
process is known as desertification. becoming endangered in the near future. A threatened
9. Wild life and forest conservation are related to each other species may have a declining population or be
because they both provide their essential requirements. exceptionally rare.
10. Forest is useful to us because it provides us oxygen, protects (2) Extinct species is the species of which last remaining
soil and provides habitat to a large number of animals, increase member has died.
the amount and periodicity of rainfall and reduce drought, (3) Endemic species is one whose habitat is restricted to a
global warming etc. particular area. It may be an animal, a plant, a fungus, or
11. IUCN prepares Red Data Book to lists rare species and those even a microorganism.
in danger of extinction. (4) Endangered species is a native species that faces a
12. Government ensures the preservation of biodiversity by significant risk of extinction in the near future throughout
enacting several legal provisions or acts related to all or a significant portion of its range. Such species may
conservation of wildlife and forests. These acts are forest be declining in number due to threats such as habitat
conservation act (1980) and wildlife protection act (1972). destruction, climate change, or pressure from invasive
Forest conservation act empowers govt and forest species.
department to create and manage reserved forest, conserve 4. (i)
forest as a natural heritage and control and regulate cattle
grazing in forest. Objectives of Wildlife protection act are Flora Fauna
the prohibition of hunting and control and management of (i) It refers to all living plants It refers to all animals
captive breeding. in a particular area. living in a particular area.
13. No, protected forests are not completely safe for wild animals. (ii) Sal, teak, mango, etc. form Leaopard, wolf, wild dog,
It is because people who live nearby use the resources from the flora of Pachmarhi etc. form the fauna of
those forests for their own benefits. This activities in turn biosphere reserve. Pachmarhi biosphere
disrupts the life system and also endangers the animals living reserve.
there. (ii)
Long Answer Questions : Endangered species Threatened species
(i) A species present in such A native species that is at
1. Deforestation is the removal of trees or other vegetation
small numbers that it is at risk of becoming endangered
from an area for industrial, agricultural, or other purpose.
risk of extinction. in the near future. It may
Plants or trees absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. If plants are
destroyed, then the level of CO2 will rise. The high levels of have a declining population
CO2 in the atmosphere will trap more heat radiations, leading or be exceptionally rare. Like
to global warming. This increase in temperature of the Earth endangered species, the
wil disturb the natural water cycle. As a result of disruption cause of its rarity is variable,
in the water cycle, there will be a change in the rainfall pattern. but may be due to threats
The reduced amount of rainwater can cause droughts. such as habitat destruction,
2. Causes of deforestation climate change, or pressure
(i) Procurement of land for crop production. from invasive species.
(ii) Procurement of land for urban settlement.
(iii) Use of wood for timber and fuel. (iii)
(iv) Natural calamities such as forest fires and droughts Endemic species Extinct species
Consequences of deforestation (i) An endemic species is one The species which no
(i) Loss of biodiversity whose habitat is restricted more exist on the planet.
(ii) Soil erosion to a particular area.
(iii) Change in climatic conditions (ii) Example : Indian giant Example : Dinosaur,
(iv) Flood and droughts squirrel passenger pigeon
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86 BIOLOGY
(iv) (d) Flora and fauna
Wildlife sanctuary Zoological park Flora Fauna
(i) It is an area within which It is a place where animals All plant life that occurs in All animal life that is present
animals are protected from are kept for public an area is known as Flora. in an area is known as
possible dangers such as exhibition. Fauna.
hunting. Their habitat is also Example : Jamun, Teak, Example : rhinoceros,
conserved in this area. Mango etc. elephants, crocodiles.
(ii) It conserves the natural It is an artificial habitat.
3. (a) Wild animals : The wild animals live in forest.
habitat of animals.
Deforestation destroys their natural habitat. In the
natural habitat the animals have no place to live and
breed. As a result of absence of their habitat, many
animals reach the verge of extinction.
Text - Book Exercise : (b) Environment : The environment is adversely affected
1. (a) wildlife sanctuary by deforestation. Global warming. Carbon dioxide gets
(b) Endemic species accumulated in the atmosphere because of lack of green
(c) climatic plants and thus causes global warming.
(d) Red Data Book (c) Villages (Rural areas) : The rural areas largely depend
(e) Reforestation on forests for their likelihood. Deforestation has
2. (a) Wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve: reduced their resources and the uninhabited animals
Wildlife Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve are also a danger for the villagers.
(d) Cities (Urban areas) : Cities are also affected by
A protected area where An area which is conserved
deforestation indirectly. The changes in the climate
animals can live in their to protect the biodiversity
results in calamities like flood and droughts which
natural habitat is known as and culture of that area is
a wildlife sanctuary. In known as biosphere reserve. affects the cities also.
these sanctuaries hunting, A biosphere reserve (e) Earth : Deforestation has lead to the conversion of
poaching, grazing, felling consists of many protected fertile lands into deserts. The natural calamities like
trees etc. are strictly areas like sanctuaries, floods and droughts are also the result of deforestation.
prohibited. national parks, lakes The climate of earth is changing due to deforestation.
mountains etc. (f) The next generation : Deforestation has a negative
There are about 440 wildlife There are 15 biosphere impact on climate and many are at the verge of extinction
sanctuaries in reserves in India. some species are already extinct. The next generation
may not be able to see the beautiful and attractive
(b) Zoo and wildlife sanctuary
fauna and flora. It may have to suffer for the effects of
Zoo Wildlife Sanctuary global warming, no fuel and no paper etc.
Zoo is a place where In a sanctuary animals live in 4. (a) We go on cutting trees : If we continue cutting of
animals live in artificial natural habitat. trees, rainfall and fertility of soil will decrease and the
habitat. chances of natural calamities will increase. It will also
The animals protected live The animals are protected lead to decrease in water holding capacity of the soil
in a definite place. They are and conserved in very large which results in floods. Animal life will also negatively
allowed to be viewed by areas. These areas are be affected.
public spread in small prohibited for hunting,
(b) The habitat of an animal is disturbed : The animals are
areas. grazing, felling trees etc.
adapted to live in their natural habitat. The survival of
(c) Endangered and extinct species the animals becomes difficult. If their natural habitat is
Endangered species Extinct species disturbed. They will not have any space to live and to
The species which are at the The species that are totally breed. As a result they will not survive and also
verge of extinction and which finished having no living because of scarcity of food the animals have started
are required to be protected individual on the earth are wandering int he nearby villages and targeting
and conserved are known as known as extinct species. domestic animals as their prey.
endangered species. (c) The top layer of soil is exposed : The roots of trees
Example : tiger, wild buffalo etc. Example : dinosaurs. find the soil. Deforestation exposes the top layer of
soil which gets washed away with water. The removal and spread awareness about the benefit of plants teach the
of top layer gradually converts the fertile land into small children and encourage the slogan ‘one man one tree’
desert. Moreover the soil washed away with water gets so that every individual plants atleast one tree and takes
also gets deposited in the river bed resulting in care of it.
decrease in the depth of rivers. The chances of floods 8. Plants absorb water from the soil and lose water in the form
increased many folds. of water vapour which evaporates to form clouds.
5. (a) We should conserve biodiversity. The universe Deforestation leads to cutting down of trees. As a result
encompasses a vast variety of organism each of which less water is absorbed from the soil and it disturbs the water
plays a very important role. Every organism is unique cycle. The formation of cloud becomes difficult which lead
and precious. Hence, should be saved it from becoming to reduced rainfall.
extinct. 9. For self-attempt.
(b) Protected forests are not completely safe for wild 10. Paper is very useful in our day to day life Thousands of
animals because poachers have found access in there trees are cut to fulfill the demand of paper each day. If the
areas and are killing animals and for joy. There is a trees continue to be cut for paper at the same rate, one day
need to make strict rules against poaching and we will be left with no trees. So we should save paper and
trespassing. use it intelligently. The ways by which we can save paper
(c) Some tribals are dependent on the jungle for their food, are :
fuel, wood, shelter etc. They live in forests and are 1. We should recycle the waste paper.
entirely dependent on them for their survival. 2. We should not litter paper here and there.
(d) The main cause of deforestation is growing population, 3. Paper should be sent for recycling.
urbanization and industrialization. Need for more land 4. We should not tear our old books and donate it to poor
and resources have lead to the cutting down of forests. children so that they can reuse those books.
The main consequences of deforestation are 5. Buying recycled paper products should be encourage.
desertification and natural calamities.
6. We should avoid taking paper bags from the shops,
(e) Red Data book keeps the record of all the endangered
instead we should carry jute bags.
animals and plants. It is published by IUCN. 11.
(f) Some species of birds and animals move from their
1
habitat to some other habitat for the purpose of E X T I N C T
breeding and specific purposes. Siberian birds move N

to far away areas every year during a particular time
D
because of climatic changes and return to their original
habitat when the climate become suitable for them. This A
periodic behaviour of some species is known as N 2
R
migration.
G E
6. Trees are being continually cut so as to meet the ever
3
increasing demand in factories and for shelter. Cutting of E N D E M I C
trees can only be justified when reforestation is done. R D
Reforestation is the reestablishment of destroyed forests
E A
by planting new trees. The trees planted should be of the
same species that are generally found in the forests. We D T
should plant as many trees as we cut. Reforestation can A
take place naturally also if the land is left undisturbed. The 4 5
B I O D I V E R S I T Y
forests will establish itself over a period of time. We have
damaged our forests to such an extent that it is difficult to O E
retain the green wealth for our future generations. So it is O S
very important to plant more trees and to find out ways of
recycling and restoring our natural wealth. K E
7. The green wealth of the locality is the responsibility of every R

resident. We should grow more and more plants in the T
locality. We should work together to conserve the green
belt of the locality. We should discourage felling of trees S
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88 BIOLOGY
Exemplar Questions : 3. Biodiversity is the variety of life. It is extremely important to
people and the health of ecosystems. A few of the reasons
1. To maintain balance in nature/to conserve the natural
are:
ecosystem.
2. Reforestation can take place naturally by leaving the (i) It provides us with foods and materials and contributes
deforested area undisturbed for a long time. But this process to the economy. Without a diversity of pollinators, plants,
takes a long time in terms of years. and soils, our supermarkets would have a lot less
3. Wildlife sanctuaries are protected areas where human produce. Hence, it allows us to live healthy and happy
lives.
activities like plantation, cultivation, grazing, falling of trees,
hunting and poaching are prohibited completely. (ii) Most medical discoveries to cure diseases and lengthen
4. Endemic organisms are confined to a limited geographical life spans were made because of research into plant and
area. They cannot adapt or live outside their natural habitat. animal biology and genetics. Every time a species goes
Any disturbance to their habitat will adversely affect them. extinct or genetic diversity is lost, we will never know
5. Introduction of a new species may affect the existence of whether research would have given us a new vaccine or
local species due to competion. drug.
6. Yes, Soil erosion removes the fertile top layer of the soil (iii) Biodiversity allows for ecosystems to adjust to
thereby, exposing the hard rocky lower layers which are less disturbances like extreme fires and floods.
fertile. (iv) Genetic diversity prevents diseases and helps species
7. Yes, Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for adjust to changes in their environment.
photosynthesis. Deforestation results in decreased (v) It is an important part of ecological services that make
number or trees leading to accumulation of carbon dioxide life livable on Earth. They include everything from
in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere traps cleaning water and absorbing chemicals, which wetlands
heat rays reflected by the earth which results in global do, to providing oxygen for us to breathe-one of the
warming. many things that plants do for people.
8. Deforestation results in decreased water holding capacity 4. Endangered plants and animals can be conserved outside
of soil. This reduces the infiltration of water into the ground their natural habitats through captive breeding programmes.
which causes floods. On the other hand, deforestation leads For example : Animals can be taken care of in zoos, plants in
to higher level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which botanical garden and fishes and aquatic animals in large
causes global warming. Scarcity of trees disturbs the water aquaria. When the numbers of species increase sufficiently
cycle and may reduce rainfall leading to droughts. outside their natural habitat, they are then reintroduced into
the wild. This helps in maintaining biodiversity.
HOTS Questions :
5. Migratory animals face extinction because the places they
1. Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms from
used to migrate have been altered by human actions. As a
all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic
result, these animals have no place to go anywhere (when
ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are
weather conditions becomes harsh or food in their habitat
part. This includes diversity within species, between species,
become scarce).
and of ecosystems.
6. The introduction of a new species into a new locality from
2. Species that have been introduced or moved by human
some other area is called exotic species. But in case of species
activities to a location where they do not naturally occur are
X, its population will increase.
termed exotic species. Exotic species are not necessarily
7. The Indian rhinoceros are poached mainly for their horns
harmful. These introduced or exotic species can adversely
that are believed to have medicinal value.
affect the ecosystem. Some exotic plants have turned into
weeds, multiplying fast and causing harm to the ecosystem, Asian elephants are threatened mainly because of habitat
e.g. water hyacinth and lantana. Exotics are invariably destruction.
introduced without their natural enemies that control and 8. No, I don’t agree. Though it is not justified to cut trees to
balance their spread in their native land, and hence, grow meet ever increasing demands of human population, but one
and flourish without any hindrance and cause harm to the can look for alternate ways to conserve forest or to fulfill
environment. Any disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance human needs. We can plant more and more trees and
in others and this is what happens when an exotic species is encourage people to plant trees by informing them about
introduced. importance of trees.
9. Tiger will be happier in its natural habitat. research and restoration of the environment. WWF aims
10. There is no doubt that afforestation is a positive step towards to preserve the life on Earth and the ecological system
restoration of forests and wildlife. But it is a slow process as by: protecting wild life. It protects natural areas and wild
new plant would take several years to grow big. populations of plants and animals. It also supports
projects for saving/conserving endangered species;
promoting sustainable approaches to the use of
renewable natural resources; promoting more efficient
use of resources and energy; and reducing pollution.
Multiple Choice Questions : 10. (b) Project Tiger was launched by the government of India
1. (a) Urban development has led to a large scale destruction in 1973. The project aims at ensuring a viable population
of forest and loss of biodiversity. of Bengal tigers in their natural habitats and also to
2. (a) Endemic species are those species of plants and animals protect them from extinction, and preserving areas of
which are found exclusively in a particular area. They biological importance as a natural heritage forever
are not naturally found anywhere else. A particular type represented as close as possible the diversity of
of animal or plant may be endemic to a zone, a state or a ecosystems across the tiger's distribution in the country.
country. 11. (a) Biodiversity is the term used to describe the variety of
3. (d) Endangered species are those which are facing the life found on Earth and all of the natural processes. This
includes ecosystem, genetic and cultural diversity, and
danger of extinction.
the connections between these and all species.
4. (b) Kaziranga wild life sanctuary is the name to exemplify
12. (a) Species which is likely to become endangered unless
the most popular conservation efforts to save the
protective measures are taken are called vulnerable
endangered species like one-horned rhinoceros in India.
species. Extinct species is a population of species that
It is located in the Golaghat and Nagaon district of
no longer exists. Endemic species is one whose habitat
Assam, and declared the most notable World Heritage
is restricted to a particular area.
Site by UNESCO in the year 1985.
13. (a) An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants,
5. (b) The Red Data Book is the state document established
animals and microbes) in conjunction with the non-living
for documenting rare and endangered species of animals,
components of their environment (things like air, water
plants and fungi as well as some local sub-species that
and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These biotic
exist within the territory of the state or country. This
and abiotic components are regarded as linked together
book is maintained by IUCN (International Union for
through nutrient cycles and energy flows.
Conservation of Nature and Natural resources).
14. (c) Poaching is defined as the illegal hunting, killing or
6. (b) All the animal life of a given place or time, especially
capturing of wild animals, usually associated with land
when distinguished from the plant life (flora) is called
use rights.
fauna.
7. (d) Storm is a violent disturbance of the atmosphere with Assertion & Reason :
strong winds and usually rain, thunder, lightning, or snow. 1. (a) Spotted deer and black buck belongs to vulnerable
It is not caused by deforestation. species. Vulnerable species that is likely to become
8. (b) Endemic is not included under red list because red list endangered and is often at risk is due to loss of habitat
includes those species whose continued existence is or declining population.
threatened. Species are classified into different 2. (a) Dinosaurs were a group of land animals that lived from
categories of perceived risk. Each Red Data Book usually about 230 million years ago until about 60 million years
deals with a specific group of animals or plants (e. reptiles, ago. These spans the era of the Earth's history known as
insects, mosses). Endemic species are those species of the mesozoic era, which includes, from most ancient to
plants and animals which are found exclusively in a most recent, the triassic, jurassic and cretaceous periods.
particular area. They are not naturally found anywhere Dinosaurs grew in population and diversity during their
else. time on Earth before becoming extinct at the end of the
9. (a) The World Wide Fund for Nature is an international non- Cretaceous period. Dinosaurs became extinct due to
governmental organization founded on April 26 1961, natural calamities as they did not adjust or adapt to the
and is working on issues regarding the conservation, changed environment for their survival.
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3. (c) The great Indian bustard is a bustard found in India animals, plants and fungi as well as some local sub-
and the adjoining regions of Pakistan. It is a large bird species that exist within the territory of the state or
with a horizontal body and long bare legs and gives an country. This book is maintained by IUCN (International
ostrich like appearance. This bird is among the heaviest Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
of the flying birds. These birds are often found resources).
associated in the same habitat as blackbuck. The great 5. (b) Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand
Indian bustard has been threatened because of hunting of trees in an area where there was no forest. It helps in
and loss of its habitat. wildlife and forest conservation. This differs from
4. (d) Red Data Book list is the state document established reafforestation which is the restocking of existing forests
for documenting rare and endangered species of and woodlands which have been depleted.
Cell -Structure and Functions
Chapter
CELL-STRUCTURE AND 91
4 FUNCTIONS
INTRODUCTION
There is large variety of living organisms around us. Each organism starts its life as a single cell. All organisms have different
shapes and sizes. Their food habits and living places are also different. Inspite of these variations in size, shape and food habit
etc all these organisms have common structural and functional unit of life in them as a cell. All cells have many functions which
keep an organisms alive. A baby,a banyan tree and a bacterium, all look different from one another but they all are made of tiny
cells. Hence, cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of all living organisms that is capable of integrating the essential
life processess. There are many unicellular organisms, eg bacteria and protozoa, in which the single cell performs all life
functions but in higher organisms a division of labor has evolved in which group of cells have differentiated into specialized
tissues, which inturn are grouped into organs and organ system. Cells are so much integrated part of our body that we cannot
imagine an organism that is non-cellular.
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92 BIOLOGY
DISCOVERY OF CELL
The discovery of the cellular structure of organism is intimately bound up with the invention of the compound microscope. The
preparation of the cells and cell parts for their study requires very specialized methods. In 1665, Robert Hooke first discovered the
existence of cells during his description of the structure of cork. He used a microscope to investigate the structure of a thin slice of
cork. He observed that cork had several tiny compartments in it. He called these tiny compartments as cells. However the cell
discovered by Hooke, were dead and only cellulose walls were visible. He actually observed only cell walls.
The first living cell was seen under microscope by Dutch discoverer Anton Von Leeuwenhoek. Years later as microscopes improved,
other biologists continued the work of Hooke and Leeuwenhoek, learning more about cells. In the 1830s, two German Scientists
Malthias Jacob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, helped to convince other scientists that all living things are made of cells. They
both compared their findings and proposed that cells are the units of both structure and function of organism. Their findings are now
referred to as cell theory or cell principle. In 1939, Schleiden and Schwann formulated the cell theory.
According to cell theory -
(i) All living things are composed of one or more cells.
(ii) Cells are basic units of structure and function in living things.
(iii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell division.
(iv) Cells have similar structure and metabolism.
(v) The functions of an organisms are due to activities and interaction of its cells.
The body of all living organisms except virus has cellular organisation.
CONNECTING TOPIC
EXCEPTIONS TO CELL THEORY

Cell theory does not have universal application. All kinds of true cells share the following three basic characteristics – a set of genes,
a limiting plasma membrane and a metabolic machinary. Examples which do not fit easily in these parameters of a true cells are viruses,
protozoans and many thallophytes; bacteria and cyanobacteria etc.
The given figure represents the structure of a compound microscope. This microscope is used to view smaller specimens
such as cell structures which cannot be seen at lower levels of magnification.
Compound microscope is an optical instrument for forming magnified images of small objects. It consists of an objective
lens with a very short focal length and an eyepiece with a longer focal length, both lenses mounted in the same tube.
• Microscope was invented by Anton Von Leewenhoek. It is the biggest invention in the history of science.
It allows biologists to study the microscopic organisms like bacteria, fungi etc.
• Microscope enable us to see the object as small as one millionth of a meter (10–6m). Such magnifying
power microscopes have helped the scientists to study the minute details of cell.
CELLS
A cell is the smallest and complete expression of the fundamental structure and functions of all living organisms. For example, building
is made up of basic bricks. Here bricks are the basic structural units which make building of different designs, shapes and sizes.
Cell -Structure and Functions 93
Similarly in living world also, organisms differ from each other in respect to their
body, size and shape but all are made up of cells.
Cell contains all the necessities of life, water, nutrients, minerals, protein, enzymes,
fats and carbohydrates.
ORGANISMS SHOW VARIETY IN CELL NUMBER,

SHAPE AND SIZE
Life exhibit varying degree of organization. We know that body of all living organ-
isms is made up of cells which carry out certain basic functions.
There are many many different kinds of cells. Even cells within the same organism
show enormous diversity of size, shape and internal organization. Our body con-
tains 1013 to 1014 cells of around 300 different cell types. Cells not only differ in size
and function, but also each type of cell looks quite different from each other.
The invention of electron microscope and staining techniques helped scientists
to study the detailed structure of cell. Cells are grouped into tissues, tissues into
organs and organs into organ systems.
Acetabularia is a single called alga. It may measure upto 10 cm. This is why this
green giant alga is used in genetic and molecular studies.
• Tissue is a group of cells having a common origin and performing a similar but specific function.
Examples: Muscle tissue, which can shorten or contract to cause movement.
– Nerve tissue, which carries nerve signals
– Connective tissues, which fills the gaps between other tissues.
– Epithelial tissue
• Organs are made up of tissues that work together to perform a specific activity. For example, eyes perform
the function of sight, whereas lungs help in respiration. Similarly, kidney helps in excretion.
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• Organ systems are groups of two or more tissues that carries out a specific function to help keep the body alive and working
well.
Human body has 11 major organ systems – circulatory, digestive, endocrine, excretory (urinary), immune (lymphatic),
integumentary, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory and skeletal.
For example, the heart, blood vessels and blood make up the circulatory system. Circulatory system circulates blood all around
the body and supplies every tiny part with essential substances such as oxygen, nutrients, and collects wastes for removal from
body.
• Organism is an entire living being that can carry out all basic life processes. It means they can take in materials, release energy
from food, release wastes, grow, respond to the environment and reproduce. Example - bacteria, Amoeba, mushroom, sunflower,
human.
Let us discuss variety of number, shape and size in cells.
NUMBER OF CELLS
The number of cells vary from a single cell to many cells in an organisms. Some organisms are
composed of single cells (called unicellular organisms), like Amoeba, Paramecium etc. or
some of many cells (called multicellular organism) like humans, dog, horse, pigeon, frog etc.
Unicellular organisms are capable of independent existence. With no dependence on others
for any function, material or information a single cell controls all the functions like feeding,
movement, respiration, reproduction etc. Unicellular organisms are less efficient due to ab-
sence of division of labour.
All multicellular organisms start their life from a single cell (called zygote). In multicellular
organisms, all the life activities or different functions are divided among various cells or group
of cells. Hence, there is division of labour in such organisms. This means that each type of cells Amoeba
are specialized to perform a particular job. For example, a nerve cell carries messages over long distances in body. A muscle cells bring
about movement of body parts and red blood cells carry oxygen and distribute it to all parts of body. Hence, all the cells in a
multicellular organisms work together in groups of similar cells called tissue.
NOTE
WBC is a cell while Amoeba is a full fledge organism that is capable of independent existence.
CELL SHAPE
Cells come in a variety of shapes – depending on their function.The shape of the cells may be variable i.e. constantly changing for
example Amoeba, WBC etc or fixed. Look at the structure of Amoeba. What type of shape does Amoeba, have? The shape of Amoeba
appears to be irregular. Unlike other organisms, it does not have definite shape. It keeps on changing its shape.
Why do Amoeba change its shape? The change in shape is due to formation of pseudopodia. Pseudopodia are finger like projections
protruding out of its body. The protrusions help Amoeba in movement and capturing food.
Cell
membrane Contractile vacuole
Nucleus (excretes water
and waste)
Pseudopod
Pseudopods Food being

engulfed by
pseudopods
Food vacuole
Cytoplasm (digest food)
moeba capturing food

Similarly, in human beings white blood cell (WBC) has the ability to change its shape. They eat up or kill bacteria that enter the blood
and save us from many diseases.
The cells are different in shapes and sizes so that they can perform different functions. Or we can say, cells are specialized to do
different jobs.
Different shapes of cells

Shape spherical Examples eggs of many cells
Spindle shaped Smooth muscle fibre
Elongated Nerve cells
Branched Chromatophores
Discoidal Red blood cells
(a) Nerve cell (or Neuron) (b) Muscle cell (c) Epithelial cell
(like cheek cell)
(d) Red blood cell (e) White blood cell

Examples of animal cells
(a) Epidermal cell (b) Xylem cell (c) Phloem cell (d) Photosynthetic cell
(Tube-like cell) (Sieve-tube cell) (Mesophyll cell of leaf)
Examples of plant cells
Let us now discuss how shape of a cell helps in its functioning. A nerve cell (or neuron) is very long and has a wire like branches
coming out of it. This large length of nerve cell helps it to carry impulses over long distances in the body. Also, the wire like branches
helps it to make contact and carry messages between brain and other parts of body. Hence, nerve cells are specially adapted to
transmit messages. Similarly, muscle cells are spindle in shape and adapted for movement. They bring about movement of body parts
by contraction and relaxation. On the contrary, in the plant cells, xylem cells are tube like plant cells that carry water and mineral salts
from the roots of the plant and transfer to its leaves whereas phloem cells carry the food made by leaves to all other parts of the plant.
• Metabolically active cells are smaller in size.

• Cells of a particular type have almost same volume.
• Size of cell has no relation with the size of the body of the animal or plant. It is related to its function.
Factors governing the size of the cell

– ratio between the volume of the nucleus and the cytoplasm (nucleocytoplasmic ratio)
– ratio of the cell surface to the cell volume
– rate of metabolism
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CELL SIZE
The size of cells vary from the very small cells of bacteria to the very large egg of the ostrich. Cell are extremely small and can be seen
properly only when magnified and viewed through the lenses of a microscope.
The largest cell is an egg of ostrich that measures as much as 6 inches in diameter with shell and 3 inches without shell. The smallest
cell so far observed is considered to be of PPLO (Pleuropneumonia like organism) or Mycoplasma i.e. 0.1 mm.
The viruses are still smaller in size but cannot be considered as cell because of sub-cellular nature.
Cells are small in size because of the following facts –
(i) The cell’s nucleus can only control a certain amount of active cytoplasm.
(ii) The cells are limited in size because of their surface area to volume ratio. It is an important factor. A group of small cells have a
relatively more surface area than a single large cell for a given volume. A cell requires nutrients, oxygen and other materials for
its survival and growth. Hence, it is necessary that all these materials should enter through its surface. As cell grows larger at
some point, its surface area become too small to allow these materials to enter the cell quickly enough to meet the cell’s need.
Thus, as cell increases in size, its surface area to volume ratio decreases causing cell to function less efficiently.
How cell increases its number?

The cells in a living body increase their number by constant cell division. Cell division is a process where cell divides into two
new cells. These daughter cells are identical to parent cell, but are smaller in size. Hence, with time, it grows to its maximum
size and then divide to produce more and more cells. The main factor that is responsible for the growth of a small plant into
a big tree is continuous cell division. Similary in humans, a baby grows into an adult man/ woman by continuous cell division.
But, do all cells grow and divide throughout life? No, not all cells in our body grow and divide throughout life. There are
some cells that do not grow in number after a certain age. For example, the cells in the skin of our body grow and divide
throughout life, but brain cells do not grow in number after a certain age, that is, after 18 years. Then when do cells die?
Cell have a fixed lifespan and are replaced automatically as they die off. The more active the cells the shorter the time it will
live.
The lifespan of certain cells are –
• Skin cells live for 19 days • Sperm live for 2 months
• Eyelashes live for 3-4 months • RBCs live for 4 months
• Liver cells live for 2-4 years • Bone cells live for 15-25 years
A cell without a nucleus dies in short time. Eg. human erythrocytes.

• The biggest organ within the body is the liver, while the largest organ of the whole body is skin.
• Among the smallest cells in the human body are red blood cells which are only 0.007 mm across.
P oi n t
1. Why cell is called structural and functional unit of life?
2. Why are cells important?
3. The main organs of various system has been given. Identify their respective human
organ system.
(a) Lungs (b) Bone
(c) Brain (d) Heart
(e) Stomach (f) Kidney
SOLUTION
1. Cells are called structural and functional unit of life because –

(i) All living beings are composed of cells and their products.
(ii) Each living cell, either as a unicellular organism or as a part of multicellular organism has certain basic functions to perform
in the body.
2. Cells are the basic functional and structural unit of life. All living things are made of cells. Cells make up all the parts of an
organisms and are responsible for everything that goes inside the organisms. Cells are the basis of organisms. Several kinds of
tissues arrange together to form organs and perform special functions. Various organs combine to form organ systems. All
organ systems coordinate together to make the body function smoothly.
3. (a) Respiratory system (b) Skeletal system (c) Nervous system
(d) Circulatory system (e) Digestive system (f) Excretory system
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

As we learnt that cell is the structural and functional unit of organisms so it is clear that each living organisms has many organs.
Each cell is an amazing world into itself. It can take in nutrients, convert these nutrients into energy, carry out specialized function and
reproduce as necessary. Even more amazing is that each cell stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each of its activities.
Cells are of two types – Plant cells and animal cells :
Though many things are common between animal cells and the plant cells but they differ in some way. Animal cells differ from plant
cells in terms of structure and types of organelles (Described later).
What do you understand by the word organelle? The various structure present inside the cell are called organelles. Organelles are
specialized part of a cell having some specific function like, they bring in food supplies, get rid of waste, protect and repair the cell etc.
Staining
It is the use of a dye reagent or other material for producing colouration in tissues or microorganisms for
microscopic examination. Examples of dyes are eosin, saffranine, haematoxylin, fast green, methylene blue
etc.
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iN THE LAB
Let us perform an experiment to study plant and animal cells with a microscope.
PART A : Plant cells (Onion skin mount)
Procedure :
(i) Take a onion piece and peel the delicate transparent tissue from its inner surface using forceps.
(ii) Place this tissue, unwrinkled in a small drop of water on a glass slide.
(iii) Then add a small drop of Safranine stain to the tissue and cover it with a cover slip. While placing the coverslip ensure that
there is no air bubbles under the coverslip.
(iv) Now observe the slide under a microscope.
Step I Step II Step III
Step IV
Observation :
You will see several small rectangular shaped cells. The boundary of each cell is covered by a cell membrane which in turn is
covered by another thick covering called the cell wall. In the centre of cell, there is a dense round body called the nucleus. In
between the nucleus and the cell membrane, there is a jelly like substance called cytoplasm.
Cells observed in an onion peel

PART B : Animal cell (Cheek cells)
Procedure : Cytoplasm
Nuclear
(i) Take a clean glass slide and place a drop of water on it. membrane
(ii) Gently scrap the inside of your cheek with the blunt end of a clean toothpick.
(iii) Then stir the material on the toothpick in the drop of water on the slide.
(iv) Add a small drop of methylene blue stain to the slide.
(v) Now carefully place a coverslip over slide and observe the slide under
microscope. Nucleus
Cell
Observation : membrane
You can see large number of irregular shaped cells with a thin cell membrane. Cell
wall is absent. In the center of cell, nucleus is present. It is stained dark blue. Human cheek cells
PARTS OF A CELL
Cell has various components which have structural and functional importance. These components are protoplasm comprising of
cytoplasm (having various organelles) and nucleus.
A unit mass of protoplasm contained in a cell is called protoplast. Protoplast have four components.
I. Plasma membrane/Cell membrane II. Cytoplasm
III. Nucleus IV. Vacuole
CELL MEMBRANE
The cell membrane (plasma membrane) is the outer covering of every cell. It separates the cell from its environment and form distinct
functional compartment (nucleus, organelles) in the cell. The outer cell membrane is called plasma membrane.
NOTE
PROTOPLASM : (Proto = first and plasma = liquid.)
Purkinje (in 1839) coined the term protoplasm. Protoplasm is a liquid substance that is present inside the cell membrane. It includes
cytoplasm, nucleus and other organelles. It is an aggregate of molecules of various chemicals. Most of these contains organic
molecules like proteins, fats, carbohydrate etc.
P oi n t
Can you tell or imagine how the plasma membrane keeps all the pieces inside.
SOLUTION
Plasma membrane appears like a big plastic bag with some tiny holes. This bag holds all of the cell pieces and fluids inside the
cell. Also, it keeps nasty things outside the cell pieces and fluids inside the cell. The holes are there to let some things move in
and out of cells.
Cell membrane is a bilipid membranous layer composed of proteins
and carbohydrates. The phospholipid makes the basic bag. The
proteins are found around the holes and helps to move molecules
in and out of cells.
protect the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing certain
substances into the cell, while keeping other substances out. It
also Function of cell membrane :
(i) It protect the cell from external injury.
(ii) It gives shape to the cell.
(iii) It controls the movement of substances ‘into the cell’ and
‘out of cell’. Hence, it is also known as selectively permeable
membrane.
Have you ever thought how does movement of substance take
place inside the cell? Let us have a look.
Movement of carbon dioxide or oxygen : The movement of car-
bon dioxide or oxygen across the cell membrane occurs by a
process called diffusion. Diffusion is the process of movement of
molecules from a region of high concentration to region of low
concentration. No energy is used in this process. Structure of plasma membrane
Differences between diffusion and Osmosis
Diffusion Osmosis
Can occur in any medium. Occurs only in liquid medium.
Involves movement of solid, Involves movement of solvent
liquid & gas. molecules only.
Semipermeable membrane is Semipermeable membrane is
not required. necessary.
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Movement of water across cell membrane : The movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane occurs by osmosis.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of high water concentration to a region of low
water concentration.
Membrane
Membrane permeable to
Osmotic water but not
Low concentration High concentration to sugar
Pressure
solution solution
Flow of water
through
membrane into
sugar
solution via
osmotic
pressure
Sugar solution Plain water

Diffusion Osmosis
iN THE LAB
Let us perform an experiment to study plant and animal cells with a microscope. Hypotonic The cells
PART A : Plant cells (Onion skin mount) inflate and
eventually
Let us perform an activity to understand the process of osmosis. burst
Take an animal or a plant cell and put it in three medium to observe.
(I) Medium that has higher water concentration than the cell.
What will happen? The cell will gain water by osmosis. Such type of solution are
Solute
known as hypotonic solution. Since, water molecules are free to pass across the cell concentration
membrane in both directions, so when cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, more inside the cell
(I) is higher
water will come into the cell than it leaves. As a result, the cell is likely to swell up.
Amount of water
Hypertonic Isotonic transported into the
The cells cell equal to the
shrink amount of water
Water is transported transported out from
our from the cell the cell
HO
2
H2O
Solute concentration
Solute concentration inside the cell is
inside the cell is equal to the solution
lower outside the cell
(II) (III)
(II) Medium that has lower water concentration.
What will happen? The cell will lose water by osmosis. Such a solution is known as hypertonic solution. Since, water
molecules are free to pass across the membrane, so when cell is placed in hypertonic solution, it will lose water. As a result the
cell will shrink.
(III) Medium that has same water concentration as cell. What will happen?
There will be no net movement of water across the membrane. Such a solution is called isotonic solution. In isotonic solution,
the amount of water going into and out of cell is same. Hence, there is no movement of water and cell stays of the same size.
CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm is a transparent, jelly like material (called cytosol or cytoplasmic matrix) that fills the cell between nucleus and cell
membrane. Autonomic movement of matrix in the cytoplasm in a cell is called cytoplasmic streaming or cyclosis. The various
structures present in the cytoplasm of a cell are called organelles. The most important organelles are the endoplasmic reticulum
mitochondrion, the ribosome, the golgi bodies, the lysosome, cell wall, cilia and flagella, pastids etc.
Function of cytoplasem -
(i) It holds cell’s organelles in place.
(ii) It gives the shape to cell structure.
(iii) Most of the chemical reactions (which keeps the cell alive) takes place in cytoplasm.
Cells which lack the nucleus

Red blood cells of humans and other mammals lose their nuclei which enables them to carry more
haemoglobin & thus pickup more oxygen.
Phloem sieve tubes lose tubes nuclei which facilitates the flow of materials through them.
NUCLEUS
The nucleus is a large, spherical organelle present in all the cells. In animal cell, it is located at the centre of cell, while, in plant cell, it
is located at the periphery, near the edge.
Nucleoid
The nucleoid is the dense region in the prokaryotic cell (bacteria) that contains the main DNA material.
The nucleoid has an irregular shape compared to the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, which is circular. DNA in
the nucleoid is circular, and may have multiple copies at any given time. Additionally, DNA in the nucleoid
may be supercoiled, meaning it has twists in the circular shape that makes it more compact. As the cells
grow, the DNA in the nucleoid may extend into the cytosol (cellular fluid).
Parts of Nucleus
The nucleus consists of nuclear envelope, nucleous, chroma-
Nuclear
tin and nucleoplasm. Envelope
(i) Nuclear envelope : It is a double membranous structure
with a fluid-filled space. It separates nucleoplasm from Chromatin
cyfoplasm. The outer membrane is connected with Nucleolus
endoplasmic reticulum and its outer surface may contain
ribosomes while inner surface is smooth. The nuclear
envelope is perforated by many nuclear pores. These
pores provide a channel for the movement of important
molecules between nucleus and cytoplasm.
(ii) Nucleoplasm : Nucleoplasm is a clear, non-staining fluid Endoplasmic
material in the nucleus. It contains raw materials, enzymes Reticulum
and metal ions for the synthesis of DNA and RNA. It
supports the chromatin material and nucleoli. Nuclear
(iii) Chromatin : Nucleus contains a fibrous material known Pre
as chromatin. Chromatin forms a long thread like structure
Ribosomes
called chromosomes during cell division. Each
chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of Anatomy of the Nucleus
DNA. Chromosomes contains genes that control cell
metabolism and heredity. Heredity is the transfer of character from parents to offspring.
(iv) Nucleolus (or Nucleoli) : Nucleolus is a naked round or slightly irregular structure which is attached to the chromatin at a
specific region called nucleolar organizer region (NOR). It is responsible for protein synthesis and it is the active site of the
development of ribosomal RNAs.
Function of Nucleus are –
(i) The nucleus acts like the brain or control centre of the cells.
(ii) It is responsible for ribosome synthesis.
(iii) It regulates cell metabolism by directing the synthesis of functional proteins.
(iv) It develops genetic variation that contribute to evolution.
(v) It also contains genetic information for reporduction, development and behaviour of the organisms besides for structure and
metabolism.
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Chromosomes
Chromosomes iare long stringy aggregates of genes that carry heredity information. Each chromosome is
made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins called histones that support its structure.
Chromosomes can be seen visually through a light microscope during late interphase as well as during
mitosis.
Gene
Gene is a unit of heredity. Gene gives an identity to each and every organism. It is the basic molecular unit
of inheritance in living organisms. It controls the transfer of heredity characteristics from parents to
offspring.
Structure of gene
Do all cells contain a well defined nucleus structure?

No. Not all cells contain a well defined nucleus. The nucleus of the bacterial cell is not well organised like the cells of
multicellular organisms. They do not have nuclear membrane. Such type of cells are known as prokaryotic cells. On the other
hand, the cells that have well organised nucleus with a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

Table : Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell
Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

(i) Prokaryotic cells are usually small (0.1 – 5.0 µ) Eukaryotic cells are larger in size (5 – 100 µ).
compared to other cells.
(ii) They do not have organized nucleus. The DNA present They have an organized nucleus with a nuclear
in nucleus is clumped in an area but there is no envelope. It means they have true nucleus.
organized nucleus with a membrane.
(iii) They do not have any organelle except for ribosomes. Eukaryotic cells usually have organelles such as
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, lysosomes etc.
(iv) Examples–bacteria and blue green algae. Examples–plant and animal cells.
P oi n t
Why nucleus is important?
SOLUTION
Nucleus is the cell’s brain which controls all its activities. Nucleus contain DNA. DNA contains instructions needed for cell
reproduction and also produces proteins that controls metabolism and other cell function.
DNA - THE BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is a molecule that encodes the genetic
instructions used in the development and function of all known organisms
and many viruses. The DNA carries a complete blue print of the organism
that transfers characteristics from one generation to the next.
DNA is the major store of genetic information. The Watson and Crick Model
shows that DNA is double helix with sugar-phosphate backbones on the
outside and paired bases on the inside. They proposed the three dimensional
structure of DNA based on X-ray diffraction photographs of DNA fibres
taken by Rosalind Franklin and MHF Wilkins.
DNA contains the instructions needed for an organisms to develop, survive
and reproduce. To carry out these functions, DNA sequences must be converted
into messages that can be used to produce proteins which are the complex
molecules that do most of the work in our bodies
DNA is made of chemical building blocks called nucleotides. These building
blocks are made of three parts: a phosphate group, a sugar group and one
of four types of nitrogen bases. To form a strand of DNA, nucleotides are
linked into chains, with the phosphate and sugar groups alternating.
The four types of nitrogen bases found in nucleotides are: adenine (A), thymine
(T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). The order, or sequence, of these bases Structure of DNA
determines what biological instructions are contained in a strand of DNA.
For example, the sequence ATCGTT might instruct for blue eyes, while ATCGCT might instruct for brown.
We inherit our genetic material through DNA from our parents - half from our father and half from our mother that is why
we often look like our parents.
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P oi n t
Why do we often look like our parents ?
SOLUTION
The way we grow and develop is determined by the genes on the chromosomes which we recieve from our parents in the egg
and sperm. The characteristics of individual human beings are passed from one generation to next in their chromosomes. Each
of our parents gives us 23 chromosomes making 46 in all. That means we have two versions of each of our genes, but one is often
dominant. We see the effect of the dominant gene but the other (recessive) gene is still there and can be passed onto our children.
VACUOLES
Vacuoles are fluid filled organelles enclosed by a membrane (called tonoplast). It appears
as an empty space under the microscope. All plant cells have a large vacuole. Their
vacuole is filled with a liquid called “cell sap” that contains dissolved sugar and salts.
The cell sap is generally neutral but at maturity it becomes acidic.
Function of vacuole in plant cells – Nucleus
Tonoplast
(i) It keeps the plant cell firm or turgid. Large central
(ii) It stores various substances including waste products of the cell. vacuole
Cytoplasm
Animal cells may or may not have vacuole. However, vacuoles present in animals are
much smaller than those found in plant cells.
Function of vacuole in animal cells –
(i) In Amoeba, vacuoles contain food particles, hence, known as food vacuole. Vacuoles in plant cell
(ii) They store materials such as food, water, sugar, minerals and waste products.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Nuclear Smooth
ER is a network of membranous canals which encloses a fluid -filled lumen. Nuclear pore endoplasmic
It is of two types – Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and Smooth endoplasmic reticu- envelope reticulum
lum (SER).
(i) RER– It is lined with ribosomes and is rough in appearance.
(ii) SER– It contains no ribosomes and hence are smooth in appearance.
It is absent in prokaryotes but present in all the eukaryotes except germinal cells, mature
mammalian erythrocytes Cisternal space
Function of endoplasmic reticulum:
(i) The ER is the “transport system” of the cell. It transports chemical between cells and Cisternae Rough
within cells. endoplasmic Ribosome
reticulum
(ii) It provides large surface area for the organization of chemical reactions and synthesis.
Endoplasmic reticulum
(iii) RER plays an important role in protein synthesis.
(iv) SER plays an important role in lipid synthesis.
Ribosomes
Ribosome is a non-membranous, spherical body composed of RNA (ribonucleic acid) Incoming
and protein enzyme. Ribosomes are also present separately in cytoplasm. It is the site of transport
vesicle
protein synthesis in a cell, hence, called protein factory. Cis face
Ribosomes are of two basic types – 70 S and 80 S ribosomes. The 70 S ribosomes are
found in prokaryotes and 80 S ribosomes are found in eukaryotes. S’refers to svedberg Cisternae Lumen
units of sedimentation coefficient. The ‘S’ is a measure of the speed of the sedimentation
for a particular cell organelle in ultracentrifuge.
Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are sacs of membrane bound cisternae, vesicle and vacuoles. These are
usually stacked together in parallel rows. Golgi apparatus was discovered by Italian
anatomist Camillo Golgi.
Function of golgi bodies :
(i) The golgi apparatus is responsible for taking the proteins which were created by Newly Secretory
ribosomes and making them bigger and better. When the golgi apparatus is done, forming vesicle
it releases the new proteins into the cell, where they can be used to strength and vesicle
build up cells. It is also involved in formation of lysosomes and peroxisomes. Golgi apparatus
(ii) It plays an important role in modification, secretion and storage of chemicals.
• Lysosomes are also called as suicidal sacs/bags as they contain hydrolytic enzymes.
• In animals, lysosomes are abundant in leucocytes, macrophages, Kupffers cells and similar cells with
phagocytic activity, prokaryotes lack lysosomes.
Mitochondria Ribosome
Mitochondria are rod shaped organelles bounded by double DNA
Matrix Outer membrane
membranes.The outer and inner membrane are separated by
a space called intermembrane space. The outer membrane is Inner membrane
smooth whereas inner membrane folds over many times to Inter membrane
form cristae. Cristae greatly increases the surface area of space
the inner membrane. The wide space between the cristae is
called the inner chamber which is filled with a dense fluid
(called mitochondrial matrix).
Mitochondria are the sites of chemical reactions. They con-
tain enzymes for cellular respiration in which energy is re-
leased. You all must have learnt about cellular respiration F0 portion
in previous classes. Here, is a brief overview. F1 portion Cristae
During respiration, we inhale oxygen which the blood trans-
ports to all the cells in our body. During cellular respiration, Mitochondria
using this oxygen, glucose gets oxidized to form ATP (ad-
enosine triphosphate) molecules. ATP is a form of energy that the body can use.
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP)
Therefore, these organelles are called as powerhouse of the cell. They take in nutrients, break them down, and create energy for the
cell.
NOTE
Mitochondria is the third largest organelle in plant cells and second largest organelle in animal cells. Mitochondria are able to make
their own DNA and proteins, hence they are regarded as semi- autonomous organelle.
Lysosome
Lysosomes are present in animal cells only. They are sac-like structure surrounded by a single membrane. The membrane bound bag
contains powerful digestive (hydrolytic) enzymes capable of either digesting or breaking down all organic material. It act as a mini
digestive system within the cell.
Lysosomes destroy any foreign materials that manage to make it inside the cell such as
bacteria etc. Flagellum
They also remove worn-out or poorly functioning organelles from the cell. They may even
sometimes digest the entire damaged or dead cells containing them.
Cilia and flagella
Cilia are short, hair like projections that occur in large numbers on the outside surface of
certain animal cells. They cover the entire surface of a cell. For example, Paramecium, a
single celled organism, has cilia on its surface. Cilia are the organs of locomotion.
Flagella are long, thread like structures at one end of the cell. There are usually a few flagella
on a cell. For example, Euglena, a single - celled organism, has flagellum at its mouth region
in the front. Like cilia, flagella also helps in movement of organism. Cilia
Cell Wall Paramecium Euglena
The plant cells have a thick and rigid cell wall around them, outside the cell membrane. It is
Cilia and flagella
composed of tough material called cellulose. Cell wall are found in plants, bacteria, fungi,
algae and some archae. Animals and protozoa do not have cell wall.
Function of cell wall :
(i) It gives shape and support to plant cell.
(ii) It protects the cell from mechanical injury.
(iii) It contains pores that allow materials to pass in and out of the cell.
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P oi n t
1. Why do plants have cell walls, and not animals?
2. What would happen if the cells in our body had cell walls?
3. Why cell wall is absent in animals?
SOLUTION
1. In order to provide plants strength and necessary support, the cells within the plant have this hard cell covering. If the
trees were soft like an animal, they could not stand strong and tall.
2. If an animal’s body were made of cell walls the animals would be very stiff and unable to move easily.
3. Cell wall is incompatible with the way in which an animal moves and grows.
Plastids
Plastids are double membrane bound organelles. They occur in most plant cells and are absent in animal cells. Depending upon their
pigment colour, they are classified into two main types : leucoplasts and chromoplast.
(i) Leucoplasts : It is a colourless organelle that store starch or other plant nutrients. For example – starch stored in potato. It occurs
in large number in cells of fruits, seeds and rhizomes.
(ii) Chromoplast : It contains differents coloured pigments. The most important type of chromoplast is chloroplast. Chloroplast are
green–coloured organelles present in cytoplasm of plant cells. The process of food making by plants (known as photosynthesis)
takes place in chloroplasts. Hence, chloroplasts are the food producers of the cell.
Like the mitochondria, plastids also have their own genome i.e., DNA and ribosomes. They are self-replicating organelles like the
mitochondria i.e., they have the power to divide.
Chloroplast contains green colour pigment called chlorophyll which absorbs energy from the Sun and helps the plant in the
process of photosynthesis.
Chloroplast
Each chloroplast is a double membranous structure with a inter -membrane space in between them. The space enclosed by inner
membrane is called stroma. The stroma is an area where all chemical reactions occurs and starch (sugars) is synthesized. The
stroma contains small cylinders (called grana) in it.
Outer Granum
Membrane Lumen
Inner Thylakoids
Stroma
Membrane
Chloroplast
Grana consists of membranous or lamellar system. This lamellar system is made up of thylakoid. About 20–50 thylakoids are
placed one above the other like a stack of coins to form a granum. Many membranous tubules called stroma lamellae interconnect
thylakoids of different grana. Each thylakoid have chlorophyll molecules on their surface that trap sunlight and take part in the
process of photosynthesis.
Therefore, chloroplast is called the site of photosynthesis. In chloroplast, carbon dioxide and water combine in the presence of
sunlight energy to produce food such as glucose. Thus, chloroplasts help in synthesis of food with the help of green plants.
Chlorophyll
CO2 + H2O Glucose + Oxygen
Sunlight
COMPARISON OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

Now, we have studied that plants and animals are similar in many respects but they are also different in some respects. Plant and animal
cells are types of eukaryotic cells. Most of the organelles and other structures of cells are common in animals and plants. Let us now
see the important similarities and dissimilarities between plant cells and animal cells.
Similarities between plant and animal cell
(i) They both have a cell membrane or plasma membrane around them.
(ii) Both the cells have cytoplasm.
(iii) Both the cells have nucleus.
Table : Difference between Plant and animal cell
Plant Cells Animal Cells
(i) A plant cell has a rigid cell wall around it. Cell wall is absent.
(ii) Plastids are present An animal cell does not have plastid in it.
(iii) A plant cell has a centrally located large An animal cell does not have large vacuoles. Only some
vacuole in it. animal cells have small vacuoles.
(iv) It can not change its shape. It can often change its shape
(v) Plant cells do not burst if placed in hypotonic Animal cell usually bursts if placed in hypotonic
solution due to presence of cell wall. solution unless and untill they possess contractile
vacuole.
Plant Cell
Animal Cell
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Table : Summary of the functions of different parts of a cell
CELL Functions
Cell membrane 1. It gives form and support to the cell.
2. It allows the entry and exit of cellular materials.
Nucleus 1. It controls all the activities of the cell.

2. It is responsible for genetic characteristics.
3. It synthesizes and stores proteins.
Endoplasmic reticulum It is involved in the synthesis, storage, and transport of cell products.
Mitochondria They act as sites of energy production. So they are also called the powerhouses of the cell.
Ribosomes These granular structures act as sites of protein synthesis.
Golgi apparatus They are responsible for the secretion of enzymes, hormones and proteins.
Lysosomes They are capable of digesting damaged cells and a variety of extra- and intra-cellular materials.
These fluid-filled spaces store excess water, useful minerals, salt, food substances, pigments
Vacuoles
and waste products.
The following table compares the presence of few features of plant, animal and bacterial cell. Tick (ü) mark the organelles
present in plant, animal and bacterial cells.
Cell part Plant cell Animal cell Bacterial cell

Cell membrane
Cell wall
Nucleus
Nucleus membrane
Cytoplasm
Plastids
Vacuole
SUMMARY
Cell is the basic structure and functional unit of life that can carry out all the processes of life.
Robert Hooke was the first person to observe cells under a microscope.
Schleidan and Schwann proposed the cell theory in 1838.
Tissue is a group of cells that are alike and work together to perform a specific function.
Organ, a relatively independent part of the body, is a group of tissue that carries out one or more specialized function.
Organisms made of more than one cell are called multicellular organisms. Examples – plants and animals.
Organisms made of single-cell are called unicellular organisms. Examples – Amoeba, Paramecium.
The single cell of unicellular organisms performs all the basic functions performed by a variety of cells in multicellular
organisms
A white blood cell (WBC) in human blood is an example of single cell which can change its shape.
The cell has four main parts –
l Cell membrane
l Cytoplasm
l Nucleus
l Vacuole
Cells without well organised nuclei (i.e., lacking nuclear membrane) are called prokaryotic cells. For example, bacterial cell.
Cells having well organised nuclei with a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotic cells. For example, onion cells and cheek
cells.
Plasma membrane is a selectively permeable membrane. It regulates the movement of molecules in and out of cell.
Plant cells differ from animal cells in having an additional layer around cell membrane called cell wall.
When a plant cell is put in a hypertonic solution, it losses water due to osmosis (exosmosis) and as a result, protoplast is
shrinked away from the cell wall. This is called plasmolysis.
Various membrane bound cell organelles present in eukaryotic cell are nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus,
mitochondria, plastids, lysosomes etc.
Mitochondria form powerhouse of cell. They use molecular oxygen and generate energy-rich compunds (ATP).
Chloroplasts are chlorophyll containing green plastids. They use water and CO2 and convert radiant energy of sunlight
into chemical energy of carbohydrates.
Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis.
Endoplasmic reticulum are of two types — SER and RER. SER synthesizes lipids and RER synthesizes proteins.
Golgi apparatus is the site for the storage, processing and packaging of various cellular secretions.
Lysosomes form garbage disposal system of animal cells.
Nucleus contains thread like structure called chromosomes, which carry genes and helps in transmission of characters.
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Fill in the Blanks : given in column I have to be matched with statements/terms (p,
q, r, s, t) given in column II.
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an
1. Column-I Column-II
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s).
(Functions) (Organelles)
1. Cell theory was proposed by ____________ an d A. Entry and exit of p. Vacuoles
____________ . cellular materials
2. ____________ is considered as the biggest cell. B. Transmission q. Mitochondria
3. ____________ is considered as the smallest cell. of genetic character
4. One micron is ____________ of a meter.
C. Production of r. Nucleus
5. ____________ controls all the activities of cell.
energy
6. The process by which water enters through a selectively
D. Secretion of enzyme s. Cell membrane
permeable membrane is called ____________ .
and proteins
7. Cellular respiration occurs in ____________ part of cell.
E. Store excess water t. Golgi apparatus
8. ____________ is called suicidal bag of cell.
mineral, food
9. Genetic material of plant and animal cell is found in
substances and
____________ .
pigments
10. ____________ gives shape and support to the plant cell.
11. Plastids are present only in ____________ cells. 2. Column-I Column-II
12. ____________ acts as the skeleton of chloroplast. (Organelles) (Definitions)
13. The ‘cell sap’ of vacuole contains dissolved ____________ A. Endoplasmic p. Spherical or rod shaped
and ____________ .
reticulum body which produces
14. Nerve cells are known as ____________ . energy.
15. A group of cells performing a similar function is called a
B. Prokaryotic cells q. Contains cell organelles
____________ .
and found in both plant and
True / False : animal cell.
C. Eukaryotic cells r. A network of cytoplasmic
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your tubes and channels.
answer as true or false. D. Mitochondria s. Cells having nuclear
material without nuclear
1. Animal cells have cell wall followed by the cell membrane. membrane.
2. Chromosomes carry genes.
E. Cytoplasm t. Cells having well organized
3. Plastids and chloroplasts are found in plant cells. nuclei with a nuclear
4. Onion cells and cheek cells are the examples of prokaryotic membrane
cell.
5. Pseudopodia is found in higher animals. Very Short Answer Questions :
6. Nerve cells are long and have branches.
7. Amoeba is a multicellular organism. DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
8. Plant cells are made up of cellulose. 1. What is cell?
9. Xylem and phloem are example of tissue. 2. Name the scientist who had first observed the free cell under
10. Energy is stored in the cell in the form of ADP molecules. microscope.
Match the Following : 3. Where organelles are embedded in a cell?
4. What is the difference between unicellular and multicellular
DIRECTIONS : Each question contains two columns which have organisms.
to be matched. Statements/terms (A, B, C, D and E) 5. Name the outer layer of an animal cell.
6. What is cytoplasm? 2. Why chloroplasts are present only in plant cells?

7. Which plastid stores starch and other plant nutrients? 3. State the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
8. Which two organelles are semi-autonomous? 4. Give an important characteristic of a muscle cell.
9. Name the largest floating body generally found in the centre 5. Why mitochondria is called the powerhouse of the cell?
of cell? 6. Where the ribosomes are found? Write their functions?
10. Write a function of ribosome. 7. How chromosomes carry genetic characters?
11. Who had developed the first microscope? 8. Write a short note on DNA.
12. Which cell has the ability to change its shape? 9. Write the different levels of organization in multicellular
13. Write the function of xylem and phloem cells. organism.
14. Give one difference between rough endoplasmic reticulum 10. What are plastids? How they are classified?
and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. 11. Give structure and functions of nucleolus.
15. In which part of the chloroplast all chemical reactions occurs. 12. How plant cell is different from animal cell with respect to the
16. What is protoplasm? vacuoles?
17. Which cell organelle regulates the process of cell division? 13. How prokaryotic cell is different from eukaryotic cells?
18. Give an example of unicellular organism. Long Answer Questions :
19. Which cell organelle helps transport substances within the
cell? DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
20. Which organelles contain hydrolytic enzymes?
1. Discuss the main components of a typical cell.
Short Answer Questions : 2. Briefly explain the various components of a plant cell.
3. Explain the structure and function of nucleus.
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in 2-3 sentences.
4. Make a list of functions of all eukaryotic cell organelles.
1. Why cell membrane is called selectively permeable?
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Text - Book Exercise :

1 2
1. Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or C O
False (F).
(a) Unicellular organisms have one-celled body. (T / F)
(b) Muscle cells are branched. (T / F) 3
O
(c) The basic living unit of an organism is an organ. (T / F) 4
M
(d) Amoeba has irregular shape. (T / F) 5
V
2. Make a sketch of the human nerve cell. What function do 6 7
P T
nerve cells perform?
3. Write short notes on the following.
(a) Cytoplasm
(b) Nucleus of a cell
4. Which part of the cell contains organelles?
8
5. Make sketches of animal and plant cells. State three G
differences between them.
6. State the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
1. We do not sense any pain when we clip our nails or cut our
7. Where are chromosomes found in a cell? State their function. hair.
2. In a cell, where are the genes located.
8. ‘Cells are the basic structural units of living organisms’.
3. Amoeba and Paramecium belong to which category of
Explain.
organisms?
9. Explain why chloroplasts are found only in plant cells? 4. What are the functions of cell wall in plant cells?
5. Is the following statement correct? If it is wrong, correct the
10. Complete the crossword with the help of clues given below.
statement
ACROSS Statement: “Unicellular organisms do not respire, only
multicellular organisms respire”
1. This is necessary for photosynthesis.
6. Classify the following terms into cells, tissues and organs
3. Term for component present in the cytoplasm. and write in the tabular column given below.
RBC, WBC, Nerve cell, blood, muscle, blood vessels, brain,
6. The living substance in the cell. heart, hand
8. Units of inheritance present on the chromosomes. Cell Tissue Organ
DOWN ........................ ........................ ........................
........................ ........................ ........................
1. Green plastids. ........................ ........................ ........................
2. Formed by collection of tissues. 7. Cells consist of many organelles, yet we do not call any of
4. It separates the contents of the cell from the these organelles as structural and functional unit of living
surrounding medium. organisms. Explain.
8. Why do plant cells have an additional layer surrounding
5. Empty structure in the cytoplasm. the cell membrane? What is this layer known as?
7. A group of cells. 9. The size of the cells of an organism has no relation with the
size of its body. Do you agree? Give reason for your answer.
HOTS Questions : (iii) Crenation of erythrocytes.

1. White blood cells have the ability to change its shape. (iv) Change of flaccid cell into turgid cell.
Comment on this. 8. Complete the crossword-puzzle of cell structure and function:
2. Cells of ants and elephants are same in size. Do you agree
1 2
with this? Give reason.
3. “Cell is the structural and functional unit of life.” Explain.
6
4. Bacteria have a region called nucleoid, in which their genetic
4
material is located. Why, then bacteria are classified as
3
prokaryotic cell and not eukaryotic.
5. Make a model of plant cell and animal cell by using household 5
waste.
6. Refer the given figure and answer the following questions.
IV III 7
V Across Down
1. A group of similar cells 2. The organism which are
VII performing a specific made up single cell.
function.
II
3. It helps in transfer of 6. An empty structure in the
characters from cytoplasm which performs
I the parents to their storage function.
offsprings
VI 4. The jelly like substance
between the nucleus
(i) Which organelle is called as suicidal bag? and the cell membrane.
(ii) Which organelle is called “engine of the cell”? 5. The cell organelle present
(iii) Which structure is called “Little nucleus”? in plants which are
(iv) Which organelle is called the “powerhouse of the cell”? mainly responsible for
(v) Which labelled area is known as selectively permeable imparting colour.
membrane? 7. The green coloured
7. Give a term for the following processes. plastids responsible
(i) Swelling of resins in water. for photosynthesis.
(ii) Exchange of gases during respiration.
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114 BIOLOGY
Multiple Choice Questions : 9. Organelles that are surrounded by two membranes are
(a) nucleus and mitochondria
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 18 multiple choice (b) nucleus and Golgi bodies
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out (c) endoplasmic reticulum and lysosomes
of which ONLY ONE is correct. Choose the correct option. (d) endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria
1. Which of the following statement (s) is not correct? 10. A cell that contains a cell wall, chloroplasts and a central
vacuole is
(a) In plant cells, vacuoles are absent.
(a) plant cell (b) animal cell
(b) Vacuole is bounded by a single membrane.
(c) yeast cell (d) bacterial cell
(c) In Amoeba, contractile vacuole is important for excretion.
11. When a human RBC is placed in a hypotonic environment, it
(d) Flagellum is important for transport of bacteria.
(a) undergoes turgidity
2. Which of the following cell organelles are non-membranous
and found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? (b) undergoes plasmolysis
(a) Lysosome (b) Vacuoles (c) is at equilibrium
(c) Ribosome (d) Mitochondria (d) experiences decreased turgor pressure
3. The main constituents of cytoplasm is C, N, O, H. These are 12. Cells that have a high energy requirement generally have
derived from many
(a) protein (b) carbohydrate (a) ribosomes (b) nucleus
(c) water (d) none of these (c) mitochondria (d) chloroplast
4. How many cells are present in human body? 13. Which of the following statement (s) is correct about plasma
membrane?
(a) One million cells (b) One billion cells
(a) It allows all substances to pass into and out of cells.
(c) One trillion cells (d) More than a trillion cells
(b) It prevents all substances from passing into and out of
5. The scientist who described cell as “many little boxes” was
cell.
(a) Robert Hooke
(c) It is composed mainly of a protein bilayer.
(b) Theodar Schwann
(d) It is composed mainly of a lipid bilayer.
(c) Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
14. Which of the following organelles is found in plant cells but
(d) Rudolf Virchow not in animal cells?
6. The characteristic of a nerve cell that relates directly to its (a) Nucleus (b) Mitochondrion
function is its
(c) Chloroplast (d) Golgi apparatus
(a) long extensions
15. Smallest cell organelle is
(b) flat shape
(a) mitochondria (b) ribosome
(c) ability to change shape
(c) vacuole (d) lysosome
(d) ability to engulf bacteria
16. A function of golgi body is
7. Which of the following statements is correct?
(a) excretion (b) ATP synthesis
(a) Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a cell membrane.
(c) secretion (d) RNA synthesis
(b) Prokaryotic lysosome is bounded by tonoplast. 17. Plasma membrane is
(c) Protein synthesis takes place in mitochondria. (a) permeable (b) selectively permeable
(d) Eukaryotic cells have membrane bound organelles. (c) impermeable (d) semi-permeable
8. Old organelles, viruses, bacteria etc. that a cell can ingests 18. When the concentration of water and solutes on either side
are broken down in of the cell membrane is same, the solution is said to be
(a) ribosomes (b) RER (a) hypertonic (b) isotonic
(c) SER (d) lysosomes (c) hypotonic (d) none of these
Assertion & Reason : 2. Assertion : Lysosomes have basic enzymes.

Reason : Lysosomes are called autophagosomes.
DIRECTIONS : Each questions contains an Assertion followed 3. Assertion : A cell membrane shows fluid-mosaic behaviour.
by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question on the Reason : A membrane is composed of lipids and proteins.
basis of following options (a – d). You have to select the one that
4. Assertion : Bacterial cell wall is more complex than plant cell
best describes the two statements.
wall.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the Reason : Bacterial cell wall contains proteins and
correct explanation of Assertion. oligosaccharides.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not 5. Assertion : The true nucleus is generally absent in
the correct explanation of Assertion. prokaryotes.
(c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. Reason : An undifferentiated, unorganised fibrillar nucleus
is observed in prokaryotic cells.
(d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
6. Assertion : Mitochondria is called power house of cell.
1. Assertion : Mitochondria does not help in photosynthesis.
Reason : Mitochondria produce ADP.
Reason : Mitochondria have enzymes for photosynthesis.
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116 BIOLOGY
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
8. Mitochondria and chloroplast

9. Nucleus
10. Responsible for protein synthesis.
Fill in the Blanks : 11. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
1. Schleiden and Schwann 2. Egg of Ostrich 12. White blood cells
3. Mycoplasm bacteria 4. 10–6 13. Xylem transports water and minerals absorbed by the roots
5. Nucleus 6. Osmosis to the leaves while phloem transports the food made by the
7. Mitochondria 8. Lysosome leaves to other parts of the plant.
9. Nucleus 10. Cell wall 14. Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosome attached to its
11. Plant 12. Lamella surface, while smooth ER has no ribosomes attached.
13. Sugar and salt 14. Neuron 15. Stroma
15. Tissue 16. It refers to the substances of which cell is made and includes
True / False : all parts of the cell.
17. Centrosome
1. False. Cell wall is not present in animal cell.
18. Euglena
2. True 19. Endoplasmic reticulum
3. True 20. Lysosomes
4. False. Onion cells and cheek cells are the examples of
eukaryotic cells.
5. False. Pseudopodia is found in lower animals. 1. Cell membrane is called selectively permeable because it
protects the inside contents of the cell and regulates the
6. True
passage of molecules in and out of the cell.
7. False. Amoeba is a unicellular animal.
2. Chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis in which food
8. True (sugar) is prepared or synthesized using simple substances
9. True like carbon dioxide and water with the help of light energy.
10. False. Energy is stored in a cell in the form of ATP. 3. Refer inside the chapter.
Match the Following : 4. Muscle cells bring about the movement of body parts by
contraction and relaxation. The contraction of muscle cells
1. A-s; B-r; C-q; D-t; E-p 2. A-r; B-s; C-t; D-p; E-q moves the body part (to which they are attached), and when
these contracted muscle cells relax, they expand and increase
Very Short Answer Questions :
in length, so that the body part comes back to its original
1. A cell is the smallest unit of life which has a definite structure position.
and a specific function. 5. Mitochondria are called the power house of cells because
2. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek their primary purpose is to manufacture ATP, which is used
3. Cytoplasm as a source of energy.
4. Unicellular organisms are organisms made up of a single cell 6. Ribosomes are small dense cytoplasmic particles which are
that can perform all basic life activities whereas multicellular found individually in the cytoplasm and also line the
organisms are composed of many specialised cells, that membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes
carries different functions. are the site of protein synthesis.
5. Cell membrane 7. Chromosomes carry genetic characters with the help of genes.
6. A jelly like substance that makes up most of the inside of a Gene is an inherited factor that determines the biological
cell. character of an organisms and supplies the expression of a
7. Leucoplast particular trait.
8. DNA is the genetic material and the major store of genetic membrane. This membrane is porous and allows the
information. It is found in nucleus and cytoplasm. Its double movement of materials between the cytoplasm and the inside
helical structure with sugar phosphate backbones on the of nucleus.
outside and paired bases on the inside was proposed/ Vacuole is a cavity usually in the centre of the cell, containig
discovered by Watson and Crick. a liquid called cell sap. It is bounded by a differentially or
9. Levels of organization in multicellular organisms are– selectively permeable membrane, tonoplast. It is used for
osmotic pressure and storage.
¾¾
® ¾¾
® ¾¾
®
2. In plant cells the cytoplasm is composed of many living and
¾¾
non-living parts called cell organelles. The important
®
Organism organelles are mitochondria, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic
reticulum, vacuoles, ribosome, chloroplast etc.
Cell – Structural and functional unit of life. Mitochondria are tiny, spherical or rod like bodies. They are
Tissue – Group of cells having common origin and functions. the sites of energy production, therefore also called as
Organ – Group of tissue having distinct structure with one powerhouse of the cell. The energy production process is
or more distinct functions. called cellular respiration. The energy is stored in the form
Organ system – Two or more organs coordinate their of ATP.
activities towards a common activity. Golgi apparatus, also called golgi bodies, are made up of
10. Plastids are double membrane organelle found in all plants tubules and vesicles. They are responsible for secretion of
and some unicellular organisms (Eugle) of uncertain affinity. chemical substances like enzymes, hormones and proteins.
It is the largest organelle which is involved in the formation
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules and channels.
and storage of soluble and insoluble carbohydrate. Plastids
are classified into two groups on the basis of presence of It is involved in the synthesis, storage and transport of cell
pigment–leucoplast (colourless plastid incapable of products.
performing photosynthesis) and chromoplast (coloured Ribosomes are small granules scattered all over the
plastids responsible for photosynthesis process). cytoplasm. These granules act as a site for protein synthesis.
11. Nucleolus is characterized by the absence of limiting Vacuoles are fluid-filled spaces enclosed in a membrane.
membrane, presence of chromatin and granules and fibrils of They store excess water, useful minerals, pigments and many
RNA and protein. It is composed of DNA + RNA + protein. It other substances. The size of vacuole is larger in plant cells.
helps in the development of ribosomal RNA and is the centre
Plastids are present in plant cells only. The plastids contain
for the formation of ribosomes.
certain pigments. i.e. chloroplast, chromoplast and
12. Vacuoles are large in plant cell, but in animal cell it is small in leucoplast. Chloroplast contains chlorophyll, which helps
size. in the process of photosynthesis.
13. Prokaryotic cells lack membrane bound organelles and definite 3. Nucleus is a membrane bound structure that contains the
nucleus as compared to eukaryotic cells. cell's hereditary information and controls the cell's growth
and reproduction. It is commonly the most prominent
Long Answer Questions : organelle in a cell. The cell nucleus is bound by a double
1. The main components of a typical cell are cell membrane, membrane called the nuclear envelope. This membrane
cytoplasm, nucleus and vacuoles. separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
Like the cell membrane, the nuclear envelope consists of
Cell membrane, also called as plasma membrane, separates phospholipids that form a lipid bilayer. The envelope helps
the inside contents of the cell from the surrounding medium to maintain the shape of the nucleus and assists in regulating
and from the environment. This membrane is porous and the flow of molecules into and out of the nucleus through
allows the movement of materials both inward and outward nuclear pores.
of the cell.
Chromosomes are located within the nucleus. Chromosomes
Cytoplasm is the jelly like substances present between the consist of DNA, which contains heredity information and
cell membrane and nucleus. Various organelles are present instructions for cell growth, development, and reproduction.
in the cytoplasm. These are mitochondria, golgi bodies, Contained within the nucleus is a dense structure composed
ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum etc. of RNA and proteins called the nucleolus. The nucleolus
Nucleus is an important component of living cell. It is helps to synthesize ribosomes by transcribing and
spherical in shape and located in the centre of the cell. Nucleus assembling ribosomal RNA.
is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane called nuclear
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118 BIOLOGY
S tructure Function Nerve cell is also known as neuron. Nerve cells send
messages to the brain and then transfer these messages
Plas ma Contro l the exch ang e of materials
M embrane between the cell an d its en viron men t from the brain to the receptor organs. Thus, it controls the
Nu cleu s Large s tru ctu re s urro und ed by do ub le functions of different parts of the body.
memb ran e; maintain the integrity of the
3. (a) Cytoplasm: The fluid that occurs in between the plasma
gen es an d co ntro l the activities o f the cell
membrane and the nucleus occurs between the plasma
by reg ulating gene exp res s ion (therefo re,
the con trol centre o f the cell) membrane and the nucleus and fills the online cell is
Nu cleo lus Gran ular bo dy with in nu cleus ; s ite of r- called cytoplasm. All the cell organelles like
RNA s y nthes is mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi
End op las mic Site of memb ran e lip id & protein bodies, etc. are suspended remain the cytoplasm. The
reticu lum s yn th es is cytoplasm also helps in the exchange of materials
Golg i Complex Stacks o f flattened memb rane s acs ;
between cell organelles.
mod ifies , packages & s ecretes protein s
Lys o s omes M emb ran ou s s acs ; contains enzymes to (b) Nucleus of a cell: The nucleus is present at the centre
dig es t materials of a cell and is generally spherical in shape. The nucleus
Vacu oles M emb ran ou s s acs ; trans po rt and s tore is composed of the following components:
water & other materials
M itoch on dria Sacs con tain ing two membranes ;
Prod uces energy fo r the cell th ro ug h Chromosomes
cellu lar res piration which can be s tored in Nuclear
the fo rm o f A TP, h en ce called po wer membrane
Nucleolus
ho us e o f the cell. Nuclear
Plas tid s Sac-like s tru ctures with intern al thy lakoid pore
memb ran es ; Takes part in p ho tos yn thes is
Ribo s o mes Gran ular organ elles comp os ed of RNA &
protein; s yn th es ize p rotein s (i) Nuclear membrane: The nucleus is bounded by a
Cen trio les Small ho llow cylin ders ; inv olv ed in cell double-layered membrane called the nuclear membrane.
div is ion & anch ors flagellae & cilia It separates the contents of the nucleus from the
Cilia Sh ort h air-like s tru ctu res ; mov emen t, cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane has nuclear pores
fo od intake
that allows the exchange of materials between cytoplasm
Flagella Lo ng projection s ; cellular lo como tio n,
& nucleus.
us u ally 1-5 o n a cell.
Cell wall M ultiple-lay ers of cellulo s e; prov ides (ii) Nucleolus: It is a small spherical body present within
s tructural s up po rt an d s tren gth the nucleus. It is not bounded by any membrane.
(iii) Chromosomes: Chromosomes constitute the genetic
material of the cell. They are thread-like structures that
Text - Book Exercise : carry the genetic information. Chromosomes are made
up of DNA which carries the information necessary for
1. (a) (T) the transfer of characteristics from the parents to the
(b) (F) Muscle cells are spindle shaped. offspring. Thus, chromosomes play an important role
(c) (F) The basic living unit of an organism is cell.
in the inheritance of characteristics.
(d) (T)
4. Cytoplasm is the fluid part of the cell and various organelles
2. such as mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi bodies, etc are
present within the cytoplasm. Entire space of the cell
between the plasma membrane and the nucleus is present
Nucleus within the cytoplasm.
Nerve cell
5. 9.
Light energy
Animal cell Plant cell
Mitochondrion Chloroplast Cytoplasm Carbon

Golgi body Cell wall
Cell Membrane Golgi body dioxide Chlorophyll
Nucleolus
Nucleolus Oxygen in leaf
Nucleus Nucleus
Mitochondria
Cell membrane
Vacuole Water and
Cytoplasm minerals
Animal cell Plant cell
Chloroplast is a double membrane round organelle found in
They are generally small They are usually larger green plants. A green pigment called chlorophyll is present
in size. than animal cells. in the chloroplast. This chlorophyll pigment traps solar
Cell wall is absent. A rigid cell wall is energy and utilizes it to manufacture food for the plant. The
present which is made up raw materials water is taken up by the roots of the plant &
of cellulose. CO2 is absorbed from the atmosphere through stomata.
Animal cells do not have chloroplast hence can’t perform
Vacuoles are many and Vacuoles are permanent
photosynthesis. Animal cells do not have CO2 also which
one small in size. centrally located large in
size. is the main requirement for food synthesis.
No other animal cell Plastids are present. 10. 1 2

possesses plastids except C H L O R O P H Y L L
for the protozoan Euglena. H R
Animal cells have Plant cells lack L G
centrosome and centrosome and 3
O R G A N E L L E
centrioles. centrioles.
R N 4
M
6. 5
O V E
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes 6 7
Most of the prokaryotes are Most of the eukaryotes are P R O T O P L A S M
unicellular. multicellular. L I C B
Well defined Nucleus & nuclear The nucleus is well defined and
membrane are absent. is surrounded by a nuclear A S U R
Nucleolus is absent. Nucleolus is present. S S O A
Cell organelles such as plastids, Cell organelles such as plastids,
T U L N
mitochondria, golgi bodies, etc. mitochondria, golgi bodies, etc.
are absent. are present. S E 8 E N E S
G
Bacteria and blue-green algae are Fungi, plant, and animal cells
examples of prokaryotic cells are examples of eukaryotic cells ACROSS
1. Chlorophyll
7. Chromosome are the thread-like structures intermingled with 3. Organelle
each other in the nucleus. They carry genes that help in the 6. Protoplasm
transfer of characters from the parents to the offspring and 8. Genes
thus play an important role in the inheritance of characters.
DOWN
8. A cell is the fundemental structural and functional unit of
1. Chloroplasts
life. Cells are the building blocks of all living organisms.
2. Organ
They can carryout all vital function of life. All cells vary in
4. Membrane
their shapes, sizes, and the functions they perform. In fact,
5. Vacuole
the shape and size of the cell is related to the specific function
7. Tissue
it performs.
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120 BIOLOGY
Exemplar Questions : Each organ is further made up of smaller parts called tissues.
A tissue is a group of similar cells performing specific
1. Nails and hair are both made up of dead cells. They do not
function. Hence “cell is the structural and functional unit of
have nerve cells. Hence we don’t feel the pain when they
life”.
are cut.
4. Bacteria are classified as prokaryotic cell because the nucleus
2. Nucleus/chromosomes.
of bacterial cell is not well organised like the cells of
3. Unicellular and Eukaryotic/Protozoan.
multicellular organisms. There is no nuclear membrane. The
4. Cell wall protects the cell contents, gives shapes to the cell.
cells having nuclear material without nuclear membrane are
5. No, the statement is wrong.
termed as prokaryotic cells. The organisms with these kinds
Both unicellular and multicellular organisms respire/all
of cells are called prokaryotes.
organisms respire.
6. (i) IV (Lysosome)
6. Cell Tissue Organ
(ii) VI (Ribosome)
RBC Blood Blood vessels
(iii) VII (Nucleolus)
WBC Muscle Heart
Nerve cell Nerve Hand (iv) III (Mitochondria)
Brain (v) I (Cell membrane)
7. Although cell organelles have specific structures and 7. (i) Endosmosis; (ii) Diffusion; (iii) Exosmosis;
perform specific functions but they cannot be called (iv) Deplasmolysis.
structural and functional units of living organisms. This is
so because they can perform their functions only when they
are within a living cell. They cannot function outside the
cell as an independent unit.
Multiple Choice Questions :
8. As plants cannot move they need protection against
variations in temperature, high wind speed, atmospheric 1. (a) A vacuole is a membrane-bound organelle which is
moisture, etc. Therefore, for protectoin plant cell ……… present in all plant and fungal cells and some protist,
membrane. This layer is called the cell wall. Plant cells have animal and bacterial cells. Vacuoles are essentially
an additional layer surrounding the cell membrane. enclosed compartments which are filled with water
9. • I agree because the cells in body of an elephant is not containing inorganic and organic molecules including
necessarily bigger than those in a rat, it is not true that enzymes in solution, though in certain cases they may
bigger organisms have cells of bigger size in their body. contain solids which have been engulfed.
• The size of the cell in an organism is related to the 2. (c) Ribosomes are cell organelles that consist of RNA and
function to performs. For example, the nerve cells in proteins. They are responsible for assembling the
both, the elephant and the rat is are long and branched. proteins of the cell. Depending on the protein
They perform the same function, that of transferring production level of a particular cell, ribosomes may
messages. number in the millions. Ribosomes occur both as free
particles in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and as
HOTS Questions : particles attached to the membranes of the endoplasmic
reticulum in eukaryotic cells.
1. White blood cells have the ability to change the shape
because white blood cells can squeeze themselves in between 3. (c) Cytoplasm is the cell substance between the cell
other cells, to reach other, infected cells. For example, if there membrane and the nucleus, containing the cytosol,
is an infection somewhere in the body, they can squeeze organelles, cytoskeleton, and various particles. The
themselves through the walls of the blood cells to an inter- main constituenvt of cytoplasm C, H, N and O is derived
cellular space, where the infection is taking place. from water.
2. Yes, the cells of ant and elephant are same. All organisms are 4. (d) More than one trillions cells are present in a human
made up of cells that have different body designs, shapes body.
and sizes. It is not the size of cells which makes such a big 5. (a) Robert Hooke observed cork cells under his microscope
difference between an ant and an elephant but it is the number and found out some tiny compartments which he called
of cells which makes such difference in their body size. cells.
3. Each organ in the system performs different functions such 6. (a) Nerve cells (neuron) are the primary cells in the nervous
as digestion, assimilation and absorption. Different plant system. A typical neuron possesses a cell body (soma),
organs also perform specific functions. dendrites, and an axon. The long threadlike extension
of a nerve cell that conducts nerve impulses from the pigment, which absorbs sunlight for the process of
cell body is the characteristics which is directly related photosynthesis.
to its function. Neurons are responsible for relaying 15. (b) Ribosome is the smallest cell organelle. A ribosome is a
electrical messages to cells and tissues in other organ large complex of RNA and protein. Mitochondrion is
systems. the third largest and second largest organelle in plant
7. (d) All prokaryotes have cytoplasm surrounded by a cell and animal cell respectively.
membrane, also known as the plasma membrane. The 16. (c) The Golgi complex, also known as the Golgi apparatus
cell membrane conforms to the fluid mosaic model, is a cytoplasmic organelle. It is found in eukaryotic
which means that its proteins float within a double cells, as in animals, plants, and fungi. The main function
layer of phospholipids. of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package
8. (d) A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle found macromolecules, such as proteins and lipids. The Golgi
in animal cells (they are absent in red blood cells). They complex is especially active in processing proteins for
are structurally and chemically spherical vesicles secretion.
containing hydrolytic enzymes, which are capable of 17. (b) The plasma membrane (or cell membrane) is a biological
breaking down virtually all kinds of biomolecules, membrane that separates the interior of all cells from
including proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, the outside environment. The cell membrane is
and cellular debris. They act as waste disposal system selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules
of the cell by digesting unwanted materials in the and controls the movement of substances in and out
cytoplasm, both from outside of the cell and obsolete of cells. The basic function of the cell membrane is to
components inside the cell. For this function they are protect the cell from its surroundings. It consists of
popularly referred to as "suicide bags" or "suicide sacs" the phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
of the cell. 18. (b) An isotonic solution refers to two solutions having
9. (a) Mitochondria and nucleus are double membrane the same osmotic pressure across a semipermeable
organelles. Double membrane organelles are membrane. This state allows for the free movement of
surrounded by two biomembrane layers, with an water across the membrane without changing the
intermembranal space. Golgi bodies, lysosomes and concentration of solutes on either side of the membrane.
endoplasmic reticulum are single membrane organelles. Assertion & Reason :
10. (a) Plant cell are eukaryotic cells with a membrane-bound 1. (c) Mitochondria are the energy factories of the cells or
nucleus that differ in several key aspects from the cells called the power house of the cell. The energy currency
of other eukaryotic organisms. Their distinctive features for the work that animals must do is the energy-rich
include: large central vacuole, cell wall, and chloroplast. molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is
11. (a) When red blood cells are placed in hypotonic solution produced in the mitochondria using energy stored in
(pure water) it will undergo turgidity. Water will enter food. Chloroplasts organelles are specialized subunits
the cell by osmosis, causing the cell to swell and in plant and algal cells. Their main role is to conduct
possibly even burst. photosynthesis, where the photosynthetic pigment
12. (c) Mitochondria are called the powerhouse of cell chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight, and
because it produces energy in the form of ATP. stores it in the energy storage molecules ATP and
NADPH while freeing oxygen from water.
Therefore cells that have high energy requirements
2. (d) Lysosomes are simple tiny spherical sac-like structures
generally have many mitochondria.
evenly distributed in the cytoplasm. Each lysosome is
13. (d) The plasma membrane (or cell membrane) is a biological a small vesicle surrounded by a single membrane and
membrane that separates the interior of all cells from contains powerful enzymes (acid hydrolase enzymes).
the outside environment. The cell membrane is These enzymes are capable of digesting or breaking
selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules down all organic materials. Lysosomes digest excess
and controls the movement of substances in and out or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed
of cells. The basic function of the cell membrane is to viruses or bacteria.
protect the cell from its surroundings. It consists of 3. (a) Cell membrane can be defined as a biological membrane
the phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. or an outer membrane of a cell, which is composed of
14. (c) Chloroplasts are small organelles inside the cells of two layers of phospholipids and embedded with
plants and algae. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll proteins. It shows fluid mosaic behaviour. It is a thin
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122 BIOLOGY
semi permeable membrane layer, which surrounds the N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid
cytoplasm and other constituents of the cell. (NAM) cross-linked by short peptides.
4. (a) Cell wall is a tough, rigid layer that surrounds some 5. (a) A prokaryote is a single-celled organism that lacks a
types of cells. Cell wall is a characteristic feature to membrane-bound nucleus, mitochondria, or any other
cells of plants, bacteria, fungi, algae and some archaea. membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotic cells have a
The major function of the cell wall is to provide rigidity, region in the cell, termed the nucleoid, in which a single
tensile strength, structural support, protection against chromosomal, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule
mechanical stress and infection. It also aids in diffusion is located.
of gases in and out of the cell. Cell wall composition 6. (c) Mitochondria are the energy factories of the cells or
varies from species to species and also depends on called the power house of the cell. The energy currency
the developing stage of the organism. Bacterial cell for the work that animals must do is the energy-rich
wall is more complex than plant cell wall. In bacteria, molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is
peptidoglycan forms the cell wall. Peptidoglycan is a produced in the mitochondria using energy stored in
complex molecule composed of alternating units of food.
Reproduction in Animals 123
Chapter
REPRODUCTION IN
5 ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
Various processes like digestion, circulation, excretion and respiration are considered to be important for the survival of all living
organisms. Similarly, reproduction is also an essential biological mechanism for the continuity and diversity of species.
Reproduction is a biological process by which an individual multiplies in number by producing more individuals of its own type.
It maintains the continuity of race by replacing old dying members and helps in increasing the total number of individuals. If the
process of reproduction will not occur, all species will be extinct, once the existing species dies. Reproduction enables the
continuity of the species, generation after generation.
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124 BIOLOGY
The ability to reproduce is one of the unifying characteristics of all living beings. They reproduce by various means – for example,
human beings and other mammals reproduce by giving birth to babies, most birds reproduce by laying eggs and most plants
reproduce through seeds.
MODES OF REPRODUCTION
Based on whether there is participation of one organism or two in the process of reproduction, it is of two types – sexual and
asexual.
(I) Sexual reproduction :- Sexual reproduction involves fusion of gametes and results in the formation of new organism genetically
different from parent
(II) Asexual reproduction :- Asexual reproduction requires only one parent and does not involve the fusion of gametes. It is a
reproduction by which offspring arise from a single parent and inherit the genes of that parent only.
Table : Difference between Sexual and Asexual reproduction
Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction

(i) Involves two parents Involves only a single parent
(ii) Individuals formed are not genetically Individuals formed are genetically
identical but only resemble both the parents identical to the parents
(iii) Slower mode of reproduction Faster mode of reproduction
(iv) Variation occurs Variation does not occur.
(v) Occurs by the formation of haploid Occurs by budding, fission
gametes which fuse to form a diploid zygote fragmentation etc.
(vi) Occurs in higher invertebrates (earthworm, insect, Occurs in lower organisms like Amoeba,
prawn etc.) and all vertebrates Paramecium, Sponges, Hydra Plararia etc.
NOTE
Gamete : It is a cell that fuses with another cell during fertilization in organisms that sexually reproduce. Gametes are of two types - male
gametes (called sperm) and female gametes (called ovum or egg).
Offspring : It is the product of the reproductive processes of an animal or plant.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Most of the animals reproduce sexually. Sexual reproduction is usually biparental i.e., involves a male and female individual producing
male and female gametes respectively. Such animals are called unisexual or dioecious. This process occurs during fertilization.
During fertilization, these gametes fuse to form a single celled structure called zygote which later develops into new individual. It is
a slower mode of reproduction. Individuals formed are not genetically identical but only resemble both the parents.
A special organ system called the reproductive system is responsible for carrying out the process of reproduction in humans. Let us
now discuss about sexual reproductive organs in human beings.
In sex cell (male or female), the nucleus carries half of the information needed for reproduction.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system consists of a number of sex organs that form a part of the human reproductive process. The organs of
the male reproductive system are specialized for the following functions–
– To produce, maintain and transport sperms (male gamete) and protective fluid (semen).
– To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract.
– To produce and secrete male sex hormones.
The male reproductive organs are –
1. A pair of testes (singular, testis) 2. Epididymis
3. Vas deferens 4. Urethra
5. Penis
6. Accessory sex glands – seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral gland.
Bladder
Seminal
Pubic bone vesicle
Vas deferens Ejaculatory
duct
Urethra
Prostate
Erectile
tissue Rectum
Penis Epididymis
Scrotum
Testis
Male reproductive system
Testes
Testes (paired structure) are located outside the abdominal cavity within a sac called scrotal sac
or scrotum. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called seminiferous tubules. These Head
tubules are responsible for producing the sperm cells through a process called spermatogenesis.
Scrotum has a protective function and acts as a climate control system of the testes. It keeps the
Middle
testes temperature at 2°C, lower than body temperature. The lower temperature is required for the Piece
normal development of sperms.
Each sperm is a single motile cell with a head, middle piece and a tail region.
Tail
(i) Head : The shape of head is oval and flat. It is the essential part of sperm as it contains
nucleus and acrosome. Nucleus carries information about the cell-reproduction.
(ii) Middle piece : The middle piece of a sperm is formed of numerous mitochondria. Mitochondria
provides energy and strength for the movement of sperm.
(iii) Tail : It is fine, vibrating posterior portion of a sperm. It helps in the movement of sperm in
the fallopian tube during the fertilization process. Structure of sperm
The testes produce a hormone called testosterone. Testosterone is a male sex hormone that
controls the development of male secondary sexual characters.
NOTE
Acrosome is derived from the golgi complex and contains hydrolyzing enzymes that help in fertilization of the ovum.
Ejaculation
It is the release of sperm cells and seminal plasma from the male reproductive system.
Epididymis :
It is a long coiled tube that extends from the top of the testes along its side to its back. It collects and stores sperms temporarily. It helps
in storage, nutrition and maturation of sperms.
Vas Deferens :
It is connected with epididymis at the tail end. It transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation.
Urethra :
Urethra extends from penis to external opening. It helps in conduction of sperms, secretion of glands and carries urine to urinary
bladder. The urethra, at different times carries both urine and sperms.
Penis :
Penis is a cylindrical, highly vascularized erectile organ. Its function is to transfer sperm into vagina of female reproductive system.
The tip of the penis is called glans penis. The skin in this region is folded to form a retractable casing called the foreskin or prepuce.
NOTE
Semen/Seminal plasma
It is a milky, viscous and alkaline fluid, ejaculated from the male reproductive system during orgasm. Seman contain sperms and the
secretion of epididymis, seminal vesicle, prostate gland and bulbourethral (cowper’s) gland.
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126 BIOLOGY
Functions of semen
– Provides a fluid medium for sperm.
– Nourishes and activates sperm to keep them viable and motile.
– Its alkalinity protects the sperm from the acidity of the vagina.
Accessory or secondary sex glands :
The accessory or secondary sex glands includes seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral gland.
(i) Seminal vesicles – These are sac like pouches, situated between the bladder. It secretes viscous fluid which constitute the main
part of the ejaculate. It produces fructose (which provide nourishment for the activity of sperm), citric acid and prostaglandin.
(ii) Prostate gland – It s a walnut sized structure located below the urinary bladder in front of the rectum. Its fluid helps to nourish
the sperm.
(iii) Bulbourethral gland – These are pea sized structure located on the side of the urethra just below the prostate gland. It secretes
a clear, viscous mucous which is lubricating in function.
Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system consists of organs that plays an important role in the production and transportation of gametes,
process of ovulation, fertilization, pregnancy, birth and child care and production of sex hormones.
Human egg is about 50 times wider than a sperm cell.
Oviduct
(or Fallopian tube)
The female reproductive organs are-

(1) Pair of ovaries (2) Oviduct Funnel of Funnel of
oviduct oviduct
(3) Uterus (4) Vagina Ovary Ovary
Uterus
(or Womb)
NOTE Cervix
The process of fertilization takes place in ampulla isthimic junction of fallopian tube. Vagina
Ovary :
Ovaries are oval shaped organs, located in the lower part of abdominal cavity.
Each ovary contains thousand of eggs called ovum. Normally only one egg matures Female reproductive system
in each ovary every alternate month.
The ovum (or the female gamete) is much larger than the sperm in size. It is non - motile
and laden with different types of energy rich materials like yolk, glycogen and proteins Follicile cells of
corona radiata
accumulated in its cytoplasm. It is enclosed by one on more egg envelops. Size of ovum Nucleus
varies in different animals and depends upon the amount of yolk. The ovum travels from Cytoplasm
the ovary to the fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized before reaching the uterus. Vitelline
membrane
The ovaries are the main source of female sex hormones, which control the development
of female body characteristics, such as the breasts, body shape, and body hair. The Zona pellucida
main hormones are estrogen and progesterone. They also regulate the menstrual cycle
and pregnancy.
Oviduct (also known as fallopian or uterine tube) : Human ovum
It is a tube like structure that carries egg from the ovary to the uterus. Each oviduct is
differentiated into four parts – infundibulum, ampulla, isthmus and uterine part.
Uterus or Womb :
It is a hollow pear shaped muscular organ that contains developing foetus. Uterus is the site for implantation of the pre-embryo and
for the subsequent embryonic and foetal development. It has two regions-an upper wider portion which receives the two oviducts and
smaller lower constricted part cervix.
Vagina :
It is the lowermost part of female reproductive system. It receives penis during sexual intercourse and is the site where sperms are
deposited. The vagina is connected to the uterus at the cervix.
Vagina also serves as the birth canal by stretching to allow the delivery of the foetus during child birth.
During menstruation, the menstrual flow exits the body via the vagina.
P oi n t
How is sperm different from ovum?
SOLUTION
Sperm is microscopic, motile and flagellated cell whereas ovum is larger, non-motile, spherical and food laden cell.
FERTILIZATION
Fertilization is the process where sperm (male gamete) fuses with ovum (female gametes) to form a single celled called zygote. In
humans, the fertilization process most often occurs when sexual intercourse takes place during a woman's fertile or ovulation period.
Sperms released inside the vagina travel towards the uterus to the fallopian tube to seek out the egg. Hundreds of thousands of
sperms may be released during ejaculation, but only one gets to penetrate the egg and start the fertilization process. Sperms are
capable of staying alive for 48 to 72 hours inside the female reproductive tract, and can fertilize the egg as soon as ovulation takes
place. Hence, the fusion of egg nuclei with the sperm nuclei is called fertilization.
The zygote is a “fertilized ovum” or “fertilized egg”. It is the beginning of a new individual. In multicellular
organisms, it is the earliest developmental stage of the embryo and in single cell organisms, the zygote divides
to produce offspring usually through the process of cell division.
This results in the formation of a fertilized egg or zygote. The zygote undergoes division and specific changes to grow into a new
individual.
Nucleus ovum
Mixing of cell nuclei and

B
chromosomes of ovum and sperm
First and second

Corona radiata
polar bodies
Zona pellucida Fertilization complete
C
Process of fertilization
The new individual inherits some characteristics from the mother and some from the father. This is why children have some character-
istics like father and some like mother.
P oi n t
Why all kinds of characteristics run in families?
SOLUTION
Every human body gets half of its genes from each parent, therefore it inherits some of the features from the mother and some
from the father. That is why, all kind of characteristics, for example, height, run in families.
HOW ARE TWINS FORMED ?

Twins are two offsprings produced by the same pregnancy. The zygote or fertilized egg is a single cell. Sometimes, a single
fertilized egg splits into two, each half developing into an embryo. This results in identical twins. If the fertilized egg splits into
three or more parts, each of which develops into an embryo, then all the offspring produced will be identical.
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If two eggs are fertilized by two sperms, this result in fraternal twins. They are also known as non-identical twins. Fraternal
offspring may look alike, but they are genetically different and may not be all of same sex. On the contrary, identical
offspring, are genetically same and are always of same sex.
Y Y
X X
Fertilization Fertilization
XY XY
Zygoteor Zygoteor
fertilized egg fertilized egg
Develops Develops
XY XY XY XY
into two
cell stage
Cell separate Develops into

XY XY a male child
Each develops
into a separate
male child
XY (twins) XY XY
Conjoined twins joined at the hip, chest, back, face etc. are called Siamese twins.
CONNECTING TOPIC
TYPES OF FERTILIZATION
The process of fertilization might take place either outside the female body or inside the female body. On the basis of this, fertilization
is divided into two types – external fertilization and internal fertilization.
External Fertilization
External fertilization is characterized by the release of both sperm and egg into an
external environment. Sperm will fertilize the egg outside of the organism, as seen in
spawning. External fertilization occurs mostly in wet environments and requires both
the male and the female to release their gametes into their surroundings (usually
water). An advantage of external fertilization is that it results in the production of a
large number of offspring. One disadvantage is that environmental hazards such as
predators greatly reduce the chance of surviving into adulthood. Amphibians and
fish are examples of animals that reproduce this way. It is very common in aquatic
animals such as fish, starfish etc. Eggs of frog in a layer of jelly
The main features of external fertilization

i. Both the male and female parents interact only during a specific breeding period and spawning is
observed.
ii. In some animals like fishes or certain frogs. the process differs a little where parental care is observed
as far as care of the young are concerned.
iii. The eggs and the sperm are released together after a little span under appropriate conditions of
temperature, light, rainfall etc.
iv. The sperms find their way to the ova by chemo-taxis involving specific chemicals.
v. The fertilized embryo develops inside the egg covered by thin shell, in certain cases, they may be
carried by the mouth, or borne on the back.
vi. The developed embryo hatches into a larva which undergoes further development into fingerling, fry
and then into adult.
vii. The matured larva can undergo progressive metamorphosis as the tadpole larva develops into a frog.
Internal Fertilization
The fertilization that takes place inside the female body is called internal fertilization. In this sperm meets the egg while it is still
attached to the female body. Humans, cows, hens etc are examples of internal fertilization. Animals that use internal fertilization
specialize in the protection of the developing egg. For example, reptiles and birds secrete eggs that are covered by a protective shell
that is resistant to water loss and damage. Internal fertilization protects the fertilized egg or embryo from predation and harsh
environments, which results in higher survival rates than can occur with external fertilization.
Table : Difference between Internal fertilization and External fertilization.
S. No. Internal fertilization External fertilization

(i) Fertilization that takes place inside the Fertilization that takes place outside the
female body female body
(ii) Small number of eggs are produced. Large number of eggs are produced
(iii) Chances of survival of offsprings are more. Chances of survival of offsprings are less.
(iv) Examples : Humans, cows, hens etc. Examples : Fish, frog, starfish etc.
The number of eggs that an individual produce for successful reproduction depends on two factors–
(i) Chances of fertilization (ii) Level of parental care
Hence, if there is low chance of fertilization and less care, then large number of eggs are produced. This is because some of eggs and
sperms may get exposed to water movement, wind and rainfall. These factors prevent the sperms from reaching the eggs. Thus,
production of large numbers of eggs and sperms is necessary to ensure fertilization of at least a few of them.
In case of hen, development of embryo takes place inside the female body. The zygote divides repeatedly and move down to fallopian
tube to form embryo. During development, embryo forms several protective layers around it. As a result a white colour hard shell is
formed around developing embryo. After this, the hen lays a fertilized egg. The parent hen then sits and warms the eggs or keeps
them safely in the warm place till they hatch. After three weeks, the chick is completely developed and it bursts open the egg shell.
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embryo
yolk chick
yolk blood
A fertilized egg vessels
A chick
10 days after fertilization
Stages of development in hen
VIVIPAROUS AND OVIPAROUS ANIMALS

Now, you have learnt that humans give rise to young baby while chicken lays egg that eventually develops into young ones. The
animals that give birth to young ones are called viviparous animals. The example includes dog, cat or man. The animals that lay eggs
are called oviparous. Frog, butterfly and chicken lay eggs and hence, are called oviparous animals.
Table : Difference between Oviparous and Viviparous animals.
S. No. Oviparous animals (Egg bearing animals) Viviparous animals (Live – bearers)
(i) Animals that lays egg outside their body. Animals that give birth to young ones.
(ii) Development of embryo does not takes place within Embryos develop inside the mother's body from which it
the mother's body. gains nourishment.
(iii) Examples – Chicken, frogs and butterfly. Examples – Human beings, certain fishes etc.
• Snakes reproduce by producing eggs as well as young ones!!

• The animals that undergo external fertilization such as fish and frog lay egg in hundreds while a hen
lays only one egg at a time. This is because these animals lay hundred of eggs and release millions of
sperms, all the eggs do not get fertilized and develop into new individuals. The eggs and sperms get
exposed to water movement, wind and rainfall. Also there are other animals in the pond which may feed
on eggs. Thus production of large number of eggs and sperms are necessary to ensure fertilization of at
least a few of them.
IN-VITRO FERTILIZATION (IVF)

In-vitro fertilization is a process where fertilization of egg occurs outside the female body. It involves the removal of eggs
from female ovaries. This egg is then allowed to fertilize with sperm in a fluid medium in a test tube. The fertilized egg cell
then grows in the laboratory until it divides into eight cells. Then it is introduced into the mother’s womb (uterus) so that it
can develop normally. A baby conceived by fertilization that occurs outside mother’s body is called test tube baby. Scientists
usually perform this process to help the couples with infertility problems.
Invitro Fertilization
A foetus develops the sense of vision around the 26th week. At this time, the eyes open and even begin to blink.
Gestation Period
It is the period from fertilization to birth. In human beings, the gestation period is about nine months.
DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO
Fertilization results in the formation of zygote (a single diploid 3. Cleavage
cell) that begins to develop into a multicellular embryo. The 2-Cell 4-Cell
zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells. The cells sperm
stage stage
4. Morula
then begin to form groups that develop into different tissues nuclous
8-Cell
egg stage
and organs of the body. This developing structure is called an nucleus
embryo. The embryo gets embedded in the wall of uterus for
Early
further development. The close attachment of the embryo with 2. Fertilization 5. blastocyst
the uterus is called implantation and it results in pregnancy. Inner

cell
The embryo continues to develop in the uterus. An unborn mass
baby develops ‘head first’, starting from the brain and head,
then the main body, then the arms and legs. Life begins when trophoblast
egg
the fertilized egg divides into two cells, then four, eight and so 1. Ovulation
ovary 6. Implantation
on. After a few days, there are hundred of cells and after a few
weeks, millions. These cells build up the various body parts.
The unborn baby’s heart begin to beat after only four weeks,
although it has not yet taken on its full shape. Infact, by eight
weeks all the main parts have formed, even the fingers and toes Development of embryo
- yet the tiny body is only the size of grape. The stage of em-
bryo in which all body parts can be distinguished easily is called a foetus. The embryo / foetus grows in the mother’s uterus for about
nine months.
After nine months, the baby is ready to give birth to young one. The birth of the fully developed foetus is termed as parturition.
Foetus requires following things for its development –
(i) Nutrients (ii) Oxygen (iii) Protection
It also needs to remove waste materials such as carbon dioxide, metabolic wastes from its body. The embryo receives nutrition and
oxygen from the mother’s blood via placenta. Placenta is an organic connection between the foetus and the uterine wall to allow
nutrient uptake, waste elimination and gas exchange etc. It is developed at the point of implantation. It is connected to the foetus by
umbilical cord.
Placenta (Section)
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Umbilical cord: The flexible cord that attaches an embryo or foetus to the placenta. The umbilical cord
contains blood vessels that supply nutrients and oxygen to the foetus and remove its wastes, including carbon
dioxide.
Function of placenta -
(i) It protects embryo / foetus from entry of pathogen from mother’s body.
(ii) It supplies oxygen from the mother to foetus and excretes CO2 from foetus to the mother’s blood.
(iii) It provides nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, lipid, vitamin etc. to the foetus from mother’s blood.
(iv) It helps in excretion of metabolic wastes, CO2 and urea from embryo into mother’s blood.
The developing foetus is protected by the uterus and a liquid called amniotic fluid. Amniotic fluid is present inside a bag called
amnion.
Placenta (A disc-like structure that helps the embryo

attach itself to the uterus wall)
Umbilical cord
(A cord containing blood vessels that
connects the placenta with the baby)
Uterus
Cervix
Foetus
(Developing baby after eight weeks
of fertilization)
Amniotic sac
Uterine wall
Amniotic fluid
(A fluid that protects the foetus against mechanical
shocks and temperature changes)
Anus
Vagina
Foetus in the uterus

So far you have learnt what happens if the egg inside a female body gets fertilized. But have you ever thought, what happens to the
egg if it does not get fertilized. An ovary releases an egg every month. The process of release of an egg by an ovary is called ovulation
and the cycle of producing and releasing mature eggs or ova is called the menstrual cycle. In a normal, healthy girl, ovulation takes
place on the 14th day of the beginning of menstrual cycle of 28 days. We have learnt that uterus prepares itself to receive the fertilized
egg. During this, the inner lining of uterus get thickened and is supplied with blood from which growing embryo draws nutrition for its
development. However, if an egg does not get fertilized, the inner lining of uterus breaks down slowly and is released out in the form
of blood and mucous from the vagina. This process of releasing blood and mucous every month through the vagina is called
menstruation. This is usually a 28 day cycle.
NOTE
What about the changes that we observe in our body as we grow? Do you think that we also undergo metamorphosis?
No, we humans do not undergo metamorphosis. In human beings, body parts similar to the adults are present from the time of the birth.
There is no drastic and abrupt change. Therefore, one can say that metamorphosis does not happen in the humans.
METAMORPHOSIS
Metamorphosis is a biological process of transforming larva into an adult. The process involves relatively abrupt changes in the
animal’s structure through cell growth and development.
Some insects, amphibians, molluscs crustaceans, cnidarians, echinoderms etc undergo metamorphosis. The silkworm is the larva or
caterpillar of the domesticated silkmoth. Its life cycle includes : egs ® Larva or caterpillar ® pupa ® audit.
This is already studied in previous class. Frog is such an another example. In its life cycle there is lot of changes that occur in tadpole
which transform the latter into an adult frog.
Tadpole looks completely different from frog. The tadpole that emerges from the eggs contains gills, a tail and a small circular mouth.
They can swim freely within the water. During its development, tadpole grows and undergo some abrupt changes in their structure and
develops into mature frog. The metamorphosis of tadpole begins with the development of limbs, lungs development and finally the
absorption of tail by the body. As a result of such changes, the tadpole gradually gets transformed into frogs.
The tadpole is herbivorous, respires through gills and has tail.

The adult frog is insectivorous respires through lungs and skin (gills disappear) and the tail also disappears.
During metamorphosis the tongue of frog becomes long and highly mobile for catching preys.
Life cycle of frog

In similar way, a beautiful butterfly emerges out of cocoon.
The caterpillar undergoes metamorphosis. It changes its colour and its body con-
tracts. As a result the tissues become fluid and begin forming organs of adult
butterfly. Within few days, once the development is complete a beautiful butterfly
emerges out of the pupal shell. The adult will continue the cycle and reproduce.
Adult butterfly
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Egg
Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction by which offspring arise from a
single parent and inherit the genes of that parent only. It is a reproduction which
The pupa
does not involve meiosis or fertilization. sheds its skin
Animals such as Hydra, Amoeba etc. reproduces through asexual reproduction. Egg hatches
many times
by a process
Asexual reproduction does not involve fusion of male and female gamete. It re- into a caterpillar known as
quires only one parent. As a result, the offspring produced are genetically identical moulting
The caterpillar
to each other and their parent. They are actually called clones. Clones are a group builds a coccoon
of genetically identical individuals. around itself to
form a pupa
MODE OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION Life cycle of a butterfly
Various mode of asexual reproduction in animals are – budding and binary fission.
Budding
Budding involves the formation of a new individual from the bulging of a parent body. It is commonly seen in some plants, fungi and
some animals such as yeast and Hydra. These bulges are actually buds. In Hydra, the cells divide rapidly at a specific site and develop
as an outgrowth called bud. These buds, while still attached to the parent body, develop into smaller individuals. When these
individuals become mature enough, they detach from the parent body and develop as an independent individual. This type of asexual
reproduction is known as budding.
Yeast is a single-celled organisms that grows rapidly if sufficient nutrients are available to them. They reproduce through budding.
When budding occurs in yeast cells, small bulb like projections protrudes out. This projection is called bud. The bud grows and
detaches from parent cell to form new yeast cell. The yeast cell grows and produces more yeast cells through the process of budding.
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134 BIOLOGY
Mouth
Bud
Bud
Budding in Hydra
Binary fission :
Binary fission is another type of asexual reproduction seen in bacteria and Amoeba. It
Mother cell
involves the division of nucleus followed by that of the cytoplasm, breaking the body into
two young ones. It occurs in unicellular organisms.
Amoeba is a single-celled organism. It begins the process of reproduction by the division of
its nucleus into two nuclei. This is followed by the division of its body into two with each
Division of
part receiving a nucleus. Finally, two Amoebae are produced from one Amoeba. The newly Nucleus
formed daughter Amoeba is genetically identical to each other and to the parent Amoeba.
Division of
NOTE Cytoplasm
Other form of asexual reproduction

Apart from budding and binary fission there are other method of asexual reproduction.
Some common forms of asexual reproduction are –
(1) Gemmules (Internal buds) – In this form of asexual reproduction, parent releases a Daughter Cells
specialized mass of cells that can develop into offspring. Sponges exhibit this type of
reproduction.
(2) Fragmentation – In this, the body of the parent breaks into distinct pieces, each of
which can produce an offspring. Planaria exhibit this type of reproduction. Binary fission in Amoeba
Gemmules in sponges Fragmentation in Planarians

(3) Regeneration – In regeneration, a piece from a parent body gets detached, which grows and develops into a completely new
individual. Echinoderms exhibit this type of reproduction.
(4) Parthenogenesis – It involves the development of an egg that has not been fertilized into an individual. Animals like wasps, bees
and ant reproduce by this process. If an egg gets fertilized, it will develop into a female. A non-fertilized egg may develop into a
male.
ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual reproduction is advantageous to certain animals that remains in one particular place like Hydra, Planaria and animals that are
unable to look for mates. It also produces numerous offspring without costing the parent a great amount of energy or time.
DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction lacks genetic variation. All of the organisms that reproduces asexually are genetically identical and therefore
share the same weaknesses. If the stable environments changes, the consequences could be deadly to all of the individuals.
P oi n t
Why offspring are identical to one another and to their parent in asexual reproduction?
SOLUTION
In asexual reproduction, the offspring comes from the same parent. So, they are identical to one another and to their parent.
CLONING
Cloning is the process that is used to create an identical (exact) copy of a cell, tissue or a complete organism. It was
successfully performed for the first time by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland. They
successfully cloned a Scottish sheep named Dolly. Dolly was born on 5th July 1996 and was the first mammal to be cloned
from adult somatic cell. During the process of cloning of Dolly, somatic cells was collected from the mammary gland of a
female Finn Dorsett sheep. Simultaneously, an egg was obtained from a Scottish black face ewe. Then they transferred the
nucleus from the cell from Finn Dorsett sheep to the egg of the Scottish black face ewe. After few days, the egg with new
nucleus started behaving like a normal fertilized zygote, which gradually developed into an embryo. This embryo was then
surgically implanted into the uterus of a surrogate mother, which finally gave birth to a lamb called Dolly.
Though Dolly was given birth by the Scottish black face ewe, it was found to be identical to the Finn Dorsett sheep from
which the nucleus was taken.
Dolly was a healthy lamb and produced several offspring of her own through sexual means. Unfortunately, Dolly died on
14th February 2003 due to certain lung disease.
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SUMMARY
Reproduction is the biological process through which a living organism produces offspring that are similar to themselves.
There are two modes of reproduction –
l Sexual reproduction – Reproduction resulting from fusion of male and female gametes.
l Asexual reproduction – Reproduction in which only a single parent is involved.
The male reproductive organs includes testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, penis and accessory glands like seminal
vesicle, prostate gland and bulbourethral gland.
The female reproductive organs include ovaries, oviducts, uterus and vagina.
The testes produce male gametes called sperms while the ovary produces female gametes called ova.
The process of fusion of male and female gamete is called fertilization.
The fertilized egg is called zygote.
There are two types of fertilization –
l Internal fertilization – Fertilization that takes place inside the female body.
Eg. – Human beings, hens, cows, dogs.
l External fertilization – Fertilization that takes place outside the female body.
Eg. – Frogs, fish and starfish.
Animals such as humans, cow, etc., which give birth to young ones are called viviparous animals.
Animals such as hen, frog, lizard, etc., which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
Placenta is a vascular tissue that is present in the inner lining of uterus. It is connected to foetus by umbilical cord.
Umbilical cord is a cord containing blood vessels that connects the placenta with the foetus.
The process of release of an egg by an ovary is called ovulation.
The process of releasing blood and mucus every month through the vagina is called menstruation. It is usually a 28 day
cycle.
The transformation of the larva into adult through drastic changes is called metamorphosis.
Clones are group of genetically identical organisms derived from a single individual by means of asexual reproduction.
Budding in yeast and binary fission in Amoeba are two types of asexual reproduction.
Fill in the Blanks : 8. Umbilical cord connects placenta with the baby.
9. Head portion of human sperm carries genetic material for cell
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an reproduction.
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s). 10. Binary fission is a type of sexual reproduction.
Match the Following :
1. The type of reproduction in which only single parent is
involved is called _________ reproduction. DIRECTIONS : Each question contains terms (Given in column
I) and their features or functions (given in columns II). Terms
2. Animals which give birth to young ones are called ________
given in column I have to be matched with features given in
animals. column II.
3. Egg laying animals are called _______ .
1. Column-I Column-II
4. The type of reproduction in which both male and female (Terms) (Features)
animals take part is called _________.
A. Testes p. Produces tiny sperm cells
5. The fusion of ovum and sperm is called _________. B. Epididymis q. Transfer sperm to vagina
6. The fertilized egg is called a __________. of females
7. The male gamete is called _________. C. Vas deferens r. Lubricates the sperm
D. Urethra s. Storage and nourishes
8. The female gamete is called ________.
the sperm
9. The zygote divides repeatedly to form an ______. E. Penis t. Transfer sperm from
10. The embryo gets embedded in the wall of ________ for its epididymis to urethra
F. Prostate gland u. Carries urine and sperm
further development.
11. Amoeba reproduces by the process of __________. 2. Column-I Column-II
(Terms) (Function)
12. In humans, fertilization occurs in __________.
A. Ovary p. Produces ovum
13. An ovum is ________ celled. B. Oviduct q. Carries ovary to uterus
14. The process in which a bud appears on the body wall of C. Uterus r. Contains developing
certain organism that grows into a full organism is called foetus
_______. D. Vagina s. Receives penis during
sexual intercourse.
True / False :
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
1. Define fertilization.
1. In frog, fertilization occurs inside the body.
2. Where does internal fertilization occur?
2. Fertilization is the process where sperm fuses with ovum to
form a single cell called zygote. 3. In which type of asexual reproduction, an animal reproduces
3. In asexual reproduction the offsprings are not completely by dividing into two individuals?
identical to the parent. 4. Through which process a tadpole develops into an adult.
4. Fertilization of ova in human female occur in the vagina. 5. Name three reproductive organs found in females.
5. Placenta protects the embryo from entry of pathogen from 6. Name reproductive organs found in males.
mother’s body.
7. What is zygote?
6. In internal fertilization large number of eggs are produced.
7. Budding in Hydra is a process of asexual reproduction. 8. What is vasectomy?
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138 BIOLOGY
9. What is ovulation? 9. What is the function of ovary?
10. What is a gestation period? 10. Write about the development of butterfly.
11. What is metamorphosis?
11. What is cloning? Write the name of first cloned animal.
12. What is a test tube baby?
12. What do the sperms do after being released?
13. Expand IVF.
13. Write difference between external and internal fertilization.
14. Define cloning.
14. Write the functions of placenta.
15. What is the name of the young one of frog?
16. Name the process by which Planaria reproduce. 15. Write the differences between viviparous and oviparous.
17. Name the process by which sponges reproduce. 16. Write a short note on menstruation.

17. Describe the path that sperm take while leaving the body.
18. Describe two structural differences between a mature sperm
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in 2-3 sentences. and a mature egg.
1. What is parthenogenesis? Give example of parthenogenesis.

2. What is parturition?
3. What is budding? Give two examples of budding. DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
4. What is the functions of testis? 1. Diagrammatically explain the development of embryo in
5. What is implantation?
uterus.
6. What do you understand by embryonic nutrition?
2. Describe the various types of asexual reproduction in animals.
7. What are the disadvantages of asexual reproduction?
3. Explain the life cycle of a frog with proper diagram.
8. What is the main advantage of sexual reproduction over
asexual reproduction? 4. Explain the process of fertilization in humans.
Text - Book Exercise : 10. Complete the cross-word puzzle using the hints given below.
1. Explain the importance of reproduction in organisms. 1 E R 2 I L I 3 A T I 4 N
2. Describe the the process of fertilization in human beings. E Y V
3. Choose the most appropriate answer: S G I 5
(a) Internal fertilization occurs T O P I
(i) in female body. I 6 N T E R N A L N
(ii) outside female body. 7 U D S E R A
(iii) in male body. 8 V A R Y
(iv) outside male body. U Y
(b) A tadpole develops into an adult frog by the process S
of Across
(i) fertilization. (ii) metamorphosis 1. The process of the fusion of the gametes.
(iii) embedding (iv) budding. 6. The type of fertilization in hen.
7. The term used for bulges observed on the sides of the
(c) The number of nuclei present in a zygote is body of Hydra.
(i) none. (ii) one. 8. Eggs are produced here.
(iii) two. (iv) four. Down
2. Sperms are produced in these male reproductive organs.
4. Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or
3. Another term for the fertilized egg.
False (F):
4. These animals lay eggs.
(a) Oviparous animals give birth to young ones. 5. A type of fission in amoeba.
(b) Each sperm is a single cell.
(c) External fertilization takes place in frog.
1. What is the importance of reproduction?
(d) A new human individual develops from a cell called 2. In markets, eggs of birds are available but never eggs of
gamete. dogs. Why?
(e) Egg laid after fertilization is made up of a single cell. 3. The eggs of frogs do not have shells for protection, yet
(f) Amoeba reproduces by budding. they are safe in water. How?
4. The term metamorphosis is not used while describing human
(g) Fertilization is necessary even in asexual reproduction. development. Why?
(h) Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction. 5. Mother gives birth to a baby but the baby has characters of
(i) A zygote is formed as a result of fertilization. both parents. How is this possible?
6. How is reproduction in hydra different from that in amoeba?
(j) An embryo is made up of a single cell. 7. How can we say that fish exhibits external fertilisation?
5. Give two difference between a zygote and a foetus. 8. Hens and frogs are both oviparous exhibiting different types
6. Define asexual reproduction. Describe two methods of of fertilisation. Explain.
asexual reproduction in animals. 9. Observe the following figures.
7. In which female reproductive organ does the embryo get
embedded?
8. What is metamorphosis? Give examples. (a) (b)
9. Differentiate between internal fertilization and external
fertilization.
EBD_7029
140 BIOLOGY
HOTS Questions : 6. Visit a poultry farm near to your home and observe the steps
of development of eggs to chick.
DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions. 7. How does a leech do reproduction?
8. What is “parental care”? Give some idea about parental care
1. Collect information about first test tube baby of the world. with different examples?
2. Why cows always produce one baby, whereas dog produces 9. Production of sperms requires low temperature. How is it
more than one puppies at a time? accomplished in human body?
3. Why most of the twins are similar? 10. An ovum allows the entry of only one sperm at a time. Why?
4. Some twins are identical but some twins are non-identical. 11. Collect information about amniocentesis? Why it is necessary
What is the reasons behind it? to ban amniocentesis?
5. How will you determine the sex of foetus while inside the 12. Why umbilical cord is called as life line of developing baby?
mother’s womb? Explain.
Multiple Choice Questions : 15. Where does fertilization occur in mammals?

(a) Uterus (b) Fallopian tube
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 22 multiple choice (c) Vagina (d) Cervix
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out of 16. Which type of fertilization is found in frogs?
which ONLY ONE is correct. (a) External, in water (b) Internal, in abdomen
(c) External, in uterus (d) Internal, in epididymis
1. Which of the following is hermaphrodite animal? 17. If an organism is a diploid (or 2n) with 16 chromosomes,
(a) Bear (b) Tiger (c) Leech (d) Wolf then how many chromosomes its sperm cells or egg cells will
2. Which hormone is secreted by males? contain?
(a) Estrogen (b) Progesterone (a) 8 (b) 16 (c) 32 (d) 64
(c) Testosterone (d) Both (a) and (b) 18. The vas deferens connects the epididymis to the
3. A sperm is a (a) seminal vesicles (b) urethra
(a) multicelled (b) single celled (c) testes (d) prostate gland
(c) multilayered (d) single layered 19. After sperm move through the vas deferens, they enter the
4. Which organ releases sperm? (a) seminal vesicles (b) urethra
(a) Vas deferens (b) Testes (c) urinary bladder (d) all of these
(c) Scrotum (d) Urethra 20. A sperm tail consists of
5. Parthenogenesis occurs in which of the following animals? (a) a nuclues (b) mitochondria
(a) Sheep (b) Sponges (c) flagellum (d) golgi body
(c) Ant (d) Hydra 21. A zygote is a/an
6. Which of the following is not a part of female reproductive (a) implanted fertilized egg (b) fertilized egg
system? (c) ovulated egg (d) blastocyst
(a) Uterus (b) Vagina 22. How many chromosomes does a mature human sperm cell
(c) Urethra (d) A pair of ovaries contain?
7. Which part of sperm provides energy for movement of sperm? (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 23 (d) 46
(a) Head (b) Middle piece Assertion & Reason :
(c) Tail (d) All of these
8. The genetic information is carried by which part of the sperm? DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion
(a) Tail (b) Middle piece followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question
(c) Head (d) None of these on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that
9. An ovary is large due to presence of best describes the two statements.
(a) yolk (b) water
(c) air (d) minerals
10. Which of the following hormone is responsible for secondary (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
sexual characters in females? the correct explanation of Assertion.
(a) Testosterone (b) Estrogen (c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(c) Thyroxine (d) Pituitary (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
11. Another name for oviduct is 1. Assertion : In asexual reproduction, only one parent is
(a) cervix (b) seminal vesicles required to produce a new organism.
(c) prostate gland (d) fallopian tube Reason : Regeneration is a type of asexual reproduction.
12. Which of the following connects foetus with placenta? 2. Assertion : Asexual reproduction takes place in some
unicellular and multicellular organisms
(a) Umbilical cord (b) Amniotic fluid
Reason : Binary fission in Amoeba, budding in Hydra,
(c) Wall of uterus (d) Fallopian tube regeneration in Hydra are some examples of asexual
13. Which of the following is an unisexual animal? reproduction.
(a) Tiger (b) Earthworm 3. Assertion : Gametes are formed in gonads.
(c) Leech (d) Tape worm Reason : Gonads are haploid in nature.
14. Which structure is cut and tied off in a vasectomy? 4. Assertion : In human male, testes are extra abdominal and lie
in scrotal sacs.
(a) Penis (b) Epididymis Reason : Scrotum acts as thermoregulator and keeps testicular
(c) Urethra (d) Vas deferens temperature lower by 2°C for normal sperm formation.
EBD_7029
142 BIOLOGY
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
10. Duration of complete embryonic development starting from

implantation up to the parturition.
11. Drastic change which takes place during the development of
Fill in the Blanks :
the larva into as adult is called metamorphosis.
1. Asexual 2. Viviparous 12. Test tube baby is a baby developed from an egg that was
3. Oviparous 4. Sexual reproduction fertilized outside the body and then implanted in the uterus
5. Fertilization 6. Zygote of the biological or surrogate mother.
7. Sperm 8. Ovum 13. In vitro fertilization.
9. Embryo 10. Uterus 14. The process of forming an identical copy of cell, tissue or
organism is called cloning.
11. Binary fission 12. Fallopian tube
15. Tadpole
13. Single 14. Budding
16. Fragmentation
True / False : 17. Budding or Gemmule formation inside the body.
1. False. It occurs outside the body.
2. True
1. Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction in which
3. False. Offsprings are completely identical to parents. growth and development of embryos occur without
4. False. Fertilization takes place in fallopian tube. fertilization. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in many plants,
5. True some invertebrate animal species (including nematodes, water
6. False. In external fertilization large number of eggs are fleas, some scorpions, aphids, some bees) and a few
produced. vertebrates.
7. True 2. The birth of the fully developed foetus is termed as
parturition.
8. True
3. The process of developing a new individual from buds, is
9. True called budding. The examples are Hydra and Yeast.
10. False. Binary fission is a type of asexual reproduction. 4. The testis is a part of male reproductive system. The primary
Match the Following : functions of the testes are to produce sperm
(spermatogenesis) and to produce androgens, primarily
1. A-p, B-s, C-t, D-u. E -q, F-r testosterone hormone.
2. A-p, B-q, C-r, D-s 5. The attachment of the embryo with the uterus is called
implantation.
6. Embryonic nutrition means the requirement of nutrients and
1. The process by which sperm fuse with an ovum to form a oxygen by the embryo for its development.
single cell zygote is called fertilization.
7. The disadvantages of asexual reproduction include
2. Inside the female body. production of a less genetic variety that gives the offspring
3. Binary fission a lesser chance of survival in a varying environment and the
4. Metamorphosis. fact that only identical individuals are produced. In asexual
reproduction the offspring has identical genes and
5. Ovary, Oviduct and Uterus.
chromosomes of the parent.
6. Testes, Sperm duct and Penis.
8. Sexual reproduction brings about variation in individual. Also,
7. Zygote is a single cell formed by fertilization of sperm and it ensures survival of species in a population.
ovum.
9. Function of ovary is to produce ovum and a hormone called
8. The surgical procedure carried out in males. estrogen.
9. The process of release of egg from ovary is called ovulation. 10. The process of development of butterfly is known as
metamorphosis. First the colour and body structure changes.
The tissues become fluid and then development of adult Long Answer Questions :
butterfly starts.
1. Diagrammatic representations of embryo in uterus.
11. Cloning is the process of creating genetically identical copies
of biological matter. This may include genes, cells, tissues or
entire organisms. Cloning from adult animals was introduced
to the public in 1997 when scientists announced the birth of
Dolly, the first animal cloned in this way.
12. The sperms swim in the oviduct to reach the egg. When they
reach the egg one of the sperm may fuse the egg to form
zygote.
13.
External fertilization Internal fertilization
(i) External fertilization occurs Internal fertilization occurs
outside the female body. within the female body
(ii) Examples- Frog, fish, Examples – birds, reptiles,

starfish mammals including human
2. Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction by which
(iii) External fertilization desires Internal fertilization protects
offsprings arise from a single parent, and inherit the genes of
water to facilitate their the fertilized egg or embryo that parent only. It does not involve meiosis, ploidy reduction,
fertilization, therefore it from predation and harsh or fertilization.
happens in wet environments, which results
The principal forms of asexual reproduction are
environments. in higher survival rates than
can occur with external (i) Binary fission: In the process of binary fission, an organism
duplicates its genetic material, or deoxyribonucleic acid
fertilization.
(DNA), and then divides into two parts (cytokinesis), with
14. Placenta is the mechanical and physiological connection each new organism receiving one copy of DNA.
between foetal and maternal tissues for the nutrition,
Binary fission is the primary method of reproduction of
respiration and excretion of the foetus.
prokaryotic organisms. In protists, binary fission is often
15.
differentiated into types, such as transverse or longitudinal,
Viviparous Oviparous depending on the axis of cell separation. It may be irregular
(i) Viviparous animals are Oviparous animals are those (Amoeba), longitudinal (Euglena), Transverse (Paramecium
those which give birth to which lay eggs. Fertilization and Planaria), and oblique (Dinoflagellates).
live young that have may be internal or external
been nourished by the and development takes place
mother's body. outside the female body.
(ii) This includes all mammals Examples- birds, frog,
except the egg-laying reptiles
monotremes (the
platypus and echidnas).
Humans is an example of
a viviparous animal.
16. Menstruation, or period, is normal vaginal bleeding that

occurs as part of a woman's monthly cycle. Every month, Fig: Binary fission in Amobea
female body prepares for pregnancy. If no pregnancy occurs, (ii) Multiple fission: In this, the nucleus undergoes several mitotic
the uterus, or womb, sheds its lining. The menstrual blood is divisions, producing a number of nuclei. After the nuclear
partly blood and partly tissue from inside the uterus. It passes divisions are complete, the cytoplasm separates, and each
out of the body through the vagina. nucleus becomes encased in its own membrane to form an
17. Testes ® Epididymis ® Vas deferens ® Urethra ® Vagina individual cell. It occurs in protozoa (Plasmodium)
® Cervix ® Uterus ® Fallopian tube (iii) Budding: During budding, a new organism starts growing
18. Sperm is microscopic, motile and flagellated while ovum is from the parent's body. At first it looks like a bud. This bud
larger, non-motile, spherical and food-laden cell. later develops into a mature organism. Sometimes it stays
attached to the parent's body and sometimes it breaks off.
EBD_7029
144 BIOLOGY
Hydra reproduces by budding. In Hydra, a bud develops as the Fallopian tube surround it and begin competing for
an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific entrance. The head of each sperm, the acrosome, releases
site . These buds develop into tiny individuals and when enzymes that begin to break down the outer, jelly-like layer
fully mature, detach from the parent body and become new of the egg's membrane, trying to penetrate the egg. Once a
independent individuals. single sperm has penetrated, the cell membrane of the egg
changes its electrical characteristics. This electrical signal
causes small sacs just beneath the membrane (cortical
granules) to dump their contents into the space surrounding
the egg. The contents swell, pushing the other sperm far
away from the egg in a process called cortical reaction. The
cortical reaction ensures that only one sperm fertilizes the
egg. The other sperms die within 48 hours. The fertilized egg
is now called a zygote. The formation of zygote marks the
beginning of new individual. The dividing zygote gets
(iv) Fragmentation: Fragmentation is a form of asexual pushed along the Fallopian tube. Approximately four days
reproduction in which an organism is split into fragments. after fertilization, the zygote has about 100 cells and is called
Each of these fragments develops into mature, fully grown a blastocyst. When the blastocyst reaches the uterine lining,
individuals that are clones of the original organism. it floats for about two days and finally implants itself in the
Fragmentation as a method of reproduction is seen in many uterine wall around six days after fertilization. This signals
organisms such as filamentous cyanobacteria, molds, the beginning of pregnancy. The implanted blastocyst
Spirogyra, lichens, many plants, and animals like sponges, continues developing in the uterus for nine months.
acoel flatworms, some annelid worms, and sea stars.
(v) Sporulation: Some types of mould reproduce through
sporulation. They produce reproductive cells - spores - that
are stored in special spore cases until they are ready to be
released. After they are released they will develop into new, Text - Book Exercise :
individual organisms. Bread mould reproduces by 1. (a) Reproduction is necessary for the existence and
sporulation. maintainence of a species.
3. Life cycle of frog: There are three distinct stages in the life (b) It is responsile for the continuation of similar kinds of
cycle of a frog - egg, tadpole and adult. During external individuals, generation after generation.
fertilisation, the egg fuses with a sperm to form a zygote. The 2. Male reproductive organs (testes) produce sperms (male
zygote further divides to form an early tadpole, which matures gametes) while the female reproductive organs (ovary)
into a late tadpole. During metamorphosis, the tadpole produces eggs. Human beings reproduce by sexual process
transforms into an adult frog. produce ova (female gametes). The sperms are released
inside female bodies where they fuse with ovum and form
zygote. Since this process takes place within the female
body, it is called internal fertilization. The single celled zygote
begins to develop into an embryo which further multiples
into many cells and develops into a small baby.
3. (a) (i) in female body.
(b) (ii) metamorphosis.
(c) (iii) One (diploid nuclei).
4. (a) False (b) True (c) True (d) False
(e) True (f) False (g) False (h) True
(i) True (j) False
5.
Zygote Embryo
Zygote is a single cell. Embryo is multi-cellular.
No body parts. Has well defined limbs and other
body parts.
It is formed after Embryo formation is a post
4. Human fertilization is a complicated process that results in a fertilization when fertilization process. The zygote
fertilized egg. The fertilized egg will mature in the womb of its sperm fuses with multiples into multi-cellular body
mother until birth. The process of fertilization occurs in ovum. called embryo which ultimately
fallopian tube (Oviduct). The sperm that reached the egg in gives rise to the baby.
6. Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction involving 10.

single parent to produce offspring. Thus, the offsprings 1
produced are exact copies of their parents. F E R 2T I L I 3Z A T I 4
O N
It is generally observed in very small sized organisms for eg. E Y V
Amoeba, Hydra. Binary fission, budding, fragmentation etc. 5
S G I B
are the examples of asexual reproduction.
1. Budding: In this a small outgrowth starts bulging out. T O P I
Slowly it grows and detaches from the parents and I 6
I N T E R N A L N
finally develops into a separate individual. Examples: 7
Hydra, yeast. B U D S E R A
8
2. Binary Fission: It is a type of asexual reproduction in O V A R Y
which the parent cell divides into two halves. U Y
Organisms that reproduce through binary fission are
bacteria and Amoeba. S
7. The embryo gets embedded in the walls of the uterus. Once
attached to uterus the embryo, gradually develops various Exemplar Questions :
body parts such as hands, legs, head, eyes, etc. 1. It ensures the continuation of species generation after
8. Metamorphosis is a biological process of transformation of generation.
a larva into an adult. It involves sudden and abrupt changes 2. Dogs do not lay eggs.
in the body structure of the animal due to cell growth and 3. A layer of jelly covers the eggs of frog and provides
differentiation. It is generally observed in amphibians (e.g. protection.
frogs) and insects (e.g. butterflies) etc. 4. In human beings, body parts of an adult are present from
the time of birth itself. Whereas, in metamorphosis, the parts
of the adult are different from those at the time of birth.
5. Although mother gives birth to child, fertilisatoin involves
(b) Early tadpole
two gametes, one from the mother and the other from father.
The zygote, therefore has both father and mother’s
contribution. Since the zygote develops into the baby it has
(c) Late tadpole characters of both parents.
(a) Eggs 6. Hydra reproduces by budding where an outgrowth arises
from the parent and develops into a new individual. Amoeba
reproduces by binary fission in which the division of nucleus
is followed by division of the cell resulting in two individuals.
7. Female fish releases eggs into water and male fish releases
(d) Adult frog sperms. Sperms swim randomly in water and comes in contact
with the eggs. The nucleus of the sperm moves into the egg
The life cycle of a frog has three life stages.
and fuses with it. Since fertilisaiton occurs in water, outside
Egg >>>>> Tadpole >>>> Adult
the female body, it is external fertilisation.
1. Eggs: Eggs are the result of external fertilization and
8. Hens are oviparous in which internal fertilisation takes place.
transform into fish like tadpoles.
The fertilised egg develops into an embryo inside the body.
2. Tadpoles : Tadpole has gills, small mouth and fish like However, the development of chick from the embryo takes
tail to swim inside lakes and ponds. It is herbivorous place outside the body.
and eats leaves. Frogs are oviparous in which both fertilisation and
3. Frog: Tadpoles grows and transform into a small frog development of zygote to embryo and young ones occurs
which is amphibian by nature, respires though gills outside the body.
and skin and eats insects. 9. (i) (a) Embedding of the embryo in the uterus.
9.
Internal Fertilization External Fertilization (b) Fertilisation.
(c) Zygote formation and development of an embryo
Fusion of male and female Fusion of male and female
from the zygote.
gametes inside the female gametes outside the
(d) Zygote showing fusion of nuclei.
body. female body.
(ii) The correct sequence is
High chances of survival of Large number of eggs are c, b, d, a
offspring, so less number of produced because of low (iii) Zygote formation
ova/eggs are produced. For chances of survival. The sperm and the egg nuclei fuses to form a single
e.g. Human Cows, Hens, Examples: Fish, frog, nucleus resulting in the fomation of a fertilised egg or
Human beings. starfish. zygote.
EBD_7029
146 BIOLOGY
(Note: One step is explained as an example. Students 8. Parental care is the process of caring for child from infancy
may explain any other step.) to childhood.
Parental care mostly persists in amphibians, reptiles birds
HOTS Questions :
and fishes.
1. Test tube baby is a baby conceived through in vitro Parental care is of 2 types.
fertilization (IVF). On July 25, 1978, Louise Joy Brown, the
(i) Internal parental care
world's first successful "test-tube" baby was born in Great
Britain. Louise Brown was born as a result of natural cycle (ii) External parental care
where no stimulation was made. Robert G. Edwards, the In most of the egg laying organisms, the females give birth
physiologist who developed the treatment, was awarded the to eggs and male looks after the eggs. The parental care
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2010. typically involves guarding the eggs from predators, fanning
2. A normal cow usually has only 1 baby at a time and dog the eggs with increase oxygen supply and clearing the eggs
produces more than one puppy at a time. to eliminate fungus. Reptiles like crocodile, turtles build nest
for caring their child.
3. Most of the twins are similar because they share identical
genes, who share half their DNA. Twins may be identical or 9. A low ambient temperature is essential for normal
non-identical. Identical twins arise when "one" egg is fertilized spermatogenesis (formation of sperms). Testicular
and the resulting embryo then splits to become two embryos, temperature needs to be around 4-7°C cooler than core body
they contain the same genetic information and so develop in temperature. This is why the testes are designed to drop out
the same way. The same is not true for non-identical twins, in of the abdomen into the scrotal sac. Three mechanisms keep
this case the ovaries release two eggs and both are fertilized the scrotum cooler than the rest of the body are:
and the pregnancy proceeds as normal, only there are two 1. Scrotal skin is thin, so the testes easily lose heat into the
embryos instead of one, both embryos have their own surrounding environment.
different genetic material. Identical twins are genetically 2. Air circulating around the scrotum can cool the skin.
identical but this does not mean they will always look
3. The arteries bringing blood into the scrotum run
"exactly" the same, as they grow their environment, diet and
alongside the veins taking blood away to form a
physical activities will determine what they look like, for
sophisticated heat-exchange mechanism. Rather like a
instance if one twin over eats they will put on weight, whereas
hot and cold water pipe running together, the hot arterial
if the other does not they will remain a healthy size. Many
blood (coming from the abdomen) loses heat to the cooler
things determine what people look like not just genetic
venous blood (coming away from the testes), so blood
material.
is already partly cooled before entering the scrotum.
4. The identical twins are produced when the embryo splits
Even if the testes heat up by as little as 2°C, sperm
into two in the early stages of its development. This produces
formation is adversely affected. Sperm count will drop,
two identical children of the same sex. Some identical twins
the number of normal sperm will fall and the number of
look so alike that they can only be differentiated by their
abnormal sperm will increase.
finger prints. Only one in 83 pregnancies results in twins.
10. An ovum allows the entry of only one sperm at a time because
Non-identical twins are produced when the two eggs are
ovum has a layer of zona pellucida around itself. When a
released at the same time and both are fertilized. They can be
sperm enters the ovum, the cortical granules present in the
of same sex or different sex.
ovum, causes the thickening of the zona pellucida. This
5. The sex determination of foetus can be done by the process prevents the entry of other sperms in the ovum and only one
called sonography. Sonography, also called ultrasound, is sperm is able to fertilize the egg.
cyclic sound pressure with a frequency greater than the upper
11. Amniocentesis was developed by Richard Dedrick and can
limit of human hearing. This limit varies from person to
be used for prenatal sex discernment. Amniocentesis (also
person, it is approximately 20 kilohertz in healthy, young
referred to as amniotic fluid test or AFT) is a medical
adult. The production of sound is used in many different
procedure which is used in prenatal diagnosis of
fields, typically to penetrate a medium and measure the
chromosomal abnormalities and foetal infections. It is also
reflection signature or supply focussed energy. The reflection
used for sex determination in which a small amount of amniotic
signature can reveal details about the inner structure of the
fluid, which contains foetal tissues, is sampled from the
medium.
amniotic sac surrounding a developing foetus, and the foetal
6. Self DNA is examined for genetic abnormalities, like Down
7. Leech has both male and female reproductive organ. It syndrome. Amniocentesis can diagnose these problems in
produces both testes and ovaries respectively. Leech the womb. Amniocentesis is usually done when a woman is
reproduces by reciprocal fertilization and sperm transfer between 16 and 22 weeks pregnant. As girl child was never
occurs during copulation. Leech use a organ called clitellum accepted in many families, when a women got pregnant her
to hold their eggs and secrete the cocoon. family got amniocentesis done by which they could find the
gender of the foetus and if the foetus was a girl the baby urethra travels through the penis and carries semen as
would be aborted. Seeing this reason amniocentesis is banned well as urine. In females, the urethra is shorter than in
in India. the male, and it emerges above the vaginal opening.
12. The umbilical cord (also called birth cord) attaches the 7. (b) Each sperm cell has three parts: a head, middle piece,
placenta to the foetus. It is made up of three blood vessels: and tail. An acrosome at the head tip produces enzymes
two smaller arteries (which carry blood to the placenta) and that helps penetrate the female ovum (egg). During
a larger vein (which returns blood to the foetus). It can grow conception, chromosomes (genetic material) in the
to be 60 cm long, allowing the baby enough cord to safely nucleus (cell control centre) join with chromosomes in
move around without causing damage to the cord or the the ovum. The middle piece contains mitochondria
placenta. Umbilical cord development begins around the fifth which provide energy for the sperm. The mitochondria
week of the embryonic period of foetal development. The are tightly spiralled around the axial filaments
umbilical cord is derived from the yolk sac and allantois (contractile portion) of the flagellum (tail). Centrioles
(which, in turn, were derived from the same zygote that the form the tail, which moves the sperm toward the ovum.
foetus develops from) and replaces the yolk sac as the foetus' 8. (c) The genetic information is carried by head part of the
source of nutrients. Umbilical cord blood contains stem cells sperm for more refer answer 7.
that can be used to treat some immune disorders and cancers,
9. (a) An ovary is large due to presence of yolk. Yolk is a
so it is sometimes collected after the cord has been cut from
yellow, usually spherical portion of an egg of a bird or
the new born baby. Due to all these reasons umbilical cord is
reptile, surrounded by the albumen and serving as
called the lifeline of the foetus.
nutriment for the developing young.
10. (b) Estrogens are hormones that are important for sexual
and reproductive development, mainly in women. They
are also referred to as female sex hormones. In women,
Multiple Choice Questions : estrogen is produced mainly in the ovaries, but it is
also produced by fat cells and the adrenal gland.
1. (c) Leech is a hermaphrodite. A hermaphrodite is an Estrogen is involved in the onset of puberty, playing a
organism that has reproductive organs normally role in the development of secondary sex
associated with both male and female sexes. characteristics, such as breasts, and pubic and armpit
2. (c) Testosterone is a steroid hormone, secreted primarily hair.
by the testicles of males and the ovaries of females, 11. (d) Another name of oviduct is fallopian tube. The
although small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal fallopian tubes, also known as the uterine tubes, are a
glands. It is the principal male sex hormone. In men, pair of 4-inch (10 cm) long narrow tubes connecting
testosterone plays a key role in the development of the ovaries to the uterus. Ova (egg cells) are carried to
male reproductive tissues such as the testis and prostate the uterus through the fallopian tubes following
as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics ovulation. The ova may also be fertilized while in the
such as increased muscle, bone mass, and the growth fallopian tubes if sperm is present following sexual
of body hair. intercourse.
3. (b) Sperm is a single celled gamete. It is smaller, usually 12. (a) The umbilical cord connects a baby in the womb to its
motile male reproductive cell of most organisms that mother. It runs from an opening in baby's stomach to
reproduce sexually. Sperm cells are haploid -they have the placenta in the womb. The average cord is about
half the number of chromosomes as the other cells in 50cm (20 inches) long.
the organism's body). In male animals, sperms are 13. (a) Unisexual animals are those organism or species which
normally produced by the testes in extremely large are capable of producing only male or female gametes
numbers in order to increase the chances of fertilizing (sex cells) but never both.
an egg.
14. (d) Vasectomy is a surgical procedure for male sterilization
4. (b) Testes produces male gamete called sperm. and/or permanent birth control. During the procedure,
For more refer answer 3. the male vasa deferentia are severed and then tied/
5. (c) Parthenogenesis is a type of asexual reproduction in sealed in a manner so as to prevent sperm from entering
which a female gamete or egg cell develops into an into the seminal stream (ejaculate) and thereby prevent
individual without fertilization. Animals including most fertilization from occurring.
kinds of wasps, bees, and ants that have no sex 15. (b) Refer answer 11.
chromosomes reproduce by this process. 16. (a) In frog, fertilization is external in water. In almost all
6. (c) Urethra is not a part of female reproductive system. It frogs, egg fertilization happens outside the female's
is a tube that leads from the bladder and transports body instead of inside. The female releases her eggs
and discharges urine outside the body. In males, the and the male releases his sperm at the same time. In
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148 BIOLOGY
order to make sure that the sperm reaches the eggs, the inherit the genes of that parent only. The offsprings
male and female get into a mating posture called will be exact genetic copies of the parent. Regeneration
amplexus. is the ability of an organism to replace its lost or
17. (a) The number of chromosomes is 8. damaged body parts. Hydra has great power of
regeneration.
18. (a) Vas deferens connects the epididymis to the seminal
vesicles. The vas deferens is a muscular tube that 2. (a) Asexual reproduction is the primary form of
reproduction for single-celled organisms such as the
passes upward alongside the testicles and transports
archaebacteria, eubacteria, and protists. Types of
the sperm-containing fluid called semen. The
asexual reproduction are budding, binary fission,
epididymis is a set of coiled tubes (one for each testicle) fragmentation, regeneration etc. [For more refer answer
that connects to the vas deferens. 2 of long questions.]
19. (b) After sperms move through the vas deferens they enter 3. (c) Gonads are the reproductive cells found in the testes
the urethra. in males and the ovaries in females. They produce
20. (c) Sperm tail consists of flagellum. Tail helps in swimming. gametes which are haploid in nature.
This ability to swim is essential for the male fertility as 4. (a) Scrotum is a pouch of skin arising from the lower
the sperm has to swim up the vaginal canal, cervix, and abdominal wall and hanging between the legs. The two
uterine canal to reach the ovum. testes lie in respective scrotal sacs. The scrotum acts
21. (b) Zygote is a fertilized egg. It is the cell produced by the as a thermoregulator and provides an optimal
temperature for the formation of sperms. This
union of two gametes, before it undergoes cleavage.
temperature is 1-3 degree Celsius lower the temperature
22. (c) Mature human sperm cell contains 23 chromosomes. of the body. Failure of testes to descend into scrotum
causes sterility. Because formation of sperms does not
occur at abdominal temperature. It occurs at a
1. (b) Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction by temperature that is 2 degree centigrade lower than the
which offsprings arise from a single organism, and body temperature.
Reaching the Age of Adolescence 149
Chapter
REACHING THE AGE OF
6 ADOLESCENCE
INTRODUCTION
Changes in human body start from the day it comes to this world. Humans pass through various stages in their life. These are
- infancy, childhood, adolescence and adult-hood. Infancy is the first stage. A new born baby remains infant till one year. An
infant can see, feel the touch, hear sounds and react by crying, smiling or moving hands and legs. Childhood is the stage
between infancy and adolescence during which a child learns about his surroundings and culture. As he grows up, he develops
various ideas and thoughts. Adolescence, the time period between childhood and adulthood, is the transitional stage during
which various biological and psychological changes occur. Human beings become adults by the age of 18. An adult becomes
physically, psychologically and socially mature. He reaches the maximum height, becomes sexually active and mentally and
emotionally strong.
In this chapter, we will learn about all such changes that take place in the human body after which a person becomes capable of
reproduction. Also we will discuss the role played by hormones in bringing these changes in a child.
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150 BIOLOGY
ADOLESCENCE AND PUBERTY

Adolescence
Adolescence is a period or stage of growing to maturity. It occurs after childhood and before adulthood. It is characterized by a
tremendous pace in growth and change that is second only to that of infancy. Growing up is a natural and ongoing process in one's
life & growth begins from the day one is born. During adolescence a young person begins to explore their sexuality making access to
sexual and reproductive health education and services, a necessity for their well-being.
You must have seen a sudden increase in height in some of the boys or girls of your class. OR You must have seen hairy line above
the lips in boys? Have you ever wondered, what are these changes all about?
These changes are all about due to phase of adolescence. Boys and girls are growing up during this phase. Upon crossing the age of
10 or 11, there is a sudden spurt in growth that becomes noticeable. Hence, the period of life, when the body undergoes certain
noticeable changes, leading to reproductive maturity is called adolescence. It begins after the age of 11 and lasts upto 18 to 19 years
of age.
Adolescents are also called as “teenagers” because the period covers the teens (13 to 18 or 19 years of age). The human body
undergoes several changes during adolescence. These changes mark the onset of puberty.
For girls, puberty generally begins sometimes between ages 9-13 and for boys between ages 10-15!!
P oi n t
Is puberty and adolescence the same thing?
SOLUTION
No. Puberty is the start of the time when a boy is biologically ready to become a father and a girl is biologically ready to
become a mother. It basically refers to the bodily changes of sexual maturation rather than psychological and cultural aspects
of adolescence.
PUBERTY
Puberty is the process of physical changes by which a child's body becomes an adult and capable of reproduction. It occurs at about
age 12 in girls and age 14 in boys. Puberty is characterized by maturing of the genital organs, development of secondary sex
characteristics in boys, and in girls, onset of menstruation. Both sexes experience a swift increase in body size and changes in body
shape and composition. Puberty marks the beginning of adolescence and ends when an adolescent reaches reproductive maturity.
Puberty attained before the normal age is called precocious puberty. Early puberty keeps the female shorter.
CHANGES AT PUBERTY
Puberty involves all sorts of big and small changes to the body and brain. During puberty, body grows faster than at any other time
in your life, except for when you were a baby.
The various changes that takes place in adolescents during puberty are - increase in height, voice change, change in body shape,
increased activity of sweat and sebaceous glands, development of sex organs and reaching mental, intellectual and emotional
maturity.
INCREASE IN HEIGHT
Increase in height is the most visible change during puberty. During this time, the long bones of the arms and the legs elongate and
make a person tall. Epiphysis is a vital growth area near the end of a long bone, which later fuses with the main bone through
ossification. Epiphyseal plates serve as the site of bone growth/elongation. Both boys & girls reach their maximum height by the time
they reach the age of 18. The growth rate varies from individual to individual. When you go through puberty, it might seem like your
sleeves are always getting shorter and your pants are creeping up your legs. Why it is happening so ? It is because your body is
going through a growth spurt that lasts for about 2 to 3 years.
The other parts of body, especially feet, are growing faster than everything else. During adolescence, to ensure healthy growth of
bones, muscles and other parts of body needs the correct nutrition.
Initially girls grow faster than boys but by about 18 years of her age, both will reach their maximum height. Some children grow
suddenly at puberty and then slow down, while some grow gradually.
Have you ever thought why do we stop growing after a period. We stop growing after a period of certain age because we are
genetically programmed to do so. Genes, inherited from our parents, are responsible for growth and development. Our genes start
working at the moment of conception when a single cell becomes a complex organism in which billions of cells work in concert. Once
we are born, we continue to grow and develop until the completion of puberty. At this point our genetic program tells us to stop
growing. The complex interaction of genes, nutrients and hormones cause bone cells to proliferate at the growth plate of long bones.
The key hormones in this process are growth hormone, thyroxine, androgens and estrogen. They are secreted by the pituitary, thyroid
and reproductive glands respectively. At the completion of puberty, the reproductive glands in both males and females increase the
production of the hormone estrogen. It is the high concentration of estrogen in the blood that causes the growth plates of our bones
to fuse. This fusion effectively closes the growth centres of long bones and renders them unable to respond to the hormones that
initiate growth.
Growth spurt
Growth spurt is a period of rapid increase in growth or is a short burst of activity or something that happens
in a hurry. When that growth spurt is at its peak, some kids grow 4 to more inches in a year. At the end of your
growth spurt you will reach your normal adult height or just about. The average growth spurts lasts 24–36
months.
We continue to grow, but only slightly, after the age of 25 and we reach our maximum height at about the age of 35 or 40. After that we
shrink about half an inch every ten years. The reason for this is the drying up of the cartilages in our joints and in the spinal column
as we get older.
P oi n t
Why the height of an individual is more or
less similar to their mother or father or other family members?
SOLUTION
The height of an individual depends on the genes inherited from parents. Genes provides instruction for making proteins and
proteins determine the structure and function of each cell in the body. Genes are responsible for all the characteristics one
inherits. But though genetic help determines character, environmental influence have a considerable impact on shaping an
individuals physical appearance and personality. So really, the way one’s body looks and functions is a combination of
genes and environment.
iN THE LAB
How can we calculate the full height of an individual?
The full height of an individual can be calculated by using the following formula.
Present height (cm)
×100
% age of full height at this age
The given table gives the average rate of growth in height of boys and girls with age. The figures in columns 2 and 3, give the
percentage of the height a person has reached at the age given in column 1. For example, by the age 14, a boy has reached 92% of
his probable full height, while a girl has reached 98% of her full height. These figures are only representative and there may be
individual variations. Use the table for your friends and work out how tall they are likely to be.
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152 BIOLOGY
% of full height
Age of years Boys Girls
8 72 77
9 75 81
10 78 84
11 81 88
12 84 91
13 88 95
14 92 98
15 95 99
16 98 99.5
17 99 100
18 100 100
Example: A girl is 10 years old and 124 cm tall. Calculate her full height (using the above formula) at the end of her growth period.
CHANGES IN BODY SHAPE

Human body shape is a complex phenomenon. The general shape or figure of a person is defined mainly by the moulding of skeletal
structures, as well as the distribution of muscles and fat. During puberty, differentiation of the male and female body occurs for the
purposes of reproduction. In adult humans, muscle mass may change due to exercise, and fat distribution may change due to hormone
fluctuations. Inherited genes play a large part in the development of body shape. During puberty the following changes occur in boys
and girls, like
In boys -
(i) The shoulders become broader.
(ii) The chest becomes wider.
(iii) The body becomes more muscular.
In girls-
(i) The pelvic region widens.
(ii) Hips get broaden.
(iii) Breasts develop and increase in size. The mammary glands (milk secretion glands) develop inside the breasts.
VOICE CHANGES
Both boys and girls experience voice change as they grow older. A boy’s voice may change from sounding like a little bird to
sounding like somebody’s dad! Why it is so ? This is due to changes in larynx.
The larynx (also known as voice box) is a part of respiratory system that holds vocal cords. Larynx helps the individual to talk, sing,
hum, yell, cough and make all sort of noises. During puberty larynx gets bigger. When a boy reaches puberty his body starts secreting
a hormone called testosterone. This testosterone causes the boy’s larynx to grow and his vocal cords to get longer and thicker. Vocal
cords are thin muscles that stretch across the larynx like rubber bands.
Larynx is also responsible for preventing food from entering the airway and controlling the airflow during
breathing.
When you speak, air rushes from the lungs and makes vocal cords to vibrate and produce the sound of your voice. Before you reach
puberty, your larynx is small enough and your vocal cords are small and thin. That is why your voice is higher than an adult’s. As you
go through puberty, the larynx gets bigger and the vocal cords get lengthened and thickened. This makes your voice deeper. As your
body adjusts to this changing structure (larynx) your voice may ‘crack’ or ‘break’. But this process lasts only for few months. Once the
larynx has finished growing, your voice won’t make those unpredictable noises. The growing voice box in boys can be seen as a
protruding part of the throat called Adam’s apple. When the larynx grows bigger, it tilts to a different angle and part of it sticks out
inside the neck. It can be seen at the front of the throat.
Area above vocal cords

Area containing
vocal cords
Adam’s apple Area beneath vocal
(thyroid cartilage) cords
Adam’s apple
For girls, the larynx also grows bigger but not as much as in boys. It means there is no Adam’s apple in a women’s neck. Generally, girls
have a high pitched voice whereas the voice in boys is deep. Sometimes, the muscles of the growing voice box go out of control and
voice becomes hoarse.
• Adam’s apple is the largest cartilage of the larynx and is named so because it looks like a small, rounded
apple located in front of throat.
• The process of sound production in the larynx is know as phonation.
LARYNX
Anatomy of the Larynx

Larynx is a tube - shaped muscular and cartilaginous
structure in the neck region between the pharynx (throat)
and the trachea (breathing tube). The larynx houses the
vocal cords and has cartilaginous skeleton and intrinsic
and extrinsic muscles. Larynx consists of 3 main parts -
supraglottis (the area above the vocal cords that contains
the epiglottis cartilage); glottis (the area of the vocal
cords); subglottis (the part below the vocal cords,
containing the cricoid cartilage that continues down into Tongue
the windpipe).
Larynx helps to carry out its primary functions, like Epiglottis
- voice production Supraglottis
Vocal cord Larynx
- control of airflow (breathing)
Glottis
- swallowing.
Subglottis
Esophagus
Trachea
Anatomy of larynx
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INCREASED ACTIVITY OF SWEAT AND SEBACEOUS GLAND

During puberty, the puberty hormones stimulate the skin glands like sweat and sebaceous to become more active. During puberty
sweat glands start producing more sweat. Sweat glands are used to regulate temperature and remove waste by secreting water, sodium
salts, and nitrogenous waste (such as urea) onto the skin surface. The main electrolytes of sweat are sodium and chloride. The sweat
is oily, cloudy, viscous, and odourless; it gains odour upon decomposition by bacteria.
Another thing that comes with puberty is acne. The increased secretion of sebum from sebaceous glands makes the skin oilier. Pimples
usually start showing up and you may get them through out the teenage years. To help control pimples, wash your face twice a day
with warm water and a mild soap or cleanser. Don't squeeze, pick, or pop your pimples.
Sweat, itself has no smell. The stinky smell of sweat arises when the sweat mixes with the bacteria that line on
our skin.
DEVELOPMENT OF SEX ORGANS

Though reproductive organs are present in infant stage, but they reach maturity and complete development during puberty. During
this period the male sex organs like testes and penis develop completely. Also, the testes begin to produce sperm. In girls, the ovaries
enlarge and eggs begin to mature. Also, ovaries start releasing matured eggs.
REACHING MENTAL, INTELLECTUAL AND EMOTIONAL MATURITY

During puberty, a child goes through many mental and emotional changes. You might feel confused or have strong emotions that you
have never had before. You may feel overly sensitive or become upset easily. Some kids lose their tempers more often and get angry
with their friends and families.
Intellectual development also occurs during adolescence to transform the individual from a child to adult. In fact, it is the time in one’s
life when the brain has the greatest capacity for learning. Hence during puberty :-
(i) There is mental growth of an individual. Individual is able to think in a more flexible and a logical way. The ability to see other’s
point of view, exploring ideas, developing concepts and memory skills improve.
(ii) There is an emotional growth. The individual is happy at one moment and the very next moment their mood changes. Interest in
the opposite sex and desire for closeness arises.
(iii) There is a social growth. It includes developing a personal identity accepting oneself, developing independence and preparing
for a career. Sometimes, it is hard to deal with all these new emotions. But it is necessary for you to know that while your body
is adjusting to the new hormones, so is your mind.
SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS

Secondary sexual characters are those features that help to distinguish the male from the female. In girls, during puberty, breasts begin
to develop and in boys facial hair like moustaches and beard begins to grow. As these features are used to distinguish male and female,
hence they are called as secondary sexual characters.
Secondary sexual characteristics that develop in girls during puberty are –
(i) Development of breasts and increase in their size.
(ii) Development of hair under armpits and in the pubic region.
(iii) Widening of pelvic region and broadening of hips.
(iv) Start of menstrual cycle. (Discussed later).
Secondary sexual characteristics that develop in boys during puberty are –
(i) Growth of facial hair (beard and moustaches).
(ii) Voice becomes deeper.
(iii) Muscles develop and shoulders become broad.
(iv) Hair develop under the armpits, under chest and in the pubic region.
(v) Increase in weight.
Laughter increases the amount of natural killer cells which destroys tumours and viruses, lowers blood
pressure and increases oxygen in the blood.
But have you ever thought what initiates changes at puberty? The changes that occur at puberty
or adolescence are controlled by hormones. Hormones from pituitary
Hormones are chemical substances produced in the body that control and regulate the activity of
Stimulates
certain cells or organs. They are secreted by endocrine glands (ductless) of endocrine system
directly into the bloodstream. Each hormone has a definite function and acts on a particular tissue. Gonads
Once a hormone is secreted, it travels through the bloodstream to the cells designed to receive its
message. These cells are called target cells. The changes at puberty in males and females are Releases
triggered by secretion of male and female sex hormones from testes and ovaries respectively. Male Testosterone (in male)
hormone is called testosterone and female hormone is called estrogen. Testosterone and estrogen Estrogen (in female)
released by these glands is again released into the blood and reaches the target sites to trigger in the blood stream
various body changes such as growth of facial/pubic hair and growth of breasts and mammary (milk
producing) glands. Reaches
Hormones are primarily controlled by endocrine system. Endocrine system operates as a chemical
communication system. They work closely with the nervous system in regulating certain activities Respective target sites–
of the body. Testes and ovaries
Stimulates
• In 1902, first hormone discovered was secretin by Bayliss and Starling.
• Types of hormones on the basis of their chemical composition: Changes in the
- Amine (Thyroxine, epinephrine, norepinephrine) body and the
onset of puberty
- Steroids (Hormones of adrenal cortex, testis and ovaries)
- Proteinaceous and peptides hormones (Hormones of hypothalamus,
The onset of puberty is
pancreas and pituitary) controlled by hormones.
P oi n t
Why don’t women have beards?
SOLUTION
Because the various glands and hormones in the bodies of female deliberately act to prevent the growth of beards in women.
The female sex hormone estrogen works in such a way that growth of hair on the head is developed while the growth of beard
and body hair is inhibited.
The male sex hormone, testosterone, on the other hand, works in such a way that beard and body hair are developed while
the growth of hair on the head is inhibited or slowed down in the development.
CONNECTING TOPIC
GLANDS
Glands are specialized organ in an animal's body that synthesizes a substance such as hormones for release into the bloodstream
(called endocrine gland) or into cavities inside the body or its outer surface (called exocrine gland).
TYPES OF GLANDS
Exocrine glands
The glands that release their secretions with the help of ducts at specific site are called exocrine glands. For example, the salivary
gland secretes saliva in the mouth through salivary duct. Similarly, digestive glands secrete their secretions in the digestive tract
with the help of ducts. Sweat gland is also an example of exocrine gland.
Endocrine glands
The glands that pour their secretions directly into the blood are called endocrine glands. Endocrine glands are also called
ductless glands as they do not have ducts. The secretions reach their target through blood. The major endocrine glands that make
up the human endocrine system are – pituitary gland, hypothalamus, thyroid glands, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pineal
body and reproductive glands (that include testes in male and ovaries in female).
Heterocrine glands
Heterocrine glands are partly exocrine with duct and partly endocrine without duct. Exocrine part releases secretion in duct while
endocrine part releases hormones in blood.
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For example, pancreas and gonads.
Tear (lachrymal)
glands
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Parathyroid glands
Salivary glands
Thyroid gland
Thymus gland Mammary
glands (women)
Adrenal glands
Liver
Pancreas
Ovaries (women)
Intestinal gland
Testes (men)
Urethral
glands (men)
Fig. 6.3 : Endocrine Glands Fig. 6.4 : Exocrine Glands
ROLE OF HORMONES IN INITIATING REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTION

Sex hormones control the onset of puberty and initiate the reproduction function. Body changes in male such as the growth of facial
hair and cracking of voice, are initiated due to the secretion of testosterone. Body changes in females during puberty, such as breast
development, are initiated by estrogen. During puberty, the testes begins to secrete the testosterone hormone. This hormones bring
Role of hormones on reproductive function

about the physical changes that make a boy look like an adult male. These changes are called male secondary sexual characteristics,
which you have learnt in previous chapter. Similarly, in girls during puberty the ovaries begin secreting the hormones called estrogen
and progesterone. These hormones develop female sexual features. The activity of testes and ovaries are under the control of
hormones from another gland called the master gland or pituitary gland. This gland is located at the base of the brain. Pituitary gland
is small (about 0.5 grams in weight) pea sized gland, present in brain. It secretes various hormones in blood, which stimulate the target
sites (testes and ovaries) to secrete their hormones. During puberty, the hypothalamus produces gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) which stimulates the anterior portion of the pituitary gland to produce luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH), these in turn induce cells of the ovary in girls and testis in boys to produce sex hormones that are necessary for
ovulation and spermatogenesis and corresponding secondary sex characteristics.
REPRODUCTIVE PHASE OF LIFE IN HUMANS

The phase in individual's life during which there is production of gametes is called reproductive phase. In females, it is between 13 to
50 years and in males, it is from the age of 13, to life-long. The production of gametes starts earlier in females than in males. In females,
the ova begins to mature with the onset of puberty. During this period, one ovum matures and is released by one of the ovaries once
in about 28 days. The process of release of ovum is called ovulation. After ovulation, the egg lives for 24 hours. The wall of uterus
passes through several phases that are controlled by two hormones, called estrogen and progesterone. The inner lining of uterus gets
thickened and is supplied with blood from which growing embryo draws nutrition. This is a natural preparation to receive the egg in
case it is fertilized and pregnancy occurs. If fertilization does not occur, the lining of uterus breaks down slowly and is released out in
the form of blood and mucous along with the egg from the vagina. This loss of blood is called menstruation. Menstruation occurs
once in about 28 - 30 days. The first menstrual flow begins at puberty and is called menarche. Around the age of 45 to 50 years, the
menstrual cycle stops. The permanent stoppage of menstruation is called menopause. The menstrual cycle is controlled by a number
of glands and a series of hormonal changes beginning in the brain. A brain structure called the hypothalamus signals the pituitary
gland to release hormones known as gonadotropins which prompt the ovaries to secrete the sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone.
Periods (Menstrual cycle) usually come once in a month. But sometimes initially at the start of puberty it may
become irregular and some girls may skip a month.
Last day
28th
27th
26th
1st day
25th 2nd
3rd
24th
4th
Menstruation
23rd (uterus lining is shed) 5th
22th
6th
21th
7th
Ovum dies if not

20th
fertilized 8th
19th 9th
Ovulation
18th (Ovum is 10th
released
17th from ovary) 11th
16th 12th
15th 14th 13th
Menstrual cycle
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158 BIOLOGY
PHASES OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

The follicular phase
The follicular phase is the time from the first day of menstruation until the moment of ovulation. During this phase, the
pituitary gland releases a hormone which causes between 10 and 20 follicles to begin developing within the ovary. These
follicles each housing an immature egg (ovum), bead on the surface of the ovary. Usually, only one follicle will mature into
an egg.
The growth of the follicles produces the hormone estrogen, which causes the lining of the uterus (endometrium) to become
thick in preparation for the possible embedding of a fertilized egg.
Ovulation
Ovulation is the release of a mature egg from the ovary surface. During this phase, the pituitary gland increases production
of a hormone (LH) which triggers the follicle and ovary to open up and release the mature egg. This occurs mid-way
through the menstrual cycle, between days 12 and 16 for women with a 28 day cycle.
The luteal phase
The luteal phase is the time from ovulation until the first day of menstruation. During this phase, the follicle from which the
mature egg was released transforms into a structure known as the corpus luteum and produces large amounts of the
hormone progesterone, as well as small amounts of estrogen. These hormones contribute to the further thickening and
maintenance of the lining of the uterus in preparation for the embedding of a fertilized egg.
If fertilization of the egg does not occur, the corpus luteum dies and progesterone levels decline leading to the breakdown of
the uterus lining, this shed through the vagina as a period (menstruation).
Menstruation
Menstruation occurs when the broken down lining of the uterus flows from the body through the vagina. Menstruation
generally lasts from 3 to 7 days. The length of a period can differ between women, and between cycles in individuals.
Important terms:
- Amenorrhea is the lack of a menstrual period.
- Dysmenorrhea is painful periods, including severe cramps. Menstrual cramps in teens are caused by too much of a
chemical called prostaglandin.
Many girls experience cramps before or during their periods (menstrual cycle). These cramps are caused by
prostaglandins which is produced to make the muscles of the uterus contract. The constricting muscles help
push the blood out through a girls vagina during her period.
SEX DETERMINATION – BOY OR GIRL

Sex determination is defined as the genetic mechanism by which sex is determined in all living organism. What determine whether the
baby developing inside the mother’s womb is a boy or a girl? This is determined by a thread like structure called chromosomes.
Chromosomes, located inside the nucleus of zygote or fertilized egg, carry heredity information in the form of genes. The chromo-
somes which carry genes for sex determination are called sex chromosomes. Sex chromosomes are also called heterosomes or
allosomes. Human beings have 22 pairs of autosomes (chromosomes other than sex chromosomes) and one pair of sex chromosome.
Chromosomes determine everything from hair colour and eye colour to sex. Whether you are a male or female depends on the presence
or absence of certain chromosomes. There are two types of sex chromosomes- X and Y. Female cell contains two X chromosomes (XX)
while male cells carry one X and one Y chromosomes (XY).
• If the sperm carrying X chromosome fertilizes the egg, it would be a girl, since the chromosome pair will be XX.
• If the sperm carrying Y chromosome fertilizes the egg, the baby will be a boy , since the chromosome pattern will be XY.
• X chromosome was discovered by Henking (1891).

• Y chromosomes were discovered by Stevens (1902).
• SRY gene (sex determining region): A gene for maleness found on the Y chromosome. It has a key role in
development of the testes and determination of sex. The SRY gene provides instructions for making a
transcription factor called the sex-determining region Y protein. A transcription factor is a protein that
attaches (binds) to specific regions of DNA and helps control the activity of particular genes. The sex-
determining region Y protein causes a foetus to develop as a male.
XY
XX
Girl
XY
XX Boy
Sex determination in humans
Therefore, it is the Y chromosome that is essential for the development of the male reproductive organs, and with no Y chromosome,
an embryo will develop into a female. This is because of the presence of the sex determining region of the Y chromosome, also known
as the SRY gene.
P oi n t
1. The gender of the baby depends on the father’s sperm and not on mother’s egg cell.
Many people blame the mother for the birth of a girl. Do you think it is scientifically true?
2. Is it possible to find out the sex of the baby while inside the mother’s womb.
SOLUTION
1. No, this is not scientifically correct. Male gender is decided by the presence of Y chromosome. The sperm cell carrying
either X or a Y chromosome determines the sex of the child because the egg cell from the mother (ovum) contains only
X chromosomes.
Cells in testis Cells in Ovary
(Male sex organ) (Female sex organ)
XY XX
Sperm cell X Y X X Ovum
XX XX XY XY
Female Female Male Male

child child child child
2. Doctors determine the sex of the child with the help of special techniques called sonography. Using the reflections of
high-frequency sound waves to construct an image of a body organ (a sonogram) is called sonography. It is commonly
used to observe foetal growth or study bodily organs. The process of killing foetus in mother’s womb is called abortion.
This killing of girl foetus is known as female infanticide.
HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine system is the system of glands (ductless) that produce endocrine secretions that help to integrate and control bodily
metabolic activity. The secretions are called hormones. The endocrine system regulates development and growth (for example,
puberty), metabolism, and sexual and reproductive processes. It includes the reproductive glands, adrenal glands, thyroid glands,
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hypothalamus, and pituitary glands. Although distinct from the nervous system, the endocrine system interacts with the nervous
system through the hypothalamus, which regulates the pituitary gland. The nervous system and the endocrine system work together
to help the body to function. The major glands that make up the human endocrine system are – pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas,
the ovaries and the testes.
The branch dealing with the study of endocrine glands and actions of thier hormones is called endocrinology.
How nervous system is different from endocrine system?
1. Hormones are transported around (to their target organs) the body by the blood. Therefore, hormonal
response are relatively slow compared with nervous responses.
2. Many hormonal responses (for example, growth) occur over relatively long period of time.
3. The main function of endocrine system is to maintain homeostasis within the body i.e. to keep the internal
environment of body constant whereas the main function of nervous system is to receive and respond to
stimulus.
4. Generally endocrine system is controlled by the nervous system through the hypothalamus, mediated by
pituitary gland.
Human Endocrine System
HYPOTHALAMUS
Hypothalamus is located in the basal part of forebrain and it regulates wide range of body functions. It contains neurosecretory cells
that produces hormones. These hormones regulate the synthesis and secretion of pituitary gland. It is the main link between
endocrine and nervous system.
PITUITARY GLAND
It is a small pea-shaped gland located at the base of the brain and is attached to hypothalamus by a infundibular stalk.
The pituitary gland is anatomically divided into an – anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary
The hormone secreted by pituitary gland influences the secretion of other glands. Therefore, they are known as Trophic hormones.
Types of hormones secreted by pituitary glands are: thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH), prolactin (PRL), growth hormone (GH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), antidiuretic hormone (ADH)/vaso-
pressin, and oxytocin.
Hormones and functions of pituitary gland.
Anterior Pituitary Gland
- Growth hormone : Stimulates growth and development of body.
- Prolactin : Stimulates milk production after giving birth.
- ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) : Stimulates the adrenal glands.
Reaching the Age of Adolescence
- TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) : Stimulates the thyroid gland.
- FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) : Stimulates the ovaries and testes. LH (luteinizing hormone) : Stimulates the ovaries or testes.
Pineal gland
The pineal gland is a small pine cone shaped gland of the endocrine system. The pineal gland is composed of
cells called pinealocytes and cells of the nervous system called glial cells. It produces several important
hormones including melatonin. Melatonin influences sexual development and sleep-wake cycles.
Posterior Pituitary Gland

- ADH (antidiuretic hormone) : It is produced in the hypothalamus, stored in the pituitary gland, and increases absorption of water
into the blood by the kidneys.
- Oxytocin : Contracts the uterus during childbirth and stimulates milk production.
Table: Types of pituitary hormones with their target tissue and function
Endocrine gland Hormone Target tissue Functions

Anterior pituitary TSH Thyroid gland Stimulates release of thyroxine and tri-
iodothyronine from the thyroid gland
LH Ovary/Testis Females: Promotes ovulation of the egg and
stimulates estrogen and progesterone
production Males: Promotes
testosterone release from the testis
FSH Ovary/Testis Females: Promotes development of eggs
and follicles in the ovary prior to ovulation
Males: Promotes production of testosterone
from testis
GH Bones, cartilage, muscle, Acts to promote growth of bones and
fat, liver, heart organs
PRL Breasts, brain Stimulates milk production in the breasts
and plays a role in sexual behaviour
ACTH Adrenal glands Stimulates the adrenal glands to produce
cortisol
Posterior pituitary Vasopressin (anti-diuretic Kidney, blood vessels, Acts to maintain blood pressure by causing
hormone, ADH) blood components the kidney to retain fluid and by
constricting blood vessels
Oxytocin Uterus, milk ducts of Causes ejection of milk from the milk ducts
breasts and causes constriction of the uterus during
labour
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MASTER GLAND OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Pituitary gland is also called as master gland of the endocrine system. Because:
(i) The hormones it secretes play an active part in controlling the functions of other endocrine glands.
(ii) Its job is to receive messages about the need for a particular hormone and to secrete the hormones that cause the
manufacture and release of the hormone.
THYROID GLAND
Thyroid gland is located in front of the neck below the larynx. The thyroid gland produces thyrox-
ine and calcitonin hormones. Iodine is required for the production of thyroxine hormone. Thyroxine
(also called T4) regulates the body temperature and also plays a major role in growth and develop-
ment of body.
The enlargement of thyroid gland due to deficiency of iodine in blood is termed goitre. This
condition can be prevented by eating vegetables and fishes as they contain iodine in it. The Thyroid
abnormal secretion of thyroxine affects the body. Trachea
Hypothyroidism is a condition caused by underproduction of thyroxine. It is characterized by low
energy production, slowing down of heart beat, loss of appetite and lethargy. Hyperthyroidism is
a condition caused by over production of thyroxine. It is characterized by increased energy pro- Thyroid Gland
duction, increased heart-beat, increased appetite, frequent sweating and shivering of hands.
Apart from all these, it also causes a condition called cretinism which is characterised by the retardation of mental and physical
development. In adult, the deficiency of thyroxine leads to a disease called Myxoedema while the over secretion of thyroxine leads to
exophthalmic goitre.
Calcitonin, also called thyrocalcitonin, is a protein hormone and plays an important role in calcium and phosphorus metabolism. In
particular calcitonin has the ability to decrease the blood calcium level at least in parts by effects on two well-studied target organs:
bone and kidney.
Calcitonin along with parathormone, produced by parathyroid gland regulates the level of calcium ions in blood.
Thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland in the human body. Thyroid gland is made up of two types of
cells-
(i) Follicular cells (secrete thyroxine, T4 and T3)
(ii) Parafollicular: cells (also called G-cells, secretes calcitonin)
PARATHYROID GLAND
Parathyroid glands are 4 small glands which are located on the posterior side of thyroid gland.
They regulate the level of calcium ions in the blood by secreting parathyroid hormone (PTH).
What happens if there is increase production of parathormone in blood? Calcium salts are
absorbed from the bones and added to blood. As a result, bones become brittle. Also, the kidneys Parathyroid
filter and excrete more calcium from the blood. This leads to stone formation in kidneys. gland
The deficiency of parathormone leads to tetany. Tetany is abnormal increase in the excitability of
nerves and muscles resulting in spasms of legs and arms. Parathyroid Gland
P oi n t
1. How can deficiency of calcium in blood be rectified?
2. What is the role of thyroid gland in regulating the level of calcium ions.
SOLUTION
1. The deficiency of calcium in blood can be rectified by stimulating parathyroid to release parathormone. As a result,
calcium is removed from bone, intestine and nephron to blood, there by increasing its quantity
2. When the level of calcium ions increases in blood, thyroid gland is stimulated to release calcitonin. Calcitonin, in turn
causes the excess calcium to excrete through urine or to get accumulated in the bones.
ADRENAL GLAND
Adrenal glands, which are also called suprarenal glands, are small, triangular glands Medulla
located on top of both kidneys. An adrenal gland is made of two parts: the outer region is
Cortex
called the adrenal cortex and the inner region is called the adrenal medulla.
Adrenal Cortex
The adrenal cortex secretes hormones that have an effect on the body's metabolism, on
chemicals in the blood, and on certain body characteristics. The adrenal cortex secretes
corticosteroids and other hormones directly into the bloodstream. The hormones pro- Adrenal gland
duced by the adrenal cortex include:
(i) Aldosterone - Aldosterone helps to maintain the balance of salts and water in the
blood, inhibits the sodium excrected into urine.
(ii) Cortisol - Cortisol stimulates the break down of proteins and fats. It also stimulates
synthesis of glucose from amino acids. Continuous use of cortisol causes elevation
of glucose level in blood.
Adrenal Gland
Adrenal Medulla
The adrenal medulla helps a person in coping with physical and emotional stress. The adrenal medulla secretes the following
hormones :
(i) Epinephrine (also called adrenaline) – This hormone increases the heart rate and force of heart contractions, facilitates blood
flow to the muscles and brain, causes relaxation of smooth muscles, helps with conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver
and other activities.
(ii) Norepinephrine (also called noradrenaline) – This hormone has little effect on smooth muscles, metabolic processes and
cardiac output, but has strong vasoconstrictive effects, thus increasing blood pressure.
Adrenal gland is also called as 4s gland.

• S-Source of energy
• S-Sex hormone
• S-Salt retaining
• S-Sugar metabolism
ADRENALINE
Adrenaline is often known as the fight or flight hormone because it prepares the body to act, especially when the body
encounters stress. Hence it is also termed as stress hormone because it helps to calm down when one is very angry,
embarrassed or worried. It is released under emergency situations. Some of the physiological changes brought about by
adrenaline are –
• The rate and intensity of heart beat increases.
• Blood pressure increases
• Blood flow to the limbs inncreases
• Hair of skin rises
• Blood glucose level increases
• Blood flow to alimentary canal and skin reduces.
• It results in overall increase in energy level in the body.
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CONNECTING TOPIC
PANCREAS
Pancreas is the second largest endocrine gland. It is located near
the liver i.e. below the stomach. The pancreas is classified as a
heterocrine gland because it contains both endocrine and exocrine
glandular tissue. The exocrine tissue makes up about 99% of the
pancreas by weight while endocrine tissue makes up the other 1%.
The exocrine glands produce enzymes important to digestion. The
endocrine tissue is arranged into many small masses known as acini.
The endocrine portion of the pancreas is made of small bundles of
cells called islets of Langerhans. Islet cells create and release im-
portant hormones directly into the bloodstream. Two of the main
pancreatic hormones are insulin, which acts to lower blood sugar,
and glucagon, which acts to raise blood sugar.
Deficiency of insulin leads to high level of sugar in body. This con- a cells
dition is called diabetes.
b cells
OVARIES Pancreas
Ovaries are two in number and located in the pelvic region of female body. The hormones secreted are oestrogen and progesterone.
Estrogen stimulates the growth and development of female seconedary sex organs and female secondary sexual characters (such as
development of breasts).
Progesterone play an important role in regulation of menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
During pregnancy progesterone helps in attaching embryo to uterine wall, development of placenta and growth of secretory alveoli
in mammary glands.
Islets of Langerhans contain four types of cells:

i. beta cells : Secrete insulin and amylin
ii. alpha cells : Secrete glucagon
iii. delta cells : Secrete somatostatin, and
iv. gamma cells : Secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
TESTES
Like ovaries testes are also two in number. The testes consists of two flat oval organs in the scrotum. Endocrine part of testes is
formed of group of cells called interstitial cells or leydig cells. The hormone released by leydig cells is testosterone.
Testosterone controls the development of secondary sexual characters in males such as facial hair, beard, moustaches etc. It
stimulates spermatogenesis (formation of sperm).
Diabetes
- Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough insulin, or the cells of the body not responding
properly to the insulin produced.
- The two types of diabetes are referred to as type 1 and type 2. Former names for these conditions were insulin-
dependent and non-insulin-dependent diabetes, or juvenile onset and adult onset diabetes.
- Symptoms of diabetes include increased urine output, thirst, hunger, and fatigue.
- Diabetes is diagnosed by blood sugar (glucose) testing. A normal sugar level is currently considered to be
less than 100 mg/dL when fasting and less than 140 mg/dL two hours after eating.
THYMUS GLAND
Thymus gland is a ductless gland, which starts functioning in the embryonic stage itself, becomes active during childhood and
undergoes regression and gradually stops functioning after adolescence.
Thymus produces hormone called thymosin that imparts resistance to diseases in children. However it continues to be the
production centre of lymphocytes.
Thymus is the first developing lymphoid organ. It reaches its greatest size at puberty.
ROLE OF HORMONES IN COMPLETING THE LIFE CYCLE OF INSECTS AND FROGS

In the previous chapter, we have learnt about the life history of a butterfly and a frog. Try to recall the stages of life history of the
butterfly? In the life history of a butterfly the caterpillar has to pass through various stages to become adult. This process of change
from larva to adult is called metamorphosis. In insects, the process of metamorphosis is controlled by insect hormones like Ecdysone.
Similarly, in frog metamorphosis it is controlled by thyroxine. The presence of thyroxine causes the tadpoles to become adult frog. But
do you know, thyroxine production requires the presence of iodine in water. If the water in which tadpoles are growing does not
contain sufficient iodine the tadpoles cannot get metamorphosed into adults.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
During adolescence, there is rapid mental and physical growth. The physical and mental well being of an individual is regarded as an
individual’s health. Therefore for proper individual health, every human being needs –
(i) To have a balanced diet.
(ii) To observe personal hygiene and cleanliness regularly
(iii) To undertake adequate regular exercise.
TO HAVE A BALANCED DIET

A balanced diet contains the right amount of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals. The diet should contain adequate
amounts of cereals for carbohydrate, pulses for proteins, controlled amount of butter and ghee for energy and fruits and vegetables
for protection against diseases. Our Indian meal of roti/rice, dal (pulses) and vegetable is a balanced diet. Milk is a balanced diet in
itself. Fast food is tasty but does not contain adequate nutrition. Hence, it should not be used as substitute for meals.
PERSONAL HYGIENE
The basic aim of maintaining personal hygiene is to keep the bacteria and microorganisms away from entering the body or infecting the
food we consume. Personal hygiene is necessary for adolescents because the increased activity of sweat glands sometimes make the
body smelly. Taking a bath every day and cleaning all parts of the body is essential, otherwise, there are chances of catching bacterial
infections. Girls should keep track of their menstrual cycle and should be especially careful about hygiene during menstruation.
REGULAR PHYSICAL EXERCISE

Walking, playing and jogging etc. in the fresh air keeps the body fit and healthy. Since adolescence is a stage of insecurity and
confusion, it is easy for the adolescent mind to get diverted by wrong company or advice and may fall prey to drug and alcohol abuse.
SAY NO TO DRUG
Adolescents are advised not to feel confused or insecure. You are just passing through a period of much activity in the body and mind,
which is a normal part of growing up. So if anybody suggests that you will get relief by taking some drugs just say ‘No’ to them. Drugs
are actually addictive and once taken, there is a tendency to take them again and again. They harm the body in the long run, thereby
ruining the health and happiness.
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AIDS (ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME)

AIDS is a fatal disease caused by HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus). HIV kills or damages cells of the body’s immune system which
slowly destroys the body’s ability to fight infection and diseases. AIDS is the final stage of HIV infection.
Methods of transmission of virus are –
(i) By sharing the syringes used for injecting drug between normal and infected person.
(ii) From infected mother to an infant through milk.
(iii) Through sexual contact with a person infected with HIV.
Preventing measures that can be taken to prevent spread of AIDS are -
(i) Do not share syringes or needles.
(ii) Avoid receiving infected blood during transfusion
(iii) Use sterilised surgical instruments
The first recorded case of HIV infection dates back to 1959 from Democratic Rebublic of Congo in Africa.
SUMMARY
The period of life, when the body undergoes certain noticeable changes, leading to reproductive maturity is called adolescence.
Puberty is the start of the time when a immature boy or girl become sexually mature and capable of reproduction.
Changes at puberty
l Both males and females rapidly become taller. But on average, boys grow more and so usually end up taller adults than
girls.
l Girls develop a more rounded body outline, especially on the shoulders and hips while boys become more angular with
broader shoulders.
l The reproductive or menstrual cycle begins in girls while reproductive organs in the male body begins to develop sperm
cells.
Secondary sexual characters are those features that help to distinguish the male from the female. In girls, breast begin to
develop and boys begin to grow facial hair.
The changes at puberty are controlled by hormones.
Hormones are chemical messengers of the body that transfer information from one set of cells to another.
Glands are group of specialised cells that produce and secrete hormones.
Glands are of two types -
(i) Exocrine gland release their secretions with the help of ducts at specific site. Ex- Salivary gland
(ii) Endocrine gland release their secretions directly into blood. Eg Adrenal gland.
The endocrine glands play a vital role in controlling and co-ordinating activities of life.
The various hormones of pituitary gland control the secretion of hormones secreted from other endocrine gland.
The pituitary and hypothalamus are connected by nerve fibres and blood vessels.
Various types of glands and their secretions are as follows :-
l Pituitary - Master gland of body
l Thyroid gland - Thyroxine and calcitonin
l Parathyroid - Parathormone
Cortex - Aldosterone and Cortisone

l Adrenal glands
Medulla - Adrenaline and noradrenaline
l Pancreas - Insulin and Glucagon
Testes - Testosterone
l Gonads
Ovaries - Estrogen and Progesterone
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Fill in the Blanks : 1. Column-I Column-II

A. Master gland of body p. Thymus
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an B. Stress hormone of body q. Pituitary gland
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s). C. Disease resistance r. Goitre
1. When an adolescence reaches reproductive maturity, hormone in child
__________ ends. D. Deficiency of iodine s. Adrenaline
2. The adolescence are also called as __________. causes
3. ____________ is known as voice box. 2. Column I Column II
4. ___________ is absent in women’s neck. A. Parathyroid p. Plays an important role in
5. ____________ glands makes the skin oiler. immune system
6. Follicle stimulating hormone is secreted by__________ B. Thymus q. Stimulate the function of
gland. thyroid gland
7. Calcitonin is produced by ________ hormone. C. Thyroxine r. Regulation of level of
8. __________ hormone maintains salt balance in the body. calcium level in blood
9. The first period of a girl is called ___________. D. Pancreas s. Maintain level of sugar in
10. The _________ gland produces hormones which stimulate the body
other gland to release their hormones. Very Short Answer Questions :
11. Every sperm has _______ sex chromosomes.
12. _______ hormone regulates the amount of sugar in blood. DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
True / False : 1. Write the name of the medium by which endocrine gland
release hormones?
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your 2. What is a hormone?
answer as true or false. 3. Which hormone is responsible for maintenance of
pregnancy?
1. Exocrine glands are called ductless gland. 4. Which organ is known as the sound box?
2. Thyroid stimulating hormone is responsible for the growth
5. Which hormone is responsible for the change of vocal cord
and development of body.
in boys?
3. At puberty stage mammary glands develop inside the breasts.
6. Write the role of hypothalamus in the body?
4. 23 pairs of chromosome is found in every normal human cell.
7. What is the age of puberty in boys and girls?
5. The stage at which the body becomes capable of
reproduction is called menstruation. 8. Write the names of hormones secreted by pituitary gland?
6. Deficiency of insulin hormone may cause diabetes. 9. Write the location of parathyroid gland?
7. At adolescence stage, adolescents get mental, intellectual 10. What is the important role of adrenaline hormone?
and emotional maturity. 11. Which hormone controls the metamorphosis in caterpillar?
8. Metamorphosis in insects is controlled by adrenaline 12. Name the hormone secreted by thymus gland.
hormone. 13. What developmental changes occur in uterus at the time of
9. Female cells contain XX chromosome. menstruation?
Match the Following : 14. What is menopause?
15. How many pairs of sex chromosomes are found in human
being?
DIRECTIONS : Each question contains statements given in two
columns which have to be matched. Statements terms (A, B, C, 16. Which hormone is responsible for the growth of bones?
D)in column I have to be matched with statements terms (p, q, r, 17. Which technique determines the sex of the child?
s) in column II. 18. What is the functions of aldosterone in human body?
Short Answer Questions : 11. List the changes in male body that take place at puberty.
12. Write a short note on adrenal gland.
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in 2-3 sentences. 13. Write a short note on exocrine gland.
14. Write the name of two hormones secreted by the thyroid
1. What is the difference between puberty and adolescence. gland.
2. What is ‘teenage”? 15. What is ductless gland?
3. What are the secondary sexual characters in male and female?
16. What are the main functions of pituitary gland?
4. What is infanticide?
5. What are tropic hormones? Long Answer Questions :
6. What is the difference between hypothyroidism and
hyperthyroidism? DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
7. What is the necessity of balance diet for adolescents? 1. Explain the structure and functions of different endocrine
8. Why personal hygiene is necessary for everyone? glands found in human body.
9. What are drugs? 2. Explain the role of hormone in your body?
10. Expand AIDS? Write different methods of transmission of 3. What is menstrual cycle?
AIDS virus. 4. Discuss the various habits that adolescents should acquire
to have a proper physical health.
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Text - Book Exercise : Down

1. Male hormone
1. What is the term used for secretions
2. Secretes thyroxine
of endocrine glands responsible for
3. Another term for teenage
changes taking place
5. Hormone reaches here through blood stream
in the body?
6. Voice box
[Endocrine glands hormone]
2. Define adolescence. 7. Term for changes at adolescence
Adolescents
3. What is menstruation? Explain. 10. The table below shows the data on likely heights of boys
and girls as they grow in age. Draw graphs showing height
4. List changes in the body that take place at puberty.
and age for both boys and girls on the same graph paper.
5. Prepare a Table having two columns depicting names of
What conclusions can be drawn from these graphs?
endocrine glands and hormones secreted by them.
6. What are sex hormones? Why are they named so? State Exemplar Questions :
their function.
1. Give a suitable word for each of the following statements.
7. Choose the correct option. (a) The site which responds to a hormone.
(a) Adolescents should be careful about what they eat, (b) Name of a gland which transports secretions through
because ducts,
(i) proper diet develops their brains. (c) Chemicals which control changes at adolescence
(ii) proper diet is needed for the rapid growth taking stage.
place in their body. (d) It marks the beginning of reproductive period.
(iii) adolescents feel hungry all the time. 2. Name the hormone that is released by testes at the onset
(iv) taste buds are well developed in teenagers. puberty.
(b) Reproductive age in women starts when their 3. Name the female hormone produced by ovaries that helps
in development of mammary glands.
(i) menstruation starts.
4. Mention any two features each that are seen in boys and
(ii) breasts start developing.
girls each to distinguish them from each other at puberty.
(iii) body weight increases. 5. We should avoid taking medicines/drugs unless prescribed
(iv) height increases. by a doctor. Give reasons.
(c) The right meal for adolescents consists of 6. In human females, each time during maturation and release
(i) chips, noodles, coke. of egg the inner wall of uterus thickens. Is this thickening
(ii) chapati, dal, vegetables. permanent? Give reasons.
(iii) rice, noodles and burger. 7. Our government has legalised the age for marriage in boys
(iv) vegetable cutlets, chips and lemon drink. and girls. Give reaons as to why one should get married
after a certain age.
8. Write notes on
8. It is believed that height of a child depends upon the genes
(a) Adam’s apple.
inherited from parents. However, it is often seen that tall
(b) Secondary sexual characters. parents may have short children and vice-versa. Are there
(c) Sex determination in the unborn baby. factors other than genes, that can cuse these variations?
9. Word game : Use the clues to work out the words.
Across HOTS Questions :
3. Protruding voice box in boys 1. Many adolescents do not grow according to their age. Can
4. Glands without ducts you give reason, why?
7. Endocrine gland attached to brain 2. Why expecting mothers are advised not to do heavy work
8. Secretion of endocrine glands at the first phase of pregnancy?
9. Pancreatic hormone 3. Initially girls grow faster than boys but at 18 years of age,
both reach their maximum height. Given reason, why?
10. Female hormone
4. What is dwarfism? What are the reasons of dwarfism? 7. Why do most of the people get acne and pimples on the
5. “Some human female starts developing male characteristics face during puberty?
like beard, degeneration of uterus and ovaries etc. in their 8. What is the reason for irregularity in menstrution?
growing period.”
Give reason for the above statement. 9. Heavy supplements are not good during physical
exercise in adolescence
6. During growth period, many adolescence get excessive
growth, resulting into a symmetrically giant body. Why it
happens so? Do you agree. Give reason in support of your answer.
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Multiple Choice Questions : 10. Which hormones regulates the growth of metamorphosis in
frog?
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 15 multiple choice (a) Adrenaline (b) Insulin
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out (c) Thyroxine (d) Cortisol
of which ONLY ONE is correct. Choose the correct option. 11. Which hormone is responsible for ovulation?
(a) LH (b) Testosterone
1. What is hormone?
(c) Estrogen (d) FSH
(a) Organic complex substances
12. Which hormone regulates calcium level in blood ?
(b) Chemical messenger
(a) Glucagon (b) Insulin
(c) Glandular secretion
(c) Thyroxine (d) Parathormone
(d) Blood cells
13. Which hormone controls the blood pressure in emergency?
2. Which of the following system exhibits body
(a) Thyroxine (b) Prolactin
co-ordination?
(c) Insulin (d) Adrenaline
(a) Blood vascular system
(b) Nervous system 14. Which hormone stimulates the stomach to secrete gastric
juice?
(c) Brain
(a) Gastrin (b) Parathormone
(d) Nervous and endocrine system
3. Which of the following flows directly into blood? (c) Thyroxine (d) Insulin
(a) Enzyme (b) Hormone 15. Which hormone is associated with milk secretion in mammals?
(c) Minerals (d) Proteins (a) Estrogen (b) Prolactin
4. Which of the following is not a gland? (c) Adrenaline (d) GH
(a) Pancreas (b) Adrenal Assertion & Reason :
(c) Pituitary (d) Kidney
5. Endocrine glands DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an assertion
(a) do not possess ducts followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question
(b) sometime have duct on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that
(c) always have duct best describes the two statements.
(d) pour their secretion through ducts.
6. Which hormone regulates the process of spermatogenesis (a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
and sperm formation? correct explanation of Assertion.
(a) Follicle stimulating hormone (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
(b) Growth hormone the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) Thyroxine hormone
(c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) Glucagon
7. Pituitary gland is found in (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
(a) pancreas (b) brain 1. Assertion : The dietary deficiency of iodine causes goitre.
(c) gonads (d) trachea Reason : Iodine is required for the formation of thyroid
8. Which hormone controls secretion of estrogen? hormone.
(a) Progesterone 2. Assertion : Prolactin is also called ‘Milk ejection hormone’.
(b) Follicle stimulating hormone Reason : Prolactin stimulates contraction of smooth muscles
(c) Aldosterone of mammary glands.
(d) Adrenaline 3. Assertion : Adrenaline is known as fight, fright and flight
9. Which of the following disease results by endocrine disorder? hormone.
(a) Typhoid (b) Jaundice Reason : The hormone adrenaline helps the body to combat
(c) Goitre (d) Pneumonia against stress and emergency condition.
4. Assertion : A tadpole deprived of thyroid gland fails to 5. Assertion : Excess amount of calcium is regulated by
metamorphose into adult. calcitonin.
Reason : Thyroxine stimulates tissue differentiation therefore Reason : Parathormone is produced by parathyroid gland.
affects metamorphosis of tadpole into an adult. 6. Assertion : Sweat glands sometimes make body smelly.
Reason : It is due to infection by bacteria.
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SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
9. At the posterior side of thyroid gland.

10. Prepares body to act against stress.
11. Ecdysone
Fill in the Blanks :
12. Thymosin
1. Puberty 2. Teenagers 13. The inner lining of uterus gets thickened and is supplied
3. Larynx 4. Adam’s apple with blood by which growing embryo gets nutrition.
5. Sebaceous gland 6. Pituitary gland 14. Menopause is the stoppage of menstruation of woman at
7. Thyroid 8. Aldosterone the age of 45 to 50 years.
9. Menarche 10. Pituitary 15. 1 pair (XY)
11. Two 12. Insulin 16. Pituitary
17. Sonography
True / False :
18. Aldosterone maintain balance of salt and water in human
1. False. Endoclrine glands are called ductless gland. body.
2. False. Thyroid stimulating hormone is responsible to produce
T3 and T4 hormone from thyroid gland.
3. True 1. When the body undergoes certain noticeable changes,
leading to reproductive maturity, it is called adolescence.
4. True
These changes mark the onset of puberty.
5. False. The stage at which the body becomes capable of
2. The age of adolescence between 13 to 19 years is called
reproduction is called puberty.
teenage.
6. True
3. Secondary characters in male –
7. True
(i) Growth of facial hair
8. False. Metamorphosis in insects is controlled by ecdysone
(ii) Shoulder become wider.
hormone.
Secondary character in females –
9. True
(i) Breasts develops
Match the Following : (ii) Pelvic region widens
1. A-q, B-s, C-p, D-r 2. A-r, B-p, C-q, D-s (iii) Mammary glands develop inside breast.
4. Infanticide is the killing of foetus inside the mother’s womb.
Very Short Answer Questions : 5. Hormone which control activity of other endocrine glands
1. Blood stream or growth are called trophic hormones.
2. Hormones are chemical messengers which regulate most of 6. Hypothyroidism is caused due to underproduction of
the metabolic and other activity inside the body. thyroxine hormone in the body. Hyperthyroidism is caused
3. Progesterone due to overproduction of thyroxine hormone in the body.
4. Larynx 7. As the body is in a stage of rapid growth during adolescence,
nutritional needs are also more. The diet during this period
5. Testosterone
has to be a balanced diet. Balanced diet includes
6. Hypothalamus regulates the synthesis and secretion of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins and vitamins. Balance diet is
pituitary gland.
important for adolescent because it provides nutrition to the
7. In girls, 11-14 years. In boys, 12-18 years body to function properly and helps in its proper growth
8. GH, TSH, LH, FSH, prolactin, ACTH and development.
8. Personal hygiene is necessary for everyone, because due to Long Answer Questions :
unhygiene, different bacteria may cause odour and infection
1. Different endocrine glands are:
in the body.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a part of the brain which
9. Drugs are chemical substances used in the treatment, cure, serves many different functions in the nervous system. It is
prevention, or diagnosis of disease or used to otherwise also responsible for the direct control of the endocrine system
enhance physical or mental well-being. through the pituitary gland.
10. AIDS: Acquired immune deficiency syndrome. AIDS virus Pituitary gland: The pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland
can be transmitted by several methods like, located in the centre of the skull, inferior to the hypothalamus
i. sexual contact with an infected person. of the brain and posterior to the bridge of the nose. The
ii. Transmission via donated blood or blood clotting pituitary gland is made of 2 completely separate structures:
factors. the posterior and anterior pituitary glands. It is an important
iii. Sharing needles, syringes or other injection equipment link between the nervous and endocrine systems and releases
with someone who is infected. many hormones which affect growth, sexual development,
iv. Mother to child transmission metabolism and human reproduction.
11. Changes that take place in male during puberty are: Pineal gland: The pineal gland is a small mass of glandular
tissue found just posterior to the thalamus of the brain. The
- Voice becomes deeper.
pineal gland produces the hormone melatonin that helps to
- Increase in body weight.
regulate the human sleep-wake cycle known as the circadian
- Muscles develop and shoulder broadens. rhythm.
- Hair develops under armpit, on the chest and in the pubic Thyroid gland: The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland
region. located at the base of the neck and wrapped around the
- Facial hair such as beard and moustaches develops. lateral sides of the trachea. The thyroid gland produces 3
12. The adrenal glands, also called suprarenal gland, are small major hormones: calcitonin, triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine
structures attached to the top of each kidney. Each gland (T4). The thyroid plays an important role in regulating the
consists of two parts: an inner medulla, which produces body's metabolism and calcium balance.
epinephrin e an d norepinephrin e (adrenaline an d Parathyroid glands: The parathyroid glands are 4 small
noradrenaline), and an outer cortex, which produces steroid masses of glandular tissue found on the posterior side of the
hormones (aldosterone, cortisol). The two parts differ in thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands produce the hormone
embryological origin, structure, and function. The hormones parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is involved in calcium
help control heart rate, blood pressure, the way the body ion homeostasis.
uses food, the levels of minerals such as sodium and Adrenal glands: The adrenal glands are a pair of roughly
potassium in the blood, and other functions particularly triangular glands found immediately superior to the kidneys.
involved in stress reactions. The adrenal glands are each made of 2 distinct layers- the
13. Exocrine glands : The glands that release their secretions outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla. The adrenal
with the help of ducts at specific site are called exocrine cortex produces many cortical hormones in 3 classes:
glands. For example, the salivary gland secrete saliva in the glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens. The
mouth through salivary duct. Similarly, digestive glands adrenal medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine
secrete their secretions in the digestive tract with the help of hormones. Both of these hormones help to increase the flow
ducts. Sweat gland is also an example of exocrine gland. of blood to the brain and muscles to improve the "fight-or-
14. Thyroid gland secretes thyroxin and calcitonin hormone. flight" response to stress. These hormones also work to
15. The gland which does not have duct and release the increase heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure while
hormones directly into the blood stream, is called ductless decreasing the flow of blood to and function of organs that
gland. are not involved in responding to emergencies.
16. Pituitary gland produces several hormones that control water Pancreas: The pancreas is a large gland located in the
balance, growth and also release of other hormones. abdominal cavity just inferior and posterior to the stomach.
The pancreas is considered to be a heterocrine gland as it
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176 BIOLOGY
contains both endocrine and exocrine tissue. The endocrine Once the wall is shed, it begins to build up again. This
cells of the pancreas are called islets of Langerhans. Within contituous building and shedding of the inner wall of the
these islets are 2 types of cells-alpha and beta cells. The uterus occurs during a menstrual cycle. In a mature female,
alpha cells produce the hormone glucagon, which is normally one egg is formed during the menstrual cycle. The
responsible for raising blood glucose levels. Glucagon duration of one menstrual cycle is about 28 days. At the end
triggers muscle and liver cells to break down the of the cycle, the egg is released from the ovary.
polysaccharide glycogen to release glucose into the 4. Proper physical health in adolescents is a need.
bloodstream. The beta cells produce the hormone insulin, • Balanced diet : balanced diet contains the right amounts
which is responsible for lowering blood glucose levels after of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals
a meal. Insulin triggers the absorption of glucose from the
• Fast food which is tasty but does not have adequate
blood into cells, where it is added to glycogen molecules for
nutrition, such as chips or aerated drinking, should not
storage.
be used as substitute for meals.
Gonads: Gonads (ovaries in females and testes in males) are
• Personal hygiene due to increased activity of sweat and
responsible for producing the sex hormones of the body.
sebaceous glands, proper personal hygiene is very
Testes are pair of ellipsoid organs found in the scrotum of
important for adolescents, otherwise body odour and
males that produce the testosterone hormone. Testosterone
bacterial infection may result. Girls should be especially
controls the growth and development of the sex organs and
careful about hygiene during menstruation.
body hair of males, including pubic, chest, and facial hair.
• Physical exercise like walking, jogging, aerobics, outdoor
The ovaries are a pair of almond-shaped glands located in
the pelvic body cavity. The ovaries produce the female sex games, etc., are good for the growing adolescent body.
hormones progesterone and estrogen. Progesterone is most
active in females during ovulation and pregnancy where it
maintains appropriate conditions in the human body to
support a developing foetus. Estrogen triggers the
Text - Book Exercise :
development of female secondary sex characteristics such
as uterine development, breast development, and the growth 1. The are chemical messengers that transport signal from one
of pubic hair. cell(or gland) to another cell (or gland).
Thymus: The thymus is a soft, triangular-shaped organ found 2. Adolescence is defined as that period of life, when the
in the chest posterior to the sternum. The thymus produces body undergoes changes, leading to reproductive maturity.
hormone called thymosine that helps to train and develop T- It begins around the age of 11 and lasts upto 18 or 19 years
lymphocytes during foetal development and childhood. The of age. Since this period covers the ‘teens’ years of age (13
thymus becomes inactive during puberty and is slowly to 18 or 19), adolescents are also called ‘teenagers’. In girls,
replaced by adipose tissue throughout a person's life. adolescence may begin a year or two earlier than in boys.
2. Hormones are chemicals naturally occurring within human Also, the period of adolescence varies from person to
bodies. They are produced by cells or glands and their role person.
is to affect other organs. Hormones are responsible for 3. In a female ovaries, the ova begin to mature with the onset
simulation of growth, control of cell's life span, control of of puberty. There are 2 ovaries. One ovary releases one
immune system, metabolism regulation, control of phases of ovum once in about 28 to 30 days. During this period, the
life, self-preservation reactions, sexual functions, wall of the uterus becomes thick and gets ready to receive
reproductive cycle. Human bodies need different hormones the egg, in case of fertilization. If fertilization does not occur,
for various stages of life. the released egg, and the thickened lining of the uterus along
3. When the egg is released from the ovary, the lining of the with its blood vessels are shed off. This causes bleeding in
uterus begins to become thicker. If the egg gets fertilized, it women which is called menstruation. Menstruation occurs
attaches itself to the wall of the uterus and receives once in about 28 to 30 days.
nourishment. If the egg is not fertilized, the lining of the 4. Common changes that occur among boys and girls during
uterus is shed. This is known as menstruation or periods. puberty:
(i) Sudden increase in height. maintenance of the primary and secondary sexual
(ii) Change in body shape characters as well as functions of sperms.
(iii) Change in voice. Voice becomes deep and harsh in 2. In female, the ovaries secrete estrogen an d
boys whereas in girls it is high pitched voice. progesterone which are responsible for the primary and
(iv) Increased activity of sweat and sebaceous glands. secondary sexual characters.
(v) Reproductive organs begin to mature. 7. (a) (ii) proper diet is needed for the rapid growth taking
(vi) Appearance of secondary sexual characteristics. place in their body.
Changes in Boys during puberty: (b) (i) menstruation starts.
1. Development of facial hairs such as beard and (c) (ii) chapati, dal, vegetables.
moustaches. 8. (a) Adam's apple: It is the protruding part of the throat. It
2. Development of hair under the armpit, under chest and is the enlarged voice box or larynx which gets enlarged
in the pubic regions. and becomes visible from outside in boys at the onset
3. Voice becomes deeper. of puberty. This is why the voice of boys is hoarse.
4. Muscles develop, and shoulder becomes broad. (b) Secondary Sexual Characters are those characters
5. Increase in weight. which distinguish a male from female. A few of these
Changes in Girls during puberty: are descibed below:
1. Development and enlargement of breasts. Boys:
2. Development of hair under the armpit and in the pubic 1. Facial hairs such as beard and moustaches develop.
regions. 2. Hair develops under the armpit, under chest and in the
3. Hips broaden and pelvic region widens pubic regions.
4. Initiation of menstrual cycle. 3. Voice becomes hoarse.
5. Deposition of fat around hips. 4. Muscles develop, and shoulder broadens.
5. 5. Weight increase.
Endocrine Glands Hormones secreted
Girls:
i. Pituitary Growth Hormones 1. Development and enlargement of breasts.
ii. Thyroid Thyroxine 2. Development of hair under the armpit and in the pubic
iii. Adrenal Glands Adrenalin regions.
iv. Pancreas Insulin 3. Hips broaden and pelvic region widens
4. Initiation of menstrual cycle.
v. Testes Testosterone
5. Deposition of fat around hips,
vi. Ovaries Estrogen, Progestrone (c) Sex determination in unborn baby: 23 pairs of
6. Hormones which regulate the secondary sexual characters chromosomes are present in the nuclei. Each cell of a
are called sex hormones. human body has these two chromosomes and the sex
In general, hormones work instantly when they are released chromosomes, named X and Y. A female has two X
in the blood stream. Sex hormones are different because chromosomes, while a male has one X and one Y
they start to work at later stages and gradually prepare the chromosome. The gametes (egg and sperm) have only
body for reproduction. one set (23) of chromosomes. The unfertilised egg
The sex hormones are responsible for the fundamental always has one X chromosome. But sperms are of two
change in growth and development. They stimulate the kinds. One kind has an X chromosome, and the other
development of secondary sexual characters. The testes and kind has a Y chromosome. When a sperm containing X
the ovaries are the reproductive Organs; both are stimulated chromosome fertilises the egg, the zygote would have
by the pituitary during Puberty. That's the reason these are two X chromosomes and develops into a female child.
called sex hormones. If the sperm having Y chromosome fuses with the egg
Functions of Sex Hormones: the zygote would develop into a male child. This
1. In male the sex hormone is testosterone relased by concludes that the sex chromosomes of the father
testes. This hormone helps in the development and determines the sex of an unborn baby.
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178 BIOLOGY
9. See figure below. body. Drug can be addictive too and can ruin our health and
1
happiness.
T
E 6. No, this thickening of the uterine wall is not permanent.
S
T If the egg gets fertilised, it starts developing and gets
2
O
S
embedded in the uterine wall resulting in preganancy.
T
H T During pregnancy no more eggs are released and the
Y E
R R
thickened lining is discharged only when the baby is
O O born. However, if fertilisation does not occur, the released
I N
3
A D A M S A P P L E egg and the thickened lining are shed off resulting in
D
mensturation.
O
L 7. In our country, the legal age for marriage is 18 years for girls
4 N D O C R I N E
E
S 5
T
and 21 years for boys. This is because teenage mothers are
6
L C
7
A not prepared mentally or physically for motherhood. Early
A E P I T U I T A R Y
8
H O R M O N E U G marriage and motherhood causes health problems in both
9 N S U L I
Y
N 10
C
S T R P G
B
E N
E
T
mother and the child. It also curtails employment
I E
X R S opportunities for the young woman and may cause mental
T I
Y T
agony as she is not ready to shoulder responsibilities of
E motherhood.
10. Conclusion: Also, the boys before that age may not be mentally matured
(i) Girls are taller than boys till they reach the age of 12 and financially secure enough to take on the responsibilities
years. of a family.
(ii) Till the age of 16 years, the height of both boys and 8. (Open Ended) students may write about the effects of
girls remain the same. nutrition, hormones, exercises, disease, etc. on the height.
(iii) After 16, both boys and girls gain increase in height. In
general, boys are taller than girls. HOTS Questions :
Height BOYS Height GIRLS 1. Many adolescent do not grow according to their age. This is
170 170 due to lack of balanced diet. A balanced diet gives your
150 150
130 130
body the nutrition it needs to function properly.
110 110 2. The first phase of pregnancy is a period of major
90 90 development for foetus and of profound physical and
70 70
emotional changes for mother. Expecting mothers are not
4 8 12 16 20 Age 4 8 12 16 20 Age advice to do heavy work at the first phase of pregnancy
because her centre of gravity and balance has changed and
additionally because the hormones of pregnancy have
1. (a) Target site caused her connective tissue, ligaments and tendons so
(b) Sweat glands/salivary glands/oil glands (any one) soften. So, if she lifts a heavy load she can injure herself, but
(c) Hormones will probably do no harm to the pregnancy or the baby.
(d) Puberty 3. Initially, girls grow faster than boys but by about 18 years of
2. Testosterone. age, both reach their maximum height. The rate of growth in
3. Estrogen. height varies in different individuals.
4. Two features seen in boys at puberty are: 4. Dwarfism is a condition of short stature. It is caused by
(i) Growth of facial hairs deficiency of growth hormone. From early age growth of
(ii) Voice becomes hoarse. long bones and of the body stops prematurely, making the
Two features seen in girls at puberty are: patient dwarf.
(i) Development of breasts. 5. Excessive secretion of male hormone (androgen) in a female
(ii) Region below the waist becomes wider. foetus before complete formation of ovaries causes abnormal
5. Several medicines have adverse side effects and have development of muscles, beard and moustache. Sometimes
specific dosage levels which if not followed may harm the it results in female sterility.
6. Many adolescents get excessive growth, which results into attached to it by nerve fibres. It is part of the endocrine
a giant body during its growing period. It is caused due to system and produces hormones which control other
secretion of excess of growth hormone after adolescence. glands as well as various bodily functions.
As a result, the bones like lower jaw and limb (arms, hands, 8. (b) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) control secretion of
legs) become abnormally large. estrogen hormone. FSH is synthesized and secreted by
7. During puberty, there is an increased secretion of sweat and anterior pituitary gland. Development of the ovarian
oil (sebaceous) glands. It is because of the increased follicle is largely under FSH control, and the secretion
secretion that many young people get acne and pimples on of estrogen from this follicle is dependent on FSH and
their faces. LH. FSH regulates the development, growth, pubertal
8. Menstruation is the periodic blood that flows as a discharge maturation and reproductive processes of the body.
from the uterus. Menstrual irregularities can be caused by a 9. (c) Goitre is an enlarged thyroid gland. It can develop as a
variety of conditions, like pregnancy, hormonal imbalances, result of numerous different conditions. It can be
infections, malignancies, diseases, excessive weight gain or associated with over-function of the thyroid gland
loss, trauma, and certain medications. (hyperthyroidism, or excessive thyroid hormones) or
9. Heavy supplement intake during physical exercise causes with under-function of the gland (hypothyroidism, or
abnormal changes in growth of muscle, stiffness of muscle inadequate levels of thyroid hormones).
and maturity before age. 10. (c) Metamorphosis (in an insect or amphibian) is the process
of transformation from an immature form to an adult
form in two or more distinct stages. Thyroxine regulates
the growth of metamorphosis in frog.
11. (a) Ovulation is the release of egg from the ovary. In women,
Multiple Choice Questions : LH stimulates estrogen and progesterone production
1. (b) Hormone is a chemical substance produced in the body from the ovary. A surge of LH in the midmenstrual cycle
that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells is responsible for ovulation, and continued LH secretion
or organs. Hormones are released directly into the body. subsequently stimulates the corpus luteum to produce
Hormones are essential for every activity of life, progesterone.
including the processes of digestion, metabolism, 12. (d) Parathormone (PTH) regulates calcium level in blood.
growth, reproduction, and mood control. Many PTH is released from the parathyroid glands when
hormones, such as neurotransmitters, are active in more calcium ion levels in the blood drop below a set point.
than one physical process. PTH stimulates the osteoclasts to break down the
2. (d) Nervous and endocrin e system exhibit body calcium containing bone matrix to release free calcium
coordination. They both work closely in regulating ions into the bloodstream. PTH also triggers the kidneys
certain activities of the body. to return calcium ions filtered out of the blood back to
the bloodstream so that it is conserved.
3. (b) Refer answer 1
13. (d) Adrenaline and noradrenaline hormones help to increase
4. (d) Kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the
the flow of blood to the brain and muscles to improve
size of a fist. They are located just below the rib cage,
the "fight-or-flight" response to stress. These hormones
one on each side of the spine. The kidneys perform the
also work to increase heart rate, breathing rate, and
essential function of removing waste products from the
blood pressure while decreasing the flow of blood to
blood and regulating the water fluid levels.
and function of organs that are not involved in
5. (a) Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system
responding to emergencies.
that secrete their products, hormones, directly into the
14. (a) Gastrin is a hormone which stimulates secretion of gastric
blood rather than through a duct.
juice and is secreted into the bloodstream by the
6. (a) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a hormone
stomach wall in response to the presence of food.
associated with reproduction and the development of
15. (b) Prolactin (PRL) is hormone secreted by the pituitary
eggs in women and sperm in men.
gland that stimulates lactation (milk production). It also
7. (b) The pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure located at has many other functions, including essential roles in
the base of the brain, just below the hypothalamus and the maintenance of the immune system.
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180 BIOLOGY
Assertion & Reason : adult. Metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by
thyroxine concentration in the blood because thyroxine
1. (b) Goitre is an enlargement of the thyroid gland. The
stimulates tissue differentiation therefore affects
thyroid can't manufacture its hormones without
metamorphoses of tadpole into adult.
sufficient dietary iodine.
5. (b) Calcitonin is released when calcium ion levels in the
2. (c) Prolactin is a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland
blood rise above a certain set point. Calcitonin functions
that stimulates lactation (milk production). Prolactin
to reduce the concentration of calcium ions in the blood
levels rise during pregnancy and drop for a short period
by aiding the absorption of calcium into the matrix of
just before birth, then they rise once again a few hours
bones. The parathyroid glands produce the hormone
after delivery, or immediately when the baby is put to
parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is involved in
the breast. It also has many other functions, including
calcium ion homeostasis. PTH is released from the
essential roles in the maintenance of the immune system.
parathyroid glands when calcium ion levels in the blood
3. (a) Adrenaline is known as an emergency hormone.
drop below a set point.
Adrenaline and noradrenaline hormones help to increase
6. (a) Sweat glands (also known as sudoriferous) are small
the flow of blood to the brain and muscles to improve
tubular structures of the skin that produce sweat. There
the "fight-or-flight" response to stress. These hormones
are two main types of sweat glands: eccrine sweat
also work to increase heart rate, breathing rate, and
glands (distributed almost all over the body) and
blood pressure while decreasing the flow of blood to
apocrine sweat glands (limited to the axilla (armpits)
and function of organs that are not involved in
and perianal areas in humans). Sweat glands make body
responding to emergencies.
smelly due to infection of bacteria.
4. (b) Thyroxine is secreted by thyroid gland. Hence, a tadpole
deprived of thyroid gland fails to metamorphosize into
Pollution of Air and Water 181
Chapter POLLUTION OF AIR AND

7 WATER
INTRODUCTION
The contamination of the environment with substances that are harmful to living beings is called pollution. The contaminants
which lowers the quality of atmosphere after entering into it are called pollutants.
Today pollution is a major concern word wide and this problem is getting bigger with every passing year, some of the evidences
of environmental pollution are listed below.
Over the past 2 decades, India’s most famous tourist attraction Taj Mahal located at Agra, has become a matter of concern.
Experts have warned that air pollution is discolouring its white marble.
Many government projects like Ganga Action Plan for river Ganga, Yamuna Action Plan for river Yamuna etc. are running to
improve quality and avoid contamination of precious water resources.
Now, we will discuss types, causes, impacts and proventive measures of environmental pollution in detail.
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182 BIOLOGY
Before discussing air pollution in detail let us understand the answers to the following questions which may arise in the mind of reader
• What is air and what are its general characterics
• What is the role of air
• Why air is a vital component for existance of life on our planet.
Air is a form of matter. It has weight and occupies space. We cannot see air but we know that it is all around us because we can feel it
when it moves or when we move through it.
Why clean air is important to us?
Before discussing air pollution in detail let us understand the answers to the following questions which may arise in the mind of reader
• What is air and what are its general characterics
• What is the role of air
• Why air is a vital component for exitsance of life on our planet.
Air is a form of matter. It has weight and occupies space. We cannot see air but we know that it is all around us because we can feel it
when it moves or when we move through it.
Aerated water ; Aerated water is water containing dissolved oxygen from air. It is essential to life in water i.e.
aquatic life.
NOTE
Oxygen is a vital constituent of air for living organism. It occupies 20.95% of air by volume. The oxygen used up is replenished by
plants through photosynthesis.
The content of water vapour in air is called humidity.
AIR POLLUTION
How does air got polluted?
Addition of unwanted and harmful substances in the air or increase in the quantities of constituents of Air beyond the normal level
that affects the living organisms is called air pollution.
The common pollutants of air are carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), lead compounds, dust
particles, unburnt hydrocarbons etc.
Autotrophs are divided into two types :

Reforestation due to rapid population growth also effected the air quality.
Effects of air pollution

(1) Carbon monoxide (CO) produced as a result of incomplete combustion of fuels, wood, coal etc. If combines with haemoglobin
of the blood thereby causing oxygen deficiency. It induces headache, visual difficulty, coma and even death in several cases.
(2) Sulphurdioxide (SO2) is produced when sulphur containing fuels are burnt. It is a lung irritant.
This reacts with water in the clouds to form sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Rain mixed with sulphuric acid is called acid rain. It
damages buildings and corrodes metal structures. It also reduces the fertility of soil by making the soil acidic. Acid rain also
causes harm to plants.
Use of smokeless fuels such as LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) and CNG (Comparessed Natural Gas) reduces the emission of
carbon particles and harmful gases such as carbon monoxide.
(3) Oxides of nitrogen : These are released by burning fossil fuels. These fuels wer once living plants which contained proteins
containing nitrogen. These oxides are respiratory irriatants. They also dissolve in water vapour to form acid rain.
(4) Carbondioxide is produced by burning fuels at domestic and industrial scale. Carbon dioxide itself is not a pollutant but in
excess it leads to greenhouse effect which will be discussed in detail later.
(5) Lead compounds : This type of pollution comes from petrol engines. Since some petrol still has lead compounds added to
make engines run smoothly (e.g. tetra ethyl lead is added to prevent knocking). Lead compounds are removed from the engine
in exhaust fumes. These compounds are harmful, particularly to the health of children. Lead pollution can be avoided by using
unleaded petrol (green pump).
Discharge of harmful gases in air pollution results into formation of complex pollutants like smog. It is of following two types:
(i) Classical smong : It is formed due to presence of SO 2 and humidity in the air which combine to form H 2SO4 fog which
deposits on the particulates. It involves smokes and fog. It is formed in the months of winter particularly in the morning
hours when the temperature is low. It causes bronchitis i.e. irriatation in lungs.
(ii) Photochemical smong : It is formed as a result of complex reactions between oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons in
presence of sunlight. It is formed in the months of summer during afternoon when there is a bright sunlight. It causes
irritation in the eyes.
(6) Unburnt carbon particles given out during the burning of fuels or from the exhausts of vehicles, and fine particles of cement
given out from a cement factory are examples of SPM. The finer of these particles cannot be filtered by the hair in our noses and
hence are a major cause of lung diseases. They also settle on plants and interfere with photosynthesis.
These particles also reduces visibility.
(7) CFCS discharged into air from air conditioning industries depletes Earth’s ozone layer. This damage to ozone layer results into
increase in amount of harmful UV radiations reacting the Earth’s Surface thereby causing damage to eyes and skin cancer.
Deviced like catalytic converter can convert harmful exhaust gses like carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide
into less harmful carbondioxide, nitrogen and water.
NOTE
(i) The complete combustion of a fuel containing carbon gives CO2, which is not poisonous.
(ii) For complete combustion, twice as much oxygen is needed as for incomplete combustion.
The green house : A green house is an enclosure of glass in which plants are kept to protect them from cold air
outside. The glass traps the heat of the sun, making the air inside warmer.
A green house is that “body” which allows the short wavelength incoming solar radiations to enter in, but
does not allow the long wavelength outgoing infra red radiations to escape out.
CASE STUDY – THE TAJ MAHAL

As you have studied earlier about discolouring / fading of white marble of Taj Mahal as an evidence of air pollution. This is a matter
of concern for experts and authority as it is effecting our nation’s pride. Actually various chemical industries in and around Agra
results into discharge of pollutants like sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into air. As you have studied earlier these gases
combines with water vapour or rain water to form corresponding acids thereby causing and rain.
Over the past 2 decades, India’s most famous tourist attraction Taj Mahal located at Agra, has become a matter of concern. Experts
have warned that air pollution is discolouring its white marble.
Acid rain has resulted in corrosion of the marble of the monument. The phenomenon is also called “Marble cancer”. Suspended
particulate matter, such as the soot particle emitted by the Mathura Oil Refinery, has contributed to the yellowing of the marble.
The Supreme Court has taken steps to save the Taj. It has ordered the industries to either switch to cleaner fuels like CNG (Compressed
Natural Gas) and LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas). Moreover, the automobiles should switch over to unleaded petrol in the Taj zone.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

As a result of exhaustive use of fuels and deferestation which reduced number of trees utilizing carbon dioxide. Thus amount of
carbondioxide in air increases.
The progressive warming up of the earth’s surface due to the blanketing effect of man made carbon dioxide gas [or any other major
green house gases e.g. methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s)] in the atmosphere is called “green house
effect”, a phenomenon due to which the earth retains heat.
P oi n t
Out of carbon dioxide and chlorofluoro carbons
which one has more potential to cause global warming.
SOLUTION
Chloro fluro carbons have much higher tendency to cause global warming.
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Consequence of green house effect
The infra-red absorptive tendency of carbon dioxide has caused rise in temperature of the earth with increase level of green house
gases called global warming. Scientists believe that the average global temperature may rise as much as 2°C by the end of the century.
The global warming so caused may result in-
(a) occurrence of more cyclones, hurricanes and early snow melts in certain regions resulting in flood and devastation.
(b) a decrease in world food production and biological productivity due to warming of surface layer of earth.
Several countries have signed the kyoto protocol to reduce the emission of greed house gases.
Control of air pollution
(i) Government should emphasize and invest in non-pollutant energy resources like wind energy, solar energy etc.
(ii) Drastic cut in consumption of fossil fuels in industrialised areas or use of “biogas” as an alternative source of energy. Rain mixed
with sulphuric acid is called acid rain. It damages buildings and corrodes metal structures. It also reduces the fertility of soil by
making the soil acidic. Acid rain also causes harm to plants.
Use of smokeless fuels such as LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) and CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) reduces the emission of
carbon particles and harmful gases such as carbon monoxide.
(iii) Enhancing “re-forestation” since trees help to utilise CO2 during photosynthesis and also reduce dust particles in the air.
(iv) Resolving transportation technique by use of unleaded petrol, catalytic convertors in cars and other antipollution devices.
(v) Exhaust emitted by manufacturing industries should be treated before discharge. Use of water serubbers remove harmful gases
like SO2, NO2 etc. Use of electrostatic preciptitatory remove solid partides like carbon from industrial exhaust.
Easy steps can be taken by individual to reduce air pollution

(i) Plant trees in your surroundings
(ii) Conserve energy-turn off appliances and lights when not in use.
(iii) When possible, use public transportation, walk or ride a bike.
(iv) Keep your vehicle in good condition and report smoking vehicles to your local air agency.
Make a project on green house effect by mentioning its major causes. Provide some statistical data about its
adverse effects on different areas of world. Mention the consequences we have to face in upcoming 2 to 3
decades if we maintain the discharge of green house gases in atmosphere at the same pace. Finally mention
some ideas that we can implement to decrease its effect.
Why clean water is important for us

Before discussing water pollution in detail let us understand the answers to the following questions which may arise in the mind of
reader.
• How water exists on earth.
• What characteristics of water makes it a vital component for life
• What are the uses of water as a resource.
• How fresh water get replenished even after such exhaustive use
Water is not distributed uniformly throughout the surface of earth. The distribution of water on earth’s surface can be showed as
follows.
Saline water (above

Distribution
97% in oceans and seas
of water on
Earth surface Fresh water (about 3%)
Ice caps and underground surface other

glaciers water water water
(solid state)
Lakes Rivers Swamps

(about 87%) (about 2%) (about 1%)
WATER CYCLE
As we are now well aware that water is one of the key resource to sustain life on earth. At the apply of fresh water is limited then why
not all fresh water is getting used up. This is because water cycle constantly replenish this most valuable resource to sustain life on
earth. The heat converts water from rivers and oceans to vapour in atmosphere, where it condenses to fall as rain on land before
draining into streams and rivers on its way back to the sea and oceans. In this way water is conserved.
The water cycle takes place because of evaporation, and condensation. The water evaporates from lakes, oceans and other places and
water vapour is formed. Plants and animals also give out water vapour. As the air rises, it cools. The water vapour condenses in to
droplets of water. The droplets crowd together to form a cloud. The cloud becomes bigger and heavier as more water droplets
combines. When the droplets of water in cloud becomes too big they fall to the earth as rain. Rainwater flows down mountains into
rivers, lakes, seas and oceans.
The presence of heavy metal like Pb, Cd, Hg etc, makes water extremely toxic. Cd and Hg can lead to Kidney
damage where as poisoning by lead can have harmful effect on brain, Kidneys, liver as well as on the central
nervous system. They are not excreted and thus they aggregate in the body.
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186 BIOLOGY
WATER POLLUTION
Polluted water is water which can only support life to a limited degree (or not at all)
Water pollution is also defined as the contamination of water by harmful substances.
The water pollution is indicated by
(i) its bad taste
(ii) its bad smell
(iii) presence of oil or grease floating over it
(iv) a decrease in population of fish in the water body from which the sample has been taken
(v) an unchecked growth of weeds in water body from which the sample has been taken
Pesticides such as DDT can get into the bodies of fishes through the water. Other animals, including humans,
get poisoned if they eat these fish.
NOTE
Fertilizers from various land and animal waste increase aquatic life, using up more oxygen. When dissolved oxygen is exhausted it will
result in to death of aquatic plants and animals.
Causes of Water Pollution
(1) Many industries do not have proper waste management system and drain the waste in the fresh water which goes into rivers,
canals and later in to sea.
(2) In villages where proper sanitation facilities are not available, people defecate in the open. Rain washes off the human excreta
and animal dung into nearby water sources.
(3) Use of pesticides, fertilizers and weedicides in agricultural practices result into runoff of these chemicals into nearby water body.
(4) Household sewage is discharged into water bodies untreated. Sewage contains kitchen waste, soaps and detergents, excreta
and many harmful micro organisms bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites.
(5) Dumping solid wastes and littering by humans in rivers, lakes and oceans, Littering items include cardboard, Styrofoam,
aluminium, plastic and glass.
(6) Oil spillage from accidents of boats and ships use to carry oils leads to heavy pollution of water bodies and damage aquatic life.
(7) Mining activities emit several metal waste and sulphides from the rocks and is harmful for the water.
(8) Acid rain produced as a result of air pollution also damages aquatic life.
Effect of Water Pollution
(1) Industrial exhaust contains lead, arsenic, mercury, fluorides etc which results into toxicity thereby damaging aquatic life and also
effects man and land animals drinking toxified water. These toxic substances effects fishes which can be later eaten by human.
(2) The temperature of the waste water from factories that is discharged into rivers is often higher than the temperature of the river
water. The resultant increase in the river water temperature is itself a form of pollution as it adversely affects aquatic plants and
animals.
(3) Agricultural runoff contaminate water and also leads to excess nutrients in water. These nutrients serves as a food for algae as
a result a green layer of algae is formed over water known as Eutrophication. Once this algae die it serves as a food for
decomposers in this process lot of oxygen dissolved in water. Low levels of oxygen does not able to support life in water body.
(4) Sewage water contains disease causing pathogens thus it spreads water born diseases like cholera, typhoid, jaundice, dysentery,
diarrhoea, cholera etc.
(5) Oil spills in the water causes animal to die when they ingest it or encounter it. Oil does not dissolve in water so it causes
suffocation in fish and birds.
NOTE
PPM : It is the small unit used for measuring concentration. Its full form is parts per million.
Ganga is one of the ten most endangered rivers in the world (Fig). Everyday it is polluted by the disposal of large quantities of garbage,
untreated sewage, dead bodies and many other harmful things.
The agricultural and industrial runoff also results into soil and ground water contamination. It results into
change in acidity of soil, decrease of fertility and growth of worms, etc.
GANGA ACTION PLAN

Ganga Action Plan or GAP was a program launched by Government of India in April 1985 in order to reduce the pollution load on the
river Gange. Ganga action plan aimed at reducing pollution level by treating domestic sewage, building electric crematoria and
reducing industrial waste. The Ganga at Kanpur in UP is one of the most polluted stretches of the river. This is because of large number
of industrial units which releases tons of toxic material into the river.
Moreover Kanpur is heavily populated people bath, wash clothes, through house hold waste and defecate in the river more or less the
state is similar in other parts of the country as a result even after spending. 901.71 crore rupees over a period of 15 years on river Ganga
during Ganga a Action Plan results were unsatisfactory.
Types of water Pollution
(i) Chemical pollution : It is caused by the discharge of harmful chemical substances into water bodies.
Some chemicals that cause water pollution are :
(a) Pesticides and fertilizers
(b) Synthetic chemicals
(c) oils and grease
(d) Mineral acids
(e) Metals and their compounds
(f) Phosphates from detergents
(ii) Biological pollution : It is caused by the discharge of bio-wastes into water bodies.
Types of Biological pollutants
(a) Oxygen demanding wastes : Many organic substances break up into simpler substances by taking up dissolved oxygen in
presence of some bacteria. As they consume the dissolved oxygen, oxygen runs short for aquatic life.
Various oxygen demanding substances are :
(i) domestic sewage and animal excreta
(ii) wastes from food-processing industries, tanneries etc.
(iii) dead bodies thrown into water, and
(iv) wastes from hospitals
NOTE
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the dissolved oxygen that is required by micro-organism to oxidise biological
pollutants. Clean water has a BOD value of less than 5 ppm whereas highly polluted river water may have a BOD value of 17 ppm or
more.
P oi n t
Out of hospital, domestic and industrial waste
which leads to more biological water pollution.
SOLUTION
Hospital waste.
(b) Disease caused by micro-organisms : The diseases caused are typhoid, dysentery, cholera, hepatitis etc.
Water which is suitable for drinking is called potable water. It is not necessary that the water will be fit for drinking if we are not
abole to see any kind of impurity floating in it. The water might contain certain microorganisms which are harmful for us.
Thus purification of contaminated water is very necessary to make it suitable for drinking and other house hold purposes. For
purification of water following methods can be adopted.
Boiling the water for 15-20 minutes kills all germs.
Ultraviolet light : A special type of light called ultraviolet light kills germs.
Chlorination : Chlorine added to water in the form of chlorine tablets or bleaching powder kills germs. However, care has to be
taken to add the right quantities of chlorine.
Control of water pollution
Some of the methods are :
(i) People should be well aware of water pollution consequenced and importance of water conservation.
(ii) Treatment of sewage : Sewage should be treated in a sewage treatment plant, which allow only clean water to be discharged in
a water body (river or lake etc)
(iii) Proper toilets and drainage system should be provided to slum and village people to avoid defecation in open.
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188 BIOLOGY
(iv) Treatment of industrial wastes : Industrial wastes should be treated for removal of harmful substances and only after such a
treatment the waste may be discharged into a water body (i.e. river, lake etc.) Street legal action should be taken against
industries which violating norms of waste disposal.
(v) Limited use of pesticides and fertilizers
(vi) Proper disposal of hospital wastes
(vii) Proper disposal of dead bodies : Dead bodies should be cremated or burried and not disposed off in a river or lake.
Water treatment plants remove solids by filtration and then use chlorine to kill bacteria so that water is safe
for drinking. In some areas, fluorides are added to domestic water to prevent tooth decay.
Make a project report on water pollution by highlighting 10 major causes of water pollution. Provide some
statistical data on increase in water pollution of some famous water bodies in past few decades. Mention 5
major ways to control water pollution. Also discuss about water harvesting and water recycling and their
benefits in detail. You can discuss with your friends and teacher and can take the help of internet, television,
science magazine etc.
Water can also be purified by passing through a semi-permeable membrane containging very fine pores which
allows only water to pass through not impuritied and germt. Thus technique is known as reverse osmosis.
We should follow 3R’s mantra.

The three R's of waste management: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. Practicing all three of these activities every day is important
for a healthy environment.
Reduce – Wash vegetables and fruits in a bowl, not under the tap. Do not leave the tap running while brushing your teeth,
shaving or soaping your hands, washing utensils.
On regular basis check household water fittings there should be no leakage.
Water garden plants early and avoid watering when it’s windy.
Reuse – Water used for washing vegetables and fruits should be reused to water garden plants.
Water used in industries for cooling can be reused for irrigation and toilet flushing purposes.
Stored rainwater can be used for gardening purpose.
Recycle – Recycled water is most commonly used for nonpotable purposes likes, agriculture, landscape, public parks, and
golf course irrigation. Another important application of recycled water can be its use as a coolant for power plants and
industries.
P oi n t
Why does green house effect lead to the global warming?
What could be the consequences of global warming?
SOLUTION
The high concentration of CO2 molecules in the atmosphere absorbs the terrestrial heat radiations emitted by the earth,
doesn’t allow it to escape, thus gradually raising global temperature. This may lead to the melting of polar ice caps, which
would flow into the oceans raising sea-level due to which many lowlying areas and islands may become submerged.
SUMMARY
The density of water is maximum at 4°C.

The specific heat of water is maximum among all substances.
Water is a universal solvent
Solubility : The maximum amount of a particular solute in grams, which can disolve in 100 g of solvent at a given temperature
is called solubility.
Mass of solute
Solubility = ´ 100
Mass of solvent
Hard water : It contains considerable amount of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions. It is good for bones, teeth and for reducing heart
diseases.
Soft water : It contains only small amount of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions. It lathers easily with soap.
Types of hardness of water
(i) Temporary hardness : It is caused due to presence of bicarbonates of calcium or magnesium in water.
(ii) Permanent hardness : It is caused due to the presence of chlorides or sulphates of calcium and magnesium in water.
Water softening : It involves removal of Ca 2+ or Mg2+ ions from water.
Aerated water : It is the water that contains dissolved oxygen from air. It is essential to life in water (i.e., aquatic life)
Polluted water is that water which can only support life to a limited degree (or not at all). Water containing substances that
are harmful to us and our environment is said to be polluted water.
Pollutants of water : The harmful substances present in polluted water are known as water pollutants.
Causes of water pollution : The cause of water pollution is lack of dissolved oxygen in water. e.g., fertilizers from farm land
and animal waste increases aquatic life, using up more oxygen. When dissolved oxygen is exhausted dead plant-life can not
survive.
Types of water pollution
(i) Chemical pollution
(ii) Biological pollution
Effects of polluted water on soil
(i) Decrease in fertility
(ii) Contamination of ground water
(iii) Renders the soil acidic or basic
Preventing or reducing water pollution
Various methods used are
(i) Proper treatment of sewage
(ii) Proper treatment of industrial wastes
(iii) Limited use of pesticides and fertilizers
(iv)Burning of hospital waste
(v) Proper disposal of dead bodies
Potable water or drinking water : Water used for drinking purposes. Water fit for drinking is called potable water.
Air is a mixture of gases.
Air consists of 78% N2 and 21% O2 along with small quantities of CO2 and inert gases such as Argon (Ar). It also contains
water as moisture.
Separation of components of air They can be separated by fractional distillation of liquid air
Common pollutants of air
(i) CO (ii) SO2 (iii) Oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO2)
(iv) Lead compounds (v) Dust particles (vi) Unburnt hydrocarbons.
Acid rain. Rain with highly acidic pH due to pollution of air by oxides of nitrogen and sulphur.
Green house an enclosure of glass in which plants are kept to protect them from cold air outside.
Green-house effect : The progressive warming up of the earth’s surface due to blanketing effect of man made carbon dioxide
gas or any other major green house gases such as methane (CH4) nitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorofluoro carbons (CFC’s).
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190 BIOLOGY
Fill in the Blanks : 7. The cause of water pollution is lack of dissolved oxygen in
water.
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an 8. Green house effect refers to the progressive warming up of
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s). earth’s surface due to blanketing effect of man made carbon
dioxide or any other major green house gas.
1. Aquatic animals utilise for their respiration the _______ 9. Thermal pollution causes a decrease in dissolved oxygen.
oxygen.
10. CO2 and SO2 when treated with water form their respective
2. _________ are responsible for the depletion of the ozone acids.
layer in the atmosphere (CFCs/carbon dioxide)
11. Ganga Action Plan is related to reduce cutting of trees.
3. Sewage wastes should be treated well to remove ________
12. Corrosion of marble is also known as marble cancer.
substances, before being released into water. (green/toxic)
13. Carbon monoxide is a green house gas.
4. More and more __________ plants should be put up, so
that water can be used many times and in many ways, before 14. Chlorofluro carbon is responsible for depletion of ozone
it is disposed off. (water recycling/soil transplanting) layer
5. Cholera is a __________ borne disease. 15. Smog is the thick fog- layer in the atmosphere
6. Water which is suitable for drinking is called _________. 16. Air contains highest percentage of oxygen
7. Vehicles produce high levels of pollutants like ________. 17. Green house effect causes global warming.
8. Dust and smoke cause ___________ of air when present 18. Ganga action plan was launched in 1985
in excess. 19. Lead is used to purify water.
9. The oxides of .....................and ............................cause acid 20. Van Mahotsav is celebrated every year to plant trees
rain. 21. Ultraviolet rays is harmful for us
10. Acid rain has made Taj Mahal’s marble ..................... . 22. Volcanoes and forest fires are natural sources of air pollution.
11. Smog is a mixture of ...............and ...................... . 23. Smog is made up of smoke and carbon dioxide.
12. While __________ your teeth, leaving the __________ Match the Following :
running may waste several ___________ of water.
13. Water which looks clean still has disease carrying ________ DIRECTIONS : Each question contains statements given in two
and __________ impurities. columns which have to be matched. Statements (A, B, C and D)
True / False : in column I have to be matched with statements (p, q, r and s) in
column II.
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your 1. Column I Column II
(Present in air) (Effect)
1. An increase in the levels of CO2 in atmosphere increases A. Carbon dioxide (p) No adverse effect
the temperature of earth. B. Carbon monoxide (q) Lead to global warming
2. The two types of water pollution are chemical pollution and C. Nitrogen dioxide (r) Causes acid rain
biological pollution. D. Water vapour (s) May cause death
3. Use of fertilizers has no role on water pollution. 2. Column I Column II
4. Excessive use of pesticides help to decrease water pollution. A. CFC’s (p) Acid rain
5. Methane is not a green house gas. B. Pb (q) Depletion of ozone
6. Aerated water is the water containing dissolved oxygen C. CO (r) Respiratory problems
from air.
D. NO2 (s) Nervous disorders
3. Match column-I with Column-II and select the correct answer 13. Name the pollutants formed by incomplete combustion of
using the code given below the columns. fuels.
Column I Column II 14. Name any two sources which cause air pollution due to
A. Marble cancer (p) Global warming suspended particulate matter.
B. Smog (q) Reduce, Reuse & Recycle
15. Name any two water pollutants which are toxic for plants
C. CO2 (r) Corrosion of marble and animals.
D. Our mantra (s) Smoke and fog
(a) A ® s, B ® r, C ® t, D ® p, Short Answer Questions :
(b) A ® p, B ® s, C ® t, D ® q,
(c) A ® r, B ® s, C ® p, D ® q, DIRECTIONS : Give answer in 2-3 sentences.
(d) A ® s, B ® q, C ® p, D ® r,
1. Mention any three observations that indicate that a given
4. Column I Column II sample of water is polluted.
A. Boiling point of pure (p) 100°C 2. Name any four chemical pollutants of water.
water
3. Name any three oxygen demanding biological pollutants of
B. Temperature of (q) 4°C
water?
maximum density
of water 4. Name any three diseases caused by polluted water
C. Boiling point of (r) 104°C containing disease causing bacteria.
impure water 5. Explain the adverse effect of carbon monoxide on human
containing some being.
dissolved impurities 6. Name a few steps that can help to prevent water pollution.
D. Aerated water (s) water containing 7. What is eutrophication?
dissolved oxygen
8. What is meant by green house effect? Name three green
Very Short Answer Questions : house gases.
9. How can the growing of plants help in control of air
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
pollution ?
1. What is meant by polluted air? 10. How do chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) cause air pollution ?
2. What is meant by polluted water? 11. Give the effects of acid rain.
3. What is chemical pollution of water? 12. What are the sources of CO and SO2 in air?
4. Name the two main types of biological pollutants of water. 13. Name the pollutants produce by vehicles.
5. Name the product formed on complete combustion of 14. A lot of dry leaves are collected in a school garden and are
hydrocarbons. burnt every day. Do you think that it is right to do so? If not,
6. Which problem arises by air pollution? what should be done to dispose off the dry leaves?
7. Which gases are responsible for acid rain? Long Answer Questions :
8. Which phenomenon causes global warming?
9. Which fuel is pollution free? DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
10. What do you mean by potable water? 1. How is acid rain formed ? Discuss the ill effects of acid rains
11. Which rays is harmful for us? 2. What are the consequences of green house effect?
12. What is alternative fuel instead of the fossil fuel? 3. What are the causes of water pollution? Discuss how you
can contribute in reducing water pollution?
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192 BIOLOGY
Text Book Exercise : 6. What do CFCs atand for? Name some devices where CFCs
are used. Why CFCs are considered as pollutants?
1. What are the different ways in which water gets
7. We should plant trees and nurture the ones already present
contaminated ?
in the neighbourhood, why?
2. At an individual level, how can you help reduce air
8. Explain the traditional way of purifying water to make it fit
pollution?
for drinking.
3. Clear, transparent water is always fit for drinking. Comment.
4. You are a member of the municipal body of your town. HOTS Questions :
Make a list of measures that would help your town to ensure 1. In which season and what time of the day, there is
the supply of clean water to all its residents. photochemical smog?
5. Explain the differences between pure air and polluted air. 2. Why is CO more toxic than CO2?
3. Write the name of gas produced in Mathura refineries which
6. Explain circumstances leading to acid rain. How does acid
can damage the great historical monument “Taj Mahal”?
rain affect us?
4. Why is acid rains considered a threat to TaJ Mahal?
7. Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas?
5. Fish do not always grow in warm as well as in cold water,
(a) Carbon dioxide why?
(b) Sulphur dioxide 6. Explain giving reasons “the presence of CO
(c) Methane reduces the amount of haemoglobin available in the blood
(d) Nitrogen for carrying oxygen to blood cells.”
8. Describe the ‘Green House Effect’ in your own words. 7. The quality of air at various locations is monitored regularly
by government and other agencies? In what way can you
9. Prepare a brief speech on global warming. You have to deliver use these data?
the speech in your class.
8. Combustion of fossil fuels generates a lot of air pollution.
10. Describe the threat to the beauty of the Taj Mahal. Can you suggest any two alternative sources of energy
11. Why does the increased level of nutrients in the water affect which do not cause any pollution?
the survival of aquatic organisms? 9. In the following statements, the underlined words are
Exemplar Exercise : jumbled up. Write them in their correct form.
(a) Air contains 78% Ginroten and 21% Gonexy.
1. Name any two sources which cause air pollution due to (b) Vehicles produce high level of pollutants like carbon
suspended particulate matter. dioxide, nitrogen oxides, Nobrac Moondexi and Mosek.
2. Name two gases which are mainly responsible for acid rain? (c) Carbon dioxide, Thaneme, nitrous oxide and water
3. Name any two water pollutants which are toxic for plants vapour are known as Heengrouse Sesga.
and animals. (d) Gangotri glacier in Himalaya has started melting
because of Lablog Ringwam.
4. A lot of dry leaves are collected in a school garden and are
(e) Whenever harmful substances such as Wagese, toxic
burnt every day. Do you think that it is right to do so? If not, chemicals, silt, etc. get mixed with water, the water
what should be done to dispose off the dry leaves? becomes potdulle.
5. The level of air pollution is higher at a busy traffic 10. How can we reduce, reuse and recycle water?
intersection. Why?
Multiple Choice Questions : (c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) Neither (a) nor (b)
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 26 multiple choice 9. A green house
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out (a) is an enclosure of glass in which plants are kept to
of which ONLY ONE is correct. protect them from cold air outside
1. Select the process that does not add particulate materials to (b) is that “body” which allows the short wavelength
air. incoming solar radiation to enter in, but does not allow
long wavelength outgoing infra-red radiations to
(a) Use of air conditioner
escape out
(b) Burning of fosssil fuels
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(c) Paper industry
(d) Neither (a) nor (b)
(d) Incomplete combustion of coal
10. Water pollution is caused by
2. Which of the following is the major cause of global (a) Pesticides (b) SO2
warming?
(c) O2 (d) CO2
(a) re-radiation of U.V. rays by CO2 and H2O 11. Chief source of soil and water pollution is
(b) re-radiation of I.R. rays by CO2 and H2O (a) Mining
(c) re-radiation of I.R. rays by O2 and N2 (b) Agro industry
(d) re-radiation of U.V. rays by O2 and N2 (c) Thermal power plant
3. Select the one that has an adverse effect on ozone layer. (d) All the above
(a) Carbon dioxide (b) Chlorofluorocarbons 12. Which pollution is harmful for ‘Tajmahal’?
(c) Soil (d) Dust particles (a) Hydrogen (b) O2
(c) SO2 (d) Chlorine
4. Select the one that is an oxygen demanding waste.
13. Pollution is not caused by
(a) Grease (b) Oil
(a) thermal power plant
(c) Pesticides (d) Domestic sewage (b) automobile
5. The substance used for disinfecting water is/ are (c) radioactive power plant
(a) Ozone (b) Chlorine (d) hydrolytic power plant
(c) U.V rays (d) All of these 14. The beauty of Taj Mahal is endangered due to
6. The effect of polluted water on soil is, that (a) degradation of marble due to high temperature
(a) it decreases fertility (b) discharge of industrial waste in Yamuna river
(b) it contaminates ground water (c) air pollutants released from oil refinery
(c) it renders soil acidic or basic (d) riparian erosion
(d) All of the above 15. Formation of photochemical smog takes place in
(a) winter during day time
7. The process of respiration
(b) summer during morning time
(a) involves oxidation of food (c) summer during day time
(b) involves oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and (d) winter during morning time
water 16. Depletion of ozone layer causes
(c) is accompanied by release a large amount of energy (a) breast cancer (b) blood cancer
(d) All the above (c) lung cancer (d) skin cancer
8. SO2 is one of the air pollutants. SO2 17. The type of pollution caused by spraying of DDT
(a) is a lung irritant (a) air and soil (b) air and water
(b) dissolves in water to form acid rain (c) air (d) air, water and soil
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194 BIOLOGY
18. Pollution in large cities can be checked only by 26. Sulphur dioxide affects –
(a) shifting of factories out of the residential area (a) haemoglobin of blood
(b) less use of insecticides (b) arteries
(c) proper disposal of organic wastes, sewage and (c) alveoli of lungs
industrial effluents (d) nerves
(d) All the above
19. Phosphate pollution is caused by
(a) sewage and agricultural fertilizers
DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion
(b) weathering of phosphate rocks only
followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question
(c) agricultural fertilizers only
(d) phosphate rocks and sewage
20. Water is often treated with chlorine to
(a) remove hardness (a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
(b) increase oxygen content
(c) kill germs
(d) remove suspended particles (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
21. Harmful gases like SO2 are present in the correct explanation of Assertion.
(a) industrial areas (b) highly populated areas (c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(c) forests (d) hills (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
22. Which of the following is not a way to conserve water? 1. Assertion : CO2 is major gas of greenhouse effect.
(a) replace (b) reduce
Reason : Increase in concentration of CO2 leads to global
(c) reuse (d) recycle
warming.
23. The phenomenon of marble cancer is due to
(a) soot particles (b) CFCs 2. Assertion : Eutrophication shows increase in productivity
(c) fog (d) acid rain in water.
24. A pond contains clean water. Which of the following activities Reason : With increasing eutrophication, the diversity of
will produce least pollution of water? the phytoplankton increases.
(a) washing clothes in the pond 3. Assertion : CO2 causes green house effect.
(b) animals bathing in the pond Reason : Other gases do not show such effect.
(c) washing motor vehicles in the pond 4. Assertion : CFCs have caused a hole in the ozone layer.
(d) swimming in the pond. Reason : CFCs are released by jet aeroplane.
25. Why do scientists think that human-induced global warming 5. Assertion : All pollutants are not waste materials.
will be more harmful to plants and animals than were past, Reason : Nitrogen and phosphorus, that are important soil
natural climate fluctuations – fertilizers, also pollute water when present in excess.
(a) because temperatures will change faster
6. Assertion : Carbon monoxide results from incomplete
(b) because the temperature changes will be larger
combustion of fuels such as petrol.
(c) because species now are less adaptable than species
in the past Reason : The quantity of oxygen needed for complete
(d) because ecosystems are now more complicated than combustion is twice of oxygen needed for incomplete
they used to be combustion resulting in formation of CO.
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
8. Green house effect.

9. CNG and LPG.
10. Water which is suitable for drinking is called potable water.
Fill in the Blanks : 11. Ultraviolet rays.
12. Solar energy, hydropower and wind energy.
1. Dissolved. 13. Incomplete combustion of fuels give harmful pollutants such
2. CFC as CO, NO2, SO2, etc.
3. Toxic 14. (i) Combustion of fuel
4. Water recycling (ii) Industrial activities
5. water 15. Lead,arsenic, fluorides (any two)
6. potable water
7. carbon monoxide
8. pollution 1. Three observations are following
9. sulphur, (1) its bad taste
10. corroded (2) its bad smell
11. smokes, fog (3) a decrease in population of fish in the water body from
12. brushing, tap, litres which the sample has been taken.
13. microorganisms, dissolved 2. Pesticides and fertilizers, Synthetic chemicals, oils and
grease, Mineral acids
True / False : 3. Oxygen demanding biological pollutants are
(1) domestic sewage and animal excreta.
1. True 2. True 3. False
(2) wastes from food-processing industries, tanneries etc
4. False 5. False 6. True
(3) wastes from hospitals
7. True 8. True 9. True 4. Cholera, typhoid and dysentery and are three types of water
10. True 11. False 12. True borne diseases caused by bacteria.
13. False 14. True 15. True 5. Carbonmonoxide (CO) is highly toxic and is absorbed by
16. False 17. True 18. True haemoglobin in blood.
19. False 20. True 21. True 6. We should follow 3R’s mantra.
22. Tr ue 23. False The three R's of waste management: Reduce, Reuse, and
Match the Following : Recycle. Practicing all three of these activities every day is
important for a healthy environment.
1. A ® (q); B ® (s); C ® (r); D ® (p) Reduce – Wash vegetables and fruits in a bowl, not under
2. A ® (q); B ® (s) ; C ® (r) ; D ® (p) the tap. Do not leave the tap running while brushing your
3. (c) teeth, shaving or soaping your hands, washing utensils.
4. A ® (p); B ® (q) ; C ® (r) ; D ® (s) On regular basis check household water fittings there should
be no leakage.
Very Short Answer Questions : Water garden plants early merning and avoid watering when
it’s windy.
1. Polluted air is a mixture of harmful gases, that has harmful
Reuse – Water used for washing vegetables and fruits should
and poisonous effect.
be reused to water garden plants.
2. Polluted water is one which can support life to a certain
Water used in industries for cooling can be reused for
extent or can not support at all.
irrigation and toilet flushing purposes.
3. It is caused by the discharge of harmful chemical substances
Stored rainwater can be used for gardening purpose.
into water bodies.
Recycle – Recycled water is most commonly used for
4. Oxygen demand wastes and disease causing micro-
nonpotable purposes likes agriculture, landscape, public
organism.
parks, and golf course irrigation. Another important
5. Water and CO2.
application of recycled water can be its use as a coolant for
6. Respiratory problems.
power plants and industries.
7. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
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7. The phosphate radical that comes from fertilizers and (2) Occurence of more cyclones, hurricanes and early snow
detergents (water pollutants) promotes the growth of aquatic melts.
weeds to such an extent that water body gets choked and (3) A decrease in world food production and biological
the amount of dissolved oxygen decreases. It is called productivity.
eutrophication. 3. Causes of water pollution
8. The progressive warming up of the earth’s surface due to (1) Many industries do not have proper waste management
the blanketing effect of man made green house gases. system and drain the waste in the fresh water which
e.g. of green house gases like methane (CH4), carbondioxide goes into rivers, canals and later in to sea.
(CO2) and chlorofluoro carbons (CFC’s). (2) In villages where proper sanitation facilities are not
9. As growing of plants or reforestation helps to utilise CO2 available, people defecate in the open. Rain washes
during photosynthesis, purifies the air and also reduces off the human excreta and animal dung into nearby
dust particle in the air. Hence, controls air pollution. water sources.
10. Chloro fluoro carbons has very high potential to cause green (3) Use of pesticides, fertilizers and weedicides in
house effect and they also results in to ozone depletion. agricultural practices result into runoff of these
11. Effects of acid rain. chemicals into nearby water body.
(1) Increase in acidity of soil. (4) Household sewage is discharged into water bodies
(2) Harmful for aquatic life. untreated. Sewage contains kitchen waste, soaps and
(3) Results into corrosion of marble made historical detergents, excreta and many harmful micro organisms
monuments. e.g., Fade in the whiteness of Tajmahal. bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites.
12. Sulphurdioxide (SO2) is produced when sulphur containing (5) Dumping solid wastes and littering by humans in rivers,
fuels are burnt. Carbondioxide is produced by burning fuels lakes and oceans, Littering items include cardboard,
at domestic and industrial scale. Carbon dioxide itself is not Styrofoam, aluminium, plastic and glass.
a pollutant but in excess it leads to greenhouse effect which (6) Oil spillage from accidents of boats and ships use to
will be discussed in detail later. carry oils leads to heavy pollution of water bodies and
13. Vehicles produce high levels of pollutants like carbon damage aquatic life.
monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide and smoke. (7) Mining activities emit several metal waste and
sulphides from the rocks and is harmful for the water.
14. It is not right to burn dry leaves as it causes air pollution. (8) Acid rain produced as a result of air pollution also
The right way to dispose off the dry leaves is to convert damages aquatic life.
them into compost. Some of the methods are
(i) People should be well aware of water pollution
consequenced and importance of water conservation.
1. Oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon are discharged into (ii) Treatment of sewage : Sewage should be treated in a
atmosphere during burning of fossil fuels. sewage treatment plant, which allow only clean water
S(s) + O 2 (g) ¾¾
® SO 2 (g) to be discharged in a water body (river or lake etc)
(iii) Proper toilets and drainage system should be provided
1
SO 2 (s) + O 2 (g) ¾¾ ® SO 3 (g) to slum and village people to avoid defecation in open.
2 (iv) Treatment of industrial wastes : Industrial wastes
1 1 should be treated for removal of harmful substances
N 2 (g) + O 2 (g) ¾¾ ® NO(g)
2 2 and only after such a treatment the waste may be
1 discharged into a water body (i.e. river, lake etc.) Street
NO(g) + O 2 (g) ¾¾ ® NO 2 (g) legal action should be taken against industries which
2
violating norms of waste disposal.
C(s) + O2 (g) ¾¾ ® CO2 (g)
Now these gases dissolve in rain water droplets to form
corresponding acids.
H 2 O(l ) + SO 3 (g) ¾¾® H 2SO 4 (l )
1 Text - Book Exercise :
H 2 O(l ) + 2NO 2 (g) + O 2 (g) ¾¾ ® 2HNO3 (l )
2 1. Water get contaminated in following ways:
H 2 O(l ) + CO 2 (g) ¾¾® H 2 CO 3 (l ) (i) Industrial wastes: Many industries discharge harmful
Now these acids gets dissolved in to rain droplets and along chemicals into rivers and streams, causing the pollution
with them falls on ground. This process will result in to of water.
serious hazards of aquatic, plant and animal life. (ii) Sewage wastes: Waste from toilets, kitchen and
2. Consequences of green house effect are following : laundries when thrown directly into rivers causes
(1) Increase in global temperature. The infra-red absorptive contamination of water.
tendency of carbondioxide has caused rise in (iii) Agricultural wastes: Fertilizers and pesticides used
temperature with increase in level of green house gases. by farmers to increase crop production get carried away
to water bodies due to rain and floods, causing causing global warming, which adversely affects life on Earth.
contamination of water bodies. 9. Global warming is the increase of Earth’s average surface
2. Air pollution can be reduced in following ways: temperature due to increase in level of green house gases.
(i) Using public transport whenever possible and avoiding Global warming can cause sea levels to rise dramatically. In
use of cars, scooters, etc. as much as possible. many places, coastal areas have already been flooded. Global
(ii) Using clean fuels like CNG and LPG instead of petrol warming could result in wide ranging effects on rainfall
and diesel. patterns, agriculture, forests, plants and animals. Global
(iii) Using bicycle or go by foot for short distances instead warming has become a major concern for governments world
of using vehicles. wide. Many countries have reached an agreement to reduce
the emission of green house gases. The Kyoto Protocol is
(iv) Saying no to crackers helps in reducing air as well as
one such agreement.
noise pollution.
10. Acid rain is a major threat to the beauty of the Taj Mahal.
(v) By planting as much trees as possible air pollution can
The industries located in and around Agra like rubber
be controlled.
processing, automobile, chemicals and especially Mathura
(vi) Disposing garbage and dry leaves instead of burning Oil Refinery have been responsible for producing pollutants
them. sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide which causes acid rain.
3. No, it is not necessary that transparent water is always fit Acid rain corrodes the marble of the monument. This
for drinking. It may contain harmful micro-organisms and phenomenon is called “Marble Cancer”. Soot particles
other impurities that are not visible to our eyes. Water should emitted by Mathura Oil Refinery, has contributed towards
always be purified before drinking either with the help of the yellowing of the marble.
water purifier or by boiling it. 11. The increased level of nutrients in water bodies help algae
4. List of measures are as following: to flourish. These algae when die, they serve as food for
(i) Water should be treated properly to make it free from decomposers like bacteria. A lot of oxygen is utilised in this
germs and impurities. process. This results in a decrease in the oxygen level which
(ii) Proper maintenance of pipes supplying water to avoid may kill aquatic organisms.
leakage or corrosion.
(iii) Enforce laws to treat water and chemicals before
disposing into water bodies. 1. (i) Combustion of fuel
(iv) Organize awarness programmes to keep water (ii) Industrial activities
resources clean. 2. (i) sulphur dioxide
5. Pure Air Polluted Air (ii) nitrogen dioxide
(i) Pure air is free (i) Polluted air has increased 3. Lead, arsenic, fluorides (any two)
from harmful and level of harmful and 4. It is not right to burn dry leaves as it causes air pollution.
poisonous gases. poisonous gases. The right way to dispose off the dry leaves is to convert
them into compost.
(ii) Pure air is good (ii) Polluted air affects wildlife,
5. A large number of automobiles stop for a short period at red
for crop production crops and is unfit for
light through out the day and release a large quantity of
and wildlife and breathing and causes gases which create air pollution.
fit for breathing. disease like asthma, 6. Hint:
cancer etc. – CFCs stand for chlorofluorocarbons.
6. Pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide – Refrigerators, air conditioners etc.
released by burning of fossil fuels react with water vapours – Damage the ozone layer of the atmosphere.
present in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid and nitric 7. Hint:
acid respectively. These acids when drop down on earth – To reduce air pollution
along with rain is called acid rain. – To control global warming.
Acid rain damages crops inhibits germination of plants, 8. Hint:
causes skin irritation, adversely affects soil fertility. It also 1. Filtration
causes corrosion of building and bridges. 2. Boiling
7. (d) Nitrogen is not a green house gas. 3. By adding chlorine tablets.
8. The process due to which solar radiations are absorbed by
green house gases like CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, water HOTS Questions :
vapours, etc and is transmitted in all direction is called green
1. In summer, in the afternoon.
house effect. Green house gases helps in keeping our planet
2. CO is a poisonous gas released from industries and motor
warm and makes life possible on the earth. However, an
indiscriminate increase in the amount of green house gases vehicles. It combines with haemoglobin and reduces the
can results to excessive increase in Earth’s temperature oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin. It causes nausea,
headache, nervous and cardiovascular disorders. CO 2
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198 BIOLOGY
causes greenhouse effects. It allows sunlight to pass
through it to reach earth, but absorbs the heat normally
radiated back from surface of earth. This causes a rise in
atmospheric temperature. It is thus less toxic than CO. Multiple Choice Questions :
3. Sulphur dioxide.
4. Oxides of N and S released by the Mathura refinery and by 1. (a)
the automobile causes acid rain formation over Agra. This 2. (b)
acidic rain water reacts with marble of TaJ Mahal causing 3. (b) [They create holes in ozone layer]
pitting, therefore acid rain is a threat to TaJ Mahal. 4. (d) [Many organic substances break up into simpler
substances by taking up dissolved oxygen in presence
CaCO 3 + H 2SO 4 ¾¾
® CaSO 4 + H 2 O + CO 2
of some bacteria. As they continue, dissolved oxygen,
5. If the water is warm the oxygen dissolved becomes less runs short for aquatic life, which is then badly affected.
than 6 ppm and thus the growth of the fish is retarded
Moreover many harmful products are formed]
whereas in cold water fish grow well because the
5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (c)
concentration of dissolved O2 doesn’t falls.
10. (a) Pesticides cause water pollution.
6. CO combines with haemoglobin of the red blood corpuscles
11. (d) 12. (c)
about 200 times more easily than does oxygen to form
13. (d) Pollution is not caused by hydrolytic power plant,
carboxyhaemoglobin.
whereas thermal power plants, automobile and
Hb + CO ¾¾ ® HbCO radioactive power plant are the causal agent of
Therefore, the presence of CO reduces the amount of pollution.
haemoglobin available in the blood for the transport of 14. (c) The beauty of Taj Mahal is endangered due to air
oxygen to the body cells and with less O2 levels, normal pollutants like SO2 released from oil refinery.
metabolism is impaired. 15. (b) Photochemical smog is formed in noon in summer.
7. These data can be used to generate awareness about air 16. (d) Depletion of ozone layer causes skin cancer.
pollution among people. 17. (d) DDT causes water, air and soil pollution.
8. Solar energy and wind energy.
18. (d)
9. (a) nitrogen, oxygen
19. (a) Phosphate pollution is caused by sewage and
(b) carbon monoxide, smoke
(c) Methane, greenhouse gases agricultural fertilizers.
(d) global warming 20. (c) Water is often treated with Cl2 to kill germs.
(e) sewage, polluted 21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (d)
10. We should follow 3R’s mantra. 25. (a) 26. (d)
The three R's of waste management: Reduce, Reuse, and Assertion & Reason :
Recycle. Practicing all three of these activities every day is
important for a healthy environment. 1. (b)
Reduce – Wash vegetables and fruits in a bowl, not under 2. (b) Eutrophication is a natural process which literally means
the tap. Do not leave the tap running while brushing your well nourished or enriched. It is a natural state in many
teeth, shaving or soaping your hands, washing utensils. lakes and ponds which have a rich supply of nutrients.
On regular basis check household water fittings there should Eutrophication become excessive, however when
be no leakage.
abnormally high amount of nutrient from sewage,
Water garden plants early merning and avoid watering when
fertilizers, animal wastage and detergent, enter streams
it’s windy.
and lakes causes excessive growth or blooms of
Reuse – Water used for washing vegetables and fruits should
microorganisms. With increasing eutrophication, the
be reused to water garden plants.
Water used in industries for cooling can be reused for diversity of the phytoplankton community of a lake
irrigation and toilet flushing purposes. increases and the lake finally becomes dominated by
Stored rainwater can be used for gardening purpose. blue - green algae.
Recycle – Recycled water is most commonly used for 3. (c) Other gases like CFCs, Ozone, water vapour and nitrous
nonpotable purposes likes agriculture, landscape, public oxide also show green house effect.
parks, and golf course irrigation. Another important 4. (b)
application of recycled water can be its use as a coolant for 5. (a)
power plants and industries. 6. (b)
Life Processes 199
Chapter LIFE PROCESSES

8
INTRODUCTION
Things which have life are called living things. All the plants and animals are the example of living things. We can see various
example of living things in our surroundings, like the birds flying in the sky, horse grazing in field, a small plant that grows to a
big tree, a small baby that grows to an adult, cows giving birth to calves etc.
Generally, as we know that an individual — referring to human life, animal life or plant life — needs food and air (oxygen) for the
sustenance. True it is, but there is something beyond it. Requirement of sustenance also includes transportation of food within
the body (or across different cells), as well as flushing of wastes out of the body. Just eating without digestion and transportation
makes no sense. And, digestion/ transportation of food without excretion seems to be a dangerous proposition.
So, various life processes keep on occurring inside the body of all living organisms and all these processes are very necessary
for all the organisms. These maintenance functions keep on going even when we are not doing any particular work i.e. at rest
time. The processes which together perform these maintenance job are called ‘life processes’.
Various functions of life processes are :-
(i) Nutrition (ii) Respiration (iii) Transportation (iv) Excretion
Let us discuss various processes, that are essential to maintain life.

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200 BIOLOGY
NUTRITION
Nutrition refers to all activities included in obtaining food and its utilization in the body. As we all know, all living organisms need food
that provides energy for various activities of the body. Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are vital for energy or growth. They are called
nutrients. Vitamins minerals and water are accessory food, that helps human body to work properly.
Different organism take food through different modes. Based on the mode of getting food, organisms can be classified as follows :-
Nutrition
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
An adult man of average weight and doing moderate work needs about 500 gms of carbohydrate
NUTRITION IN PLANTS (AUTOTROPHS)

Plants are autotrophs. They prepare their own food by photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is
the process by which plants can manufacture their own food. Leaves are the “food factories
of plants”. They can make food because they contain chlorophyll. Most leaves are green in
colour.
How do leaves make food? Leaves make food by a process called photosynthesis. It takes
place only when water, carbon dioxide, sunlight and chlorophyll are present. Water comes
from the soil. It is absorbed by the roots. It travels up the fine tubes in the roots and the stem
and the veins of the leaves. Carbon dioxide comes from the air which enters the leaves
through the breathing pores. Chlorophyll is the green pigment found naturally in plants. It is
most abundant in the leaves. Sunlight comes from the sun.
When there is chlorophyll, water and carbon dioxide present in a leaf, a special chemical
reaction takes place in the presence of sunlight. Water combines with carbon dioxide to form sugar and oxygen. The sugar is used by
the plant as food. The oxygen passes out of the leaf through the breathing pores. Sunlight provides the energy of the chemical
reaction.
This happens during photosynthesis :
Carbon dioxide + Water + Light energy ¾¾ ® Sugar + Oxygen
Photosynthesis is the process by which green leaves in sunlight

combine carbon dioxide and water to form sugar and oxygen.
WATER CARBON DIOXIDE

from the soil from the air
CHLOROPHYLL
in the leaf A chemical reaction
traps takes place.
LIGHT ENERGY
from the sun
SUGAR + OXYGEN
Life Processes 201
P oi n t
Why is photosynthesis so important?
SOLUTION
Photosynthesis is very important firstly because it makes food. All animals, whether they are plant-eaters or animal-eaters,
ultimately depend on plants for food. There will be no food for the animals if there are no plants or no photosynthesis.
Secondly, photosynthesis keeps the air fresh by removing carbon dioxide and replacing it with oxygen. This ensures that
there is always enough oxygen in the air for plants and animals to breathe. Plants and animals will suffocate and die if the air
does not have enough oxygen.
A small number of plants do not photosynthesize, they feed on living things.

1. Parasites :- A small number of plants are parasites. This means that they do not make
their own food, but live and feed on other living things, called hosts. The dodder plant,
for example, attaches itself firmly to its host plant by sending thread like structures
called haustoria into it. Dodder stems then grow rapidly all over the host, which becomes
completely covered and eventually dies.
2. Saprotrophs :- Some organisms feed on dead matter instead of living on a host or
making their own food. They are known as saprotophic plants or saprotrophs. Fungi
and some orchids are saprotrophs.
3. Meat eaters or Insectivorous plants :- Some plants can kill and digest small creatures,
such as insects. They are called carnivorous plants. They attract their victims into
deadly traps using colour or particular smell. Once inside, the insect is dissolved by Plant Photosynthesis
powerful chemicals called enzymes.
Such plants grow in soil which contains few minerals. They absorb what they need from the bodies of their prey by digesting
them. For example, pitcher plants catch animals in their jug like leaves called pitchers.
Some bacteria found in ocean depth do photosynthesis without sunlight
Autotrophs are divided into two types :

(i) Photoautotrophs : The autotrophs which do photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight, are called photoautotrophs.
Examples include green plant, algae and some bacteria.
(ii) Chemoautotrophs : The autotrophs which do photosynthesis without sunlight, are called chemoautotrophs. Examples
include certain bacteria found in deep sea.
P oi n t
What is the difference between autotrophs and heterotrophs.
SOLUTION
Autotrophs : 1. They can make their own food from raw materials in presence of sunlight.
2. They take in simple inorganic substances and change it into complex organic food. e.g., all green plants.
Heterotrophs : 1. They cannot make their own food.
2. They take in complex food and break it into simple food e.g., all animals and fungi and non-green plants.
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS (HETEROTOPHS)

Animals can not make their own food. They depend on the food synthesized by plants. The food intake by animals is holozoic.
Organisms which depend on other organisms for their food are called heterotrophs. Their mode of intake of food is called het-
erotrophic nutrition.
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202 BIOLOGY
In adult the whole digestive tract is about 9m long.

The longest part of the digestive system, is the small intestine, measuring 6m.
The large intestine is 1.5 m long.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IN HUMANS

Human body needs food which contain many substances, that is used to help the body grow and repair itself. It also provides energy
to move about. Water is needed to continually replenish the supply of water in the blood stream. Taking in food and breaking it into
tiny pieces, small enough to absorb into the body, is known as digestion. The human digestive system includes :-
MOUTH, TEETH, TONGUE, OESOPHAGUS, STOMACH, SMALL INTESTINE, LARGE IN

TESTINE, LIVER, PANCREAS
Let us now discuss the process of digestion. As food passes through your body, it is broken down into pieces small enough to be
dissolved in our blood. Thisprocess, called digestion, takes place in the digestive tract or alimentary canal. Alimentary canal is a tube
that runs from your mouth to a hole in your bottom called the anus. Food is broken down physically by chewing and churning, and
chemically by the action of digestive juices, made by organs called glands.
Stages of digestion :-
1. Food is chewed in the mouth and mixed with a digestive juice called saliva, which is made in
your salivary glands. Saliva moistens the food so it slides down your throat easily. It also starts
to break down starch in the food into a sugar called maltose.
2. Our throat muscles guide the food through the pharynx into a passage called the gullet or
oesophagus. As you swallow, a flap called the epiglottis blocks off the top of your windpipe or
trachea, so the food does not go down the wrong way.
3. Food travels down the gullet into your stomach. Muscles in the wall of the gullet contract to
push the food along. This action, called peristalsis, takes place all along your digestive tract.
4. In the stomach, food is churned up with gastric juices. These start to digest protein and they
also contain hydrochloric acid which kills germs in the food. Your stomach lining has folds
called rugae, which flatten as it fills. Lichen
5. The food moves into a tube called the small intestine. This has three sections: the duodenum,
the jejunum and the ileum. In the duodenum, digestive juices made by the liver and pancreas break down fats, protein and starch.
6. The small intestine, especially the ileum, is lined with tiny, finger-like projections called villi which increases its surface area.
Each villus contains minute blood vessels, which absorb the digested food, and carry it to the liver for further processing before
it is carried around the body.
Digestive Enzymnes : Sources, Effects

Mouth Part/Organ Source Enzymes
Tongue
(Buccal cavity) Salivary
Oesophagus Mouth Amylase
glands
Gastric
Stomach Pepsin
glands
Diaphragm Pancreatic
Pancreas Trypsin
juice
Gall bladder
(stores bile) Carboxy
Stomach
Bile duct peptidase
Liver Small Amylase
Pancreas intestine Lipase
Large intestine Amino
(Colon) peptidase,
Appendix Maltase
Anus
Human alimentary canal
Life Processes 203
RESPIRATION Guard cells
Respiration involves exchange of gases, i.e. breathing and oxidation of food to release
energy. The oxygen taken in during breathing oxidises the food to release energy. Car-
bon dioxide is released during this process and is given out. The process of taking in
oxygen (inhalation) and giving out carbon dioxide (exhalation) is called respiration. It is
the most vital process that never stops in organisms.
Respiration in plants : Respiration or exchange of gases among plants takes place
through the pores called stomata. Stomata are found in leaves and stems of plants,
which allows oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour to in or out of plants. The sto-
matal pores are enclosed by two guard cells which are surrounded by several subsidiary Stomata
cells. Generally, more number of stomata are present on the lower surface of leaf.
Respiration in animals : Some unicellular animals such as Amoeba and Hydra take oxygen and give out carbon dioxide through cell
membrane. Insects such as cockroach, mosquito take oxygen through the air holes (spiracle) present on the side of the body. Fishes
respire through gills. The tadpoles take oxygen through gills but when they are metamorphosed into adult frog, gills are replaced by
lungs.
Higher organisms like tigers, birds, rats, snakes, human have lungs as their respiratory system.
Respiratory system in humans :-
The respiratory system is made up of lungs and the passages that lead to them. Humans breathe air into lungs, and oxygen from the
air passes into the blood, which carries it around whole body. Waste, carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the lungs and is
breathed out.
Sea anemone has the simplest type of respiratory surface and diffusion starts across a thin layer.
P oi n t
Why do we sneeze?
SOLUTION
We sneeze to expel foreign particles from our nose. When pollens, dust or smoke enter our nose, they cause irritation.
Sneezing involves a sudden and violent expiration of air through the nose and mouth. When the nerve endings in the nose
lining detect any irritating substances, it controls involuntary actions. The brain then sends signals to the respiratory
organs, like lungs and pharynx, to squeeze and then expel a gust of air with a loud blast.
A sneeze usually starts with release of chemicals, such as histamine,

by inflammatory cells in nose, signalling that there is urgent need
to expel something out of the nose.
TRANSPORTATION
By now, we have learnt that every cell needs a regular supply of nutrients and oxygen to
provide energy. The food that we eat is broken down into smaller components to be Heart
absorbed by the cells. The oxygen that we inhale is also absorbed by all the cells of the
body. Our body also requires a constant removal of wastes materials such as carbon Vein
dioxide. Have you ever thought how these nutrients and oxygen is transported in our
Artery
body? OR How the oxygen is transported to all the body cells? The oxygen is transported
through blood and the blood is pumped to different parts of our body through an organ
called heart. For the supply of useful materials and removal of wastes from the body cells,
human body consists of a transport system called circulatory system. It is the transportation
system of our body. Transportation is the movement of substances, especially oxygen,
water, food molecules, carbon dioxide and waste products into or out of cell.
Circulatory system
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Circulatory System
The human circulatory system is composed of three major parts.
• Heart: A pumping organ to transport blood
• Blood vessels: Arteries, Veins, Capillaries
Super
• Blood: Red blood cells (RBCs), White blood cells (WBCs), Platelets Vena Cave
Heart
Heart is a hollow muscular organ as big as your fist. It contracts and relaxes Aorta
Pulmonary
Artery
rhythmically to pump blood throughout the body. The heart beats approximately
70-90 times per minute. Pulmonary
Vein
Human heart consists of four chambers. The upper two chambers are called atria
while the lower two chambers are called ventricles. Left
Atrium
Right
Hence, the human heart is four chambered. The right atrium receives carbon Atrium
Mitral
Valve
dioxide rich blood from the body. Blood from the right atrium then enters the right
ventricle, which contracts and pumps the blood to the lungs. In the lungs the Pulmonary Left Aortic
blood becomes oxygenated with the help of the oxygen present in the lungs as a Vein Ventricle Valve
Right
result of breathing. On the other hand, oxygen rich blood from the lungs returns Tricuspid Ventricle
to the left atrium. From the left atrium, blood enters the left ventricle. The left Vein
ventricle contracts and pumps the blood to all parts of the body.
The rhythmic contraction and expansion of various chambers of the heart maintains
Interior Vena Cava
the transport of oxygen to all the parts of the body.
Human Heart
Blood
What happens when your finger is pricked with a needle? A red colour fluid, called blood flows out. The main function of blood is to
transport oxygen and nutrients to various parts of the body.
There is no substitute for human blood. It is known as river of life. A new born baby has about one cup of blood
in his body.
The blood consists of liquid or fluid called plasma with red blood cells, white blood cells Red blood cell (RBC) White blood cell (WBC)
and platelets floating in it. Plasma is the colourless fluid of the blood. It helps in the
transport of food, CO2, wastes and salts.
1. Red blood cells (RBCs): Red blood cells are the most abundant cells in the blood.
These cells contain a red pigment called haemoglobin. It is the haemoglobin which
carries oxygen and transports it to all parts of the body. Platelets Vein valve
2. White blood cells (WBCs): WBCs are colourless cells without haemoglobin. They A Blood Vessel
are the largest cell of the blood. They fight against infections and protect the body
from foreign particles. The foreign particles include germs and bacteria. Basically, WBCs are like soldiers that protect the body
from various infections.
3. Platelets: Platelets are small irregular bodies present in the blood. They contain essential chemicals that help in clotting. The
main function of platelets is to prevent bleeding.
P oi n t
When you get injured, blood comes out from the site of injury. But within few minutes, the
blood stops and a dark red colour clot appears.
How red colour clot is formed?
SOLUTION
The clot is formed because of platelets. Platelets release blood clotting chemicals at the site of injury. These chemicals form
a clot and prevent further bleeding.
Our blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) are over 60000 miles long which is long enough to go
around the world more than twice!
Life Processes 205
Blood Vessels
Blood vessels are hollow tubes that carry blood to all parts of the body. They are located throughout the human body.
There are three types of blood vessels: Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
1. Arteries: Arteries are tough, elastic tubes that carry blood from the heart to various organs of the body. They generally carry O 2
rich blood except for pulmonary artery. Pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries CO2 rich blood from heart to lungs.
Gently place your middle and index finger of right hand on the inner side of your left wrist. Artery
Observation: You will feel something beating strongly or violently. This is called your pulse.
Conclusion: Pulse arises due to rhythmic contraction and expansion of the arteries with each
beat of the heart. The number of beats per minute is called the pulse rate.
2. Veins: Veins are thin walled, non elastic blood vessels. They transport blood towards the heart
from the various organs. Veins carry CO2 rich blood except for pulmonary vein. Pulmonary
vein carries oxygen rich blood from the lungs to the heart. Though veins are thin-walled but
they possess valves. The valves are present to prevent the backflow of waste materials to the
tissues.
3. Capillaries: As the arteries move away from the heart to the various organs and tissues, they
divide into smaller vessels called capillaries. The wall of the capillaries is very thin. They Pulse in wrist
form networks which reach every living cell of the body. These capillaries then join to form
veins which carry blood to the heart.
You can check your pulse rate where an artery comes close to the skin such as your wrist, neck, temple area
behind the knee or top of your foot.
Count the number of beats of your pulse in 30 seconds by placing your middle and index finger of right hand on the inner side of your
left wrist. Then double the count result to get the number of beats per minute. How many pulse beat could you count?
A resting person usually has a pulse rate between 72 to 80 beats per minute.
BLOOD PRESSURE
The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure. This pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins.
The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular systole (contraction) is called systolic pressure and pressure in artery during
ventricular diastole (relaxation) is called diastolic pressure. The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic pressure
is 80 mm of Hg.
Blood
pressure 120/80
(120 systolic, Pressure Pressure Pressure
80 diastolic) in cuff in cuff
(to be measured) in cuff
above 120 above 120 above 80
Rubber cuff 120 120

inflated
with air 80
Artery
closed
Sounds Sounds
audible in stop
Artery stethoscope
Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer. High blood pressure is also called hypertension and is
caused by the constriction of arterioles, which results in increased resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the rupture of an artery and
internal bleeding.
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Doctors use a stethoscope for listening to the sound generated by heart inside
your body.
Transportation of substances in Plants

Plants have tube like vessels which transport water and minerals from the soil to the leaves and food from the leaves to all plant parts.
The tissues involved in transport are collectively known as vascular tissue.
• Xylem transports water and minerals from the soil via roots (root hair) to rest of the plant body.
• Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body. Thus xylem and phloem transport water
and food respectively.
EXCRETION Stomatal pore
The waste products are usually toxic and they may prove to be fatal if retained Entry of Exit of water
and oxygen
inside the body. These wastes need to be removed. The biological process which carbon-dioxide
remove of these harmful metabolic wastes from the body into the surrounding, is
called excretion.
Excretion in Plants :-
Plants use a variety of methods to get rid of waste materials. For example, they get
rid of excess of water by transpiration. Transpiration is the evaporation of water Left renal
from the plants. The water evaporates through the stomata, present on the surface artery
of leaves. Some plants may store waste materials in the cell vacuoles as gum and
Left kidney
resin. Also oxygen is excreted through stomata of leaves as a waste product during Left renal vein
photosynthesis. Aorta
Left ureter
Excretion in Animals :- Vana cava
The process of removing waste products produced in the cells of living organism is Urinary bladder
called excretion. It is an essential process in all forms of life.Different organisms Urethra
have different kind of mechanism for excretion. In one celled organisms, wastes are
discharged through the surface of cell. In humans, the main organs of excretion are
the kidneys. Human Excretory System
The organs involved in the process of excretion form the excretory system.
Respiratory
Excretion in Humans :- Waste Products
The excretory system of humans consists of- a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters,
Nitrogenous
a urinary bladder and a urethra. The main excretory organs of the human body
Waste Products
are the kidneys. They are connected via the ureter to the urinary bladder,
which is then connected to urethra. The most important structure in the Bile Pigments
kidneys is the microscopic blood capillaries that filter the blood to produce Excretory Wastes in Humans
urine.
P oi n t
How urine is produced in body?
SOLUTION
During blood circulation the blood passes through the kidneys. This blood contains both useful and waste materials. The
kidneys filter the wastes from the blood and produce urine. From the kidneys, the urine goes into the urinary bladder through
two narrow tubes called the ureters. The urinary bladder stores the urine until it is forced out of the body, through an opening
known as the urethra.
Kidney receives more blood for their size than any other body organ about 1.2 litres every minute.
All the body’s blood flows through the kidney more than 300 times a day.
Life Processes 207
SUMMARY
The maintenance of life requires processes like nutrition, respiration, transportation of materials with in the body and
excretion of waste products.
Plants show autotrophic nutrition, wheras animals show heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
The process of nutrition in animals includes ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.
Some plants are heterotrophic. Heterotrophs are divided as insectivorous, saprophytes, parasites and symbiotic.
Transport of minerals and water takes place through xylem and phloem.
In human beings, transport of material such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, food and excretory product is a function of the
circulatory system. The circulatory system consists of heart, blood and blood vessels.
Respiration may be aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic respiration makes more energy than anaerobic respiration.
In plants respiration takes place by stomatal pores.
Plants do not have specialised excretory organ but remove waste through stomata.
Human beings excrete sweat through skin, urea through kidney and carbon dioxide through lungs.
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Multiple Choice Questions : 12. Vessels that take blood to the heart from the body are called.
(a) Arteries (b) Veins
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 16 multiple choice (c) Capillaries (d) None
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out 13. Animals that only eat plant material for food are called
of which ONLY ONE is correct. (a) Carnivores (b) Herbivores
(c) Omnivores (d) None of the above
1. The major site of biological action of the human circulatory
14. Which of these is a part of your digestive system?
system is –
(a) the arteries (b) the veins (a) Stomach (b) Pancreas
(c) the capillary bed (d) the heart (c) Rectum (d) All of the above
2. Which of the following is not an important function of the 15. What tube is used by both the digestive and respiratory
vertebrate circulatory system – systems ?
(a) transport of nutrients and respiratory gases (a) Esophagus (b) Larynx
(b) regulation of body temperature (c) Pharynx (d) None of these
(c) protection of the body by circulating antibodies Assertion & Reason :
(d) removal of waste products for excretion from the body
3. The exchange of gases in human beings takes place in–
(a) in skin (b) in mouth
(c) in nostrils (d) in lungs
4. The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires :
(a) Carbon dioxide and water (b) Chlorophyll
(c) Sunlight (d) All of the above
5. Plants are green in colour because –
(a) they absorb green light only
(b) they reflect green light (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
(c) they absorb green light but reflect all other lights the correct explanation of Assertion.
(d) none of the above are correct (c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
6. Digestion of food in human starts from – (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
(a) duodenum (b) small intestine
(c) mouth (d) large intestine 1. Assertion : ATP is the energy carrier of cell.
7. Blood vessel carrying blood from lungs to heart is– Reason : ATP is a nucleotide
(a) pulmonary artery (b) pulmonary vein 2. Assertion : Thick layers of muscles are present in the wall
(c) coronory artery (d) none of these of alimentary canal.
8. Excretion is removal of – Reason : The muscles help in the mixing of food materials
(a) CO2 with the enzymes coming from different gland in the
(b) Harmful and useless ingredients alimentary canal.
(c) Extra water 3. Assertion : Saliva is the secretion of salivary glands.
(d) Metabolic waste Reason : Saliva is a mixture of water and electrolyte derived
9. The by-products of photosynthesis are –
from blood plasma.
(a) O2 and H2O (b) CO2 and H2S
4. Assertion : Fishes respire through gills.
(c) O2 and CO2 (d) H2O and H2S
10. The process of carbon assimilation is known as – Reason : Counter current flow occurs in gills.
(a) transpiration (b) respiration 5. Assertion : Arteries carry blood from various body organs
(c) photosynthesis (d) excretion to heart.
11. Phloem transports – Reason : Veins carry blood from various body organ to heart.
(a) Minerals 6. Assertion : Cardiovascular system involves blood, blood
(b) Food prepared by leaves vessels and heart.
(c) Water Reason : The human circulatory system is composed of
(d) All the above heart, vessels and blood.
Life Processes 209
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
The pancreas releases hormones that affects the

digestive process. The rectum is the last place you
store you food before the process of elimination
Multiple Choice Questions : (pooping).
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 16. (c) The pharynx connects the mouth to an area in your
4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (b) throat with a flap. The flap is the epiglottis. The flap
7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (d) moves to one side for food and the other side as you
10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (c) breathe. The branching point leads to the larynx or the
13. (b) 14. (c) esophagus.
15. (d) All of these choices are a part of your digestive system. Assertion & Reason :
Your digestive system has many other associated
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b)
organs including the small intestine, large intestine,
4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (d)
and liver. The stomach is an area of food digestion.
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Chapter TISSUES
9
INTRODUCTION
All living organisms are made up of cells. Some organisms are unicellular (made up of one cell) and the others are multicellular
(made up of many cells). These cells are capable of performing different functions such as respiration, digestion and so on. In
multicellular organisms, because of large body size it is difficult for each cell to efficiently cope with the vast variety of the
physiological needs of the organism, so cells group together to form tissues. These tissues are specialised to carry out a
particular function at definite place in the body. For example, the muscle cells form muscular tissues that help in movement.
Similarly, nerve cells form nervous tissue that helps in transmission of message. Likewise in plants, phloem cells form phloem
tissue that conducts food from leaves to other parts of the plants. This is known as division of labour in multicellular organism.
This division of labour allows the multicellular organism to perform all functions properly.
Tissues are group of cells similar in structure that work together to perform a particular function. In this chapter, we will be
discussing about the different types of plant tissues and animal tissues. Let us first, discuss about plant tissues.
Tissues 211
PLANT TISSUES
Plants are autotrophic organisms that prepare their own food by photosynthesis. They are stationary organisms that need not have
to move from one place to another in search of food. Most of the tissues of plants are supportive that provide them structural strength
or support. Further, there are some tissues in plants that divide throughout the life. Based on division in tissues, the various plant
tissues can be classified as meristematic and permanent tissues.
Plant Tissues
Meristematic Permanent
tissues tissues
1. MERISTEMATIC TISSUES : Meristematic tissues are composed of cells that divide Cytoplasm
continuously. These cells show the following characteristics :-
(i) The cells may be spherical, oval, polygonal or rectangular. Cell wall
(ii) The cells of meristematic tissue are similar in structure and have thin cell wall,
made up of cellulose.
(iii) The cells are compactly arranged without inter cellular spaces.
(iv) The cells contain abundant – cytoplasm and nuclei are large.
(v) Vacuoles are absent and if present, they are few in number. Nucleus
Occurrence : Meristematic tissues are found in growing tips of root and shoot. Based Meristematic tissue
on their position in the plants, meristems are divided into three types :
(i) Apical meristem, (ii) Lateral meristem and (iii) Intercalary meristem
(i) Apical meristems are found at the growing tips of stems and roots. It helps to Apical
initiate growth in new cells of seedling, at the tip of roots and shoots. It results in meristem
increase in height of the plant.
(ii) Lateral meristems are found beneath the bark. It increases the diameter of the Intercalary
stem. meristem
(iii) Intercalary meristem are located at the base of leaves or internode. It increases
the length of internode.
Cells derived from division of meristematic tissues take up specific function and
thereby lose the ability to divide. Thus, they form permanent tissue. The
developmental process by which cells take up a permanent shape, size and function
is called differentiation.
2. PERMANENT TISSUES : Permanent tissues are tissues that are derived from
Lateral
meristematic tissues that have lost the power of division and have attained their
meristem
definite forms. They are classified into two main types –
(A) Simple permanent tissue
(B) Complex permanent tissue
Permanent Tissue A B
Shoot apex showing location

Simple Complex of meristem and young leaves.
Permanent tissue Permanent tissue
Parenchyma Xylem
Collenchyma
Phloem
Sclerenchyma
A. Simple Permanent Tissues : A simple permanent tissue is made up of one type of cells forming a uniform mass. They are
classified into three types :
(i) Parenchyma (ii) Collenchyma
(iii) Sclerenchyma
(i) Parenchyma : Parenchyma is widely distributed in plant body such as stem, root, leaves, flower. They are found in the
cortex of root, ground tissue in stems and mesophyll of leaves.
• Parenchyma forms to the bulk of the plant body. Hence, it is known as packing tissue.
• They are living and possess the power of division.
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• Parenchymal cells are isodiametric having equal diameters in all directions.
• They are oval, round, polygonal and elongated in shape.
• The cell walls are thin and are made of cellulose.
• Cytoplasm is dense with a single large vacuole.
Nucleus
• Parenchyma has loosely packed cells that contains intercellular spaces. Rounded Large central
cell
Parenchyma that contain chlorophyll are called chlorenchyma while vacuole
parenchyma specialised for gas exchange are called aerenchyma. Intercellular
Functions : air space
1. They store and assimilate food. They serve as food storage tissue. Cell's primary
2. They give mechanical strength by maintaining turgidity. cell wall
3. They prepare food if chlorophyll is present.
4. They store waste products like tannin, gum, resins etc.
(ii) Collenchyma : Collenchyma are found below the epidermis of dicot stem Parenchyma tissue
and leaf stalk.
• Collenchyma are characterised by the deposition of extra cellulose at the corners of the cells.
• The cells are elongated in shape.
• Intercellular spaces are generally absent.
Vacuole
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Intercellular air spaces
extremely small or non-existent
Middle lamella
thinner side walls
Thickenings of extra
cellulose at each corner
Collenchyma tissue
Functions :
Lignified
1. Collenchyma is a mechanical tissue. It provides mechanical support to the secondary
stem. wall Empty lumen
2. They provide tensile strength with flexibility to those organs in which it is (No living
content)
found.
(iii) Sclerenchyma : Sclerenchyma are found abundantly in stems, roots, vein of
leaves, and hard covering of seeds and nuts.
• These are dead cells that are devoid of protoplasm.
• The cell wall is evenly thickened with lignin. Due to excessive thickening
of the wall of a sclerenchyma cell, its cell cavity or lumen becomes nearly
absent.
• A conspicuous middle lamella exists between two sclerenchymatous cells.
Cells of sclerenchyma are of two types :- Simple
(i) Fibres : They are usually pointed at both ends and are clustered into strands. They pit
consists of very long, narrow, thick and lignified cells.
(ii) Sclereids : Sclereids, also called stone cells, are irregular-shaped. They are found in the
cortex, pith, phloem, hard seeds, nuts and stony fruits. Their function is to give firmness Sclerenchyma tissue
and hardness to the part concerned.
You most have noticed that flesh of pear and guava are sometimes gritty . Can you guess why it is so? It is due to the presence
of sclereids. These cells are thick-walled, hard and strongly lignified.
Function : They give mechanical support to the plant by giving rigidity, flexibility and elasticity to the plant body.
NOTE
Lignin is a complex polymer that hardens cell wall. It makes the cell wall impermeable so that substances can not pass through it.
Tissues 213
Difference table between parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Cell walls are relatively thin, The cell wall is irregularly thickened at the The cell walls are uniformly thickened and
and the cells in parenchyma corners and there is very little space there are no intercellular spaces.
tissues are loosely packed. between the cells.
The cell wall in this tissue is Pectin and hemicellulose are the major An additional layer of the cell wall
made up of cellulose constituents of the cell wall. composed mainly of lignin is found.
Husk of coconut is made of sclerenchymatous tissue. It is present in the mesocarp of fruit of coconut.
Protective tissue :
(i) Epidermis : These tissues are usually present in the outermost layer of the plant body such as leaves, stem and root. It
includes epidermis and cork.
• Epidermis is usually present in the outer most layer of plant body such as leaves, stem and roots.
• It is one cell thick and covered with cutin and protects the underlying tissue present in plant body.
The main function of epidermis is to protect the plant from desiccation and infection. It also helps in exchange of gases
through the stomata.
(ii) Cork : As roots and stems grow older with time, tissues at the periphery become cork cells.
• Cork cells are dead, they have no intercellular spaces and the cell walls are heavily thickened by the deposition of
suberin. Suberin makes the cork cell impermeable to water and gases.
• Cork is protective in function. They prevent loss of water from plant body, protect plant from infection and mechanical
injury.
iN THE LAB
How epidermal cells help in gaseous
exchange? Let us perform an activity : Guard Cells
Take a freshly plucked leaf of a Rhoe plant.
Stretch it from upper side and break it by
applying pressure. While breaking it ,
stretch gently so that peel projects out.
Stomatal Aperture
Place this peel in a petri dish filled with a
Outer Wall Inner Wall
water. Add a few drops of safranine stain
to it. Observe it under microscope. Epidermal Cells
What did you observe? You will find tiny
pores of stomata along with the epidermal
cells. The stomata are bound by a pair of
Chloroplasts
guard cells. Guard cells are the two curved Stomata
Stomata
cells on the either side of the pore. By
changing their shape they can open or close the pore. When guard cells absorb water, they bend outwards, so that the pore
between them opens up. When they lose water they go back to a less curved shape, closing the pore between them.
Functions of stomata :-
(i) Stomata helps in transpiration. Transpiration is the process of evaporation of water from the leaf surface.
(ii) Stomata allows the exchange of gases (CO2 and O2) with the atmosphere.
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B. Complex Permanent Tissues : The complex permanent tissues consists of more than one type of cells. All these cells co-
ordinate to perform a common function. They transport water, salt and prepared food material to various parts of the plant
body.
Complex tissues are of two types :-
I. Xylem
II. Phloem
(I) Xylem : Xylem is a conducting tissue that conducts water and minerals to various parts of the body. It is composed
of four different types of cells.
Xylem
Vessels Tracheids Xylem Xylem

parenchyma fibre
(a) Vessels – Vessels consist of dead, hollow cells with wide lumens. Cells are linked end to end in a drainpipe
fashion. End walls have one or more perforations. It allows rapid
transport of large volumes of water from roots up through the
Perforation Fibre
stem. Vessels have thick lignified walls that prevents the cells from
collapsing, enabling them to withstand the negative pressure plates Tracheids
generated as water is pulled up through their lumens. Lignin also
provides waterproofing.
Side walls may have bordered pits (unlignified areas), which allows
lateral movement of water. If for example, one xylem vessel becomes
blocked, water moves sideways to another vessel and then move
vessel
upward again.
number
Vessels are the main conducting cells in angiosperms. Large
diameter of vessels enable large volumes of water to be moved
through the plant.
(b) Tracheids – They have dead, hollow cells with narrower lumens
than vessels. Tracheids are connected vertically to each other via
bordered pits. They conduct water in conifers which, have needles,
because they do not lose as much water as, for example, Components of Xylem
broadleaved trees. Narrower lumens encourage capillarity.
They are elongated cells with tapering ends. Their end walls are thickened with lignin. It provides mechanical
strength to them.
(c) Parenchyma – They are made up of parenchymatous cells. They have thin cellulose walls with living contents
which contribute support via turgidity.
(d) Fibres – They are sclerenchymatous cells that form wood in older plants. The cells are dead and provide
strength.
NOTE
Except for Xylem parenchyma, all other xylem elements are dead and bounded by thick lignified walls.
Functions :
(i) Xylem conducts water and minerals upward from the roots to different parts of plant.
(ii) Cells that are lignified such as tracheids, vessels and parenchyma fibres are used to give mechanical strength to the plant
body.
(iii) Xylem parenchyma stores food and helps in lateral conduction of water.
(II) Phloem : Phloem is also a conducting tissue that transports prepared food from leaves to other parts of plant. It is
composed of four different types of cells.
Phloem
Sieve tube Companion Phloem Phloem

elements cells Parenchyma fibres
Tissues 215
(a) Sieve tube elements : They are living, tubular cells linked Sieve
Fibre
end to end. Their end walls are perforated and form a sieve plate
plate, which allows bidirectional flow of solutes and
Companion
hormones. Cytoplasm of sieve tube element is thin and
cell
peripheral. They have cellulose cell walls, which allows
exchange of substances across them.
Each sieve tube element is directly connected via strands of Sieve
cytoplasm known as plasmodesmata to its own companion areas
cell. The companion cell controls movement of solutes in the
sieve tube element. Plasmodesmata allows exchange of
substances between the sieve tube element and the
companion cell.
(b) Companion cell : They are small cells containing large nucleus
and abundant other organelles e.g., ribosomes, mitochondria
and golgi body. Nucleus controls the activities of sieve tube
element. Ribosomes allow production of enzymes and Sieve element
mitochondria produce ATP for active transport in sieve tube
element.
(c) Phloem parenchyma : Parenchyma provide support through
Components of Phloem
turgidity.
(d) Fibres : They are sclerenchymatous cells that provide support and some protection for delicate sieve tube
elements.
NOTE
Except for phloem fibres, phloem cells are living cells.
Let us now summarise how Xylem is different from phloem.
Xylem Phloem
Xylem is a complex tissue that comprises of dead elements. Phloem is a complex tissue that comprises of living tissue
Xylem conducts water and minerals from roots to other aerial Phloem conducts prepared food from leaves to all parts of the
parts of plant. body.
Difference table between simple tissue and complex tissue.
Simple tisse Complex tissue
These tissues consist of only one type of cells These tissues are made of up of more than one type of cells
The cells are more or less similar in structure and Different types of cells perform different functions. For example in
perform similar functions. the xylem tissue, tracheids help in water transport, whereas
parenchyma stores food
Three types of simple tissues of plants are Two types of complex permanent tissues in plants are xylem and
parenchyma, collenchyma and Sclerenchyma. phloem.
Difference table between meristematic tissue and permanent tissue.
Sl. No. Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue
1 Meristematic tissue are composed of cells that divide Permanent tissue are composed of cells that are derived
continuously from meristematic tissue that do not divide
2 The cells are undifferentiated The cells are fully differentiated.
3 The cells are small in size and isodiametric The cells are variable in shape and size
4 Intercellular spaces are generally absent Intercellular spaces are present.
5 The cell walls are thin Cell walls may be thin or thick.
ANIMAL TISSUES
Breathing is the most vital process that never stops. Along with heart, it is the most essential activity of the body. When we breathe,
we feel the movement of our lungs and diaphragm. Have you ever thought, which part of our body helps us in moving? Yes, it is
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muscle cells. The contraction and relaxation of these muscle cells result in movement. Every physical activity whether it is blinking an
eyelid or turning a somersault, involves muscles into play. Muscle is a type of tissue in our body.
In higher animals like man, cells are organised into four types of tissues.
Animal Tissue
Epithelial Muscular Connective Nervous

Tissue Tissue Tissue Tissue
Let us now discuss, each of these tissues one by one.
1. Epithelial Tissue :
It is the protective tissue of the animal body. The cells are compactly packed with little or no intercellular matrix. The epithelial
tissue is of two types :-
(i) Simple epithelial tissue. (ii) Stratified epithelial tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Simple Stratified
It is composed of a It is made up of
single layer of cells. several layers of cells
Depending upon the shape and function of the cells, the epithelial tissues are further divided into four types.
Epithelial Tissue
Cytoplasm Nucleus
Squamous Cuboidal Columnar Ciliated

epithelium epithelium epithelium eithelium
Basement
(i) Squamous epithelium : It is made of thin flat, irregular shaped cells that fit membrane
together to form a compact tissue. Squamous epithelium
l It forms the delicate lining of cavities (like mouth, oesophagus, nose, etc.)
and blood vessels.
l Function : It protects the underlying parts of body from mechanical injury and entry of germs.
Stratified squamous epithelium :
l Unlike squamous epithelium, cells of this tissue are arranged in many layers.
l They are found in skin and cover the external dry surface of the skin.
l This epithelium is water proof and highly resistant to mechanical injury.
(ii) Cuboidal Epithelium : These comprises cube like cells.
l It is found in kidney tubules and in gland like salivary gland, sweat gland, pancreas etc.
l It forms germinal epithelium of testes and ovaries.
Functions :
(a) It provides mechanical support to the part where they are found.
(b) It helps in absorption, excretion and secretion.
Stratified squamous epithelium
Cytoplasm Columnar
cell
Nucleus
Nucleus Basement
Basement membrane membrane
Cuboidal epithelium Columnar Epithelium

Tissues 217
(iii) Columnar Epithelium : It consist of cells that are pillar-like (i.e. taller than broader). The nuclei are towards the base. The
free ends of cells have a brush border containing microvilli. It forms lining of the stomach and small intestine, forming
mucous membrane.
Functions :
(a) They help in absorption of digested food material from stomach and intestine.
(b) They help in secretion, for example, secretion of mucus by goblet cells or mucous membrane.
(iv) Ciliated Epithelium : The cuboidal or columnar cells (have a free border)
Cilia
that bear thread-like cytoplasmic outgrowth called cilia, forms the ciliated
epithelium. Ciliated epithelium lines the trachea, bronchi, kidney tubules and Columnar
oviducts. cell
Function : The beating of cilia helps in movement of solid particles in one Nucleus
direction.
2. Muscular Tissue : Basement
membrane
Muscle tissue helps in the movement of internal organs such as heart and
alimentary canal in your body. It helps in contraction and relaxation of body
organs. Every movement, every breathe, every mouthful you chew- all these
Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
actions and more are carried out by the body’s muscle cells.
Structure of a muscle : A muscle contains bundles of long, thin muscle fibres called
myofibres, about the width of human hair. Each fibre is made of even thinner parts called muscle fibrils (called myofibrils) which in turn
contains even narrower parts called myofilaments. There are two kinds of filaments, made of different types of proteins.
(i) Actin which is thin and (ii) Myosin which is thick.
Over time the appearance of skin changes in our body. It becomes more wrinkled and creased. It is because as
people change, the collagen fibres in their skin weaken, causing the skin to become loose.
These slide past each other to shorten the fibrils causing the whole muscle to contract.
By weight, muscles make up more than 40 percent of the body. They include most of what we call our flesh, and
they also form the main part of all our internal organs. Altogether, the body has about 650 separate muscles.
Muscle tissues are made of muscle cell that are elongated and large-sized. A single muscle can do only one task that is to get shorter
to pull on body parts. But by working together in a very precise and co-ordinated way, hundreds of muscle in our body carry out
thousands of different activities every day.
Tendon
Tendon
Muscle belly Tendon Biceps Triceps Biceps
Epimysium (contracted) (contracted) (relaxed)
Tendon
Fasciculus
Endomysium Tendon
Sarcolemma
Triceps
Myofibril
Perimysium (relaxed)
Single muscle fiber
Nuclei
Movement of Muscle
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Can you recall from your previous knowledge, how does a muscle work? Muscles are attached to the bones of the skeleton by cords
called tendons. If you want to lift your arms, your brain sends a signal to your arm muscles through nerves. Thus muscles contract (get
smaller) and pull the bones of the forearm up.
When a muscle works (contracts or relaxes), it uses energy. This energy comes from chemical Myofibril
action between glucose (stored in muscle) and oxygen from the blood. The chemical action Sarcolemma
forms lactic acid. As the acid builds up, the muscle begins to feel tired. However, when the
muscle rests, the acid is reconverted to glucose.
On the basis of their location structure and function, there are three types of muscle fibres : Nucleus
(i) Skeletal muscles (ii) Smooth muscles
(iii) Cardiac muscles
(i) Skeletal muscle : The muscle that allows you to move around from one place to another Dark
is called skeletal muscles. Since, they are attached to bones and are responsible for body bands
movement they are called skeletal muscles. They are also known as striated muscle
because of light and dark parts of the muscle fibre that make them look striped. They are Sarcoplasm
also voluntary muscles as these are the muscles that are under the control of will. They
are long, cylindrical, unbranched cells with a number of nuclei, situated towards the
periphery of muscle fibre. Striated muscles
How do skeletal muscle allows movement of body? Our skeletal muscle is attached to a tendon which in turn is attached to our
bone. This tendon allows us to move our body. A tendon is a tough cord that attaches muscle to bone. Striated muscles are
located in muscles of limbs, body wall, face, neck etc.
Function : Striated muscles provide the force for locomotion (movement) and all other voluntary movements of the body.
Striated muscles are powerful and undergo rapid contraction.

Sacroplasm
Hence, these muscles can easily get tired and therefore, needs rest.
Sarcolemma
Nucleus
(ii) Smooth muscles : These are smooth and involuntary muscles. You cannot control
Myofibrils
this type of muscles as they work involuntarily. This means that your brain and body
tell these muscles what to do without you even thinking about it. Each muscle fibre
is long, narrow, spindle shaped tapering cells. Now can you guess what causes the
movement of food in alimentary canal? Yes, it occurs by contraction and relaxation
of smooth muscle, found in the wall of alimentary canal. Smooth muscle helps to
push food from your stomach into your small intestine. They do not bear any stripes
across the muscle, hence, called unstriated or smooth muscles.They are found in
visceral organs except heart. That is why they are also called visceral muscles. They
are found in walls of alimentary canal, urogenital duct, blood vessels etc. Smooth muscle cells (fibres)
Smooth muscles contract slowly but can remain contracted for long period of time.
Intercalated Thin Branched

Function : In alimentary canal, they cause movement of food and in blood vessel they disc sarcolemma fibres
help the blood to flow.
(iii) Cardiac muscles : They show the characteristics of both smooth and striated muscles.
They are composed of non-tapering cells with faint cross-striations. Like striated muscles,
cardiac muscles have stripes of light and dark bands. While like smooth muscles, they
are involuntary. Cardiac muscle works all by itself with no help. The cells are cylindrical
and branched.
Function : They are found in the walls of heart. Cardiac muscle causes the heart to
contract and to pump blood out. Then it relaxes to let blood back in after it has circulated
through the body. This means, cardiac muscles contract and relax rapidly rhythmically Sarcoplasm Nucleus
and tirelessly throughout the life. This contraction and relaxation of heart muscle helps
to pump and distribute blood to various parts of the body. Cardiac muscle
Tissues 219
• The muscles used to smile are called voluntary muscles because we can control how and when we use
them to express how we are feeling.
• More than 50 muscles work in each arm when playing sports such as volleyball.
VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY MUSLCES

There are two main kinds of muscles, voluntary and involuntary.
Voluntary muscle are those that we can deliberately use. For example, the muscles that come into use when we walk or talk.
Involuntary muscles are those muscles over which we have no control. They do their work without any knowledge on your
part. For example, Breathing in and out of air.
Heart muscles look like voluntary muscles, but act as involuntary muscles.
Difference table between striated muscle, unstriated muscle and cardiac muscle.
Striated muscle Unstriated muscle Cardiac muscle
On the basis of structure :
Cells are cylindrical Cells are long Cells are cylindrical
Cells are not branched Cells are not branched Cells are branched
Cells are multinucleate Cells are uninucleate Cells are uninucleate
Alternate light and dark bands are There are no bands present Faint bands are present
present
Its ends are blunt Its ends are tapering Its ends are flat and wavy
On the basis of location :
These muscles are present in body part These muscles control the movement of These muscles control the
such as hands, legs, tongue etc. food in the alimentary canal, the contraction and relaxation of the
contraction and relaxation of blood heart.
vessels, etc.
P oi n t
Identify the type of muscle shown in each of the given illustrations.
A B C
SOLUTION
A – Cardiac muscle; B – Skeletal muscle; C – Smooth muscle.
3. Connective Tissue :
Have you ever thought how various body organs are connected to each other? OR Why organs do not get displaced during
body movements? Yes, it is because of connective tissue. The connective tissue is specialised to connect and anchor various
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body organs. It also gives support to various parts of body forming packing around organs so that organs do not get displaced
by body movements. The main functions of connective tissue are :
(a) It helps in binding of tissues
(b) It helps in supporting various parts of body.
(c) It helps in packing different organs of the body.
Structure : The cells of connective tissue are living, loosely spaced and very less in number. Homogenous, gel-like substances
called matrix forms the main bulk of connective tissue. The non-living matrix can be solid as in case of bone and cartilage and
fluid as in blood. Matrix is fibrous in nature and bind other tissues. The nature of matrix decides the function of connective
tissue.
NOTE
When a muscle is very active, it needs much greater supplies of glucose. So the heart beats faster than normal and the blood vessels
to the muscles widen, supplying the muscle with three times more blood than it has when it is at rest.
There are five types of connective tissue.
Connective Tissue
Areolar Dense Regular Adipose Skeletal Fluid

Tissue Connective Tissue Tissue Tissue Connective Tissue
(a) Areolar tissue : It is a loose connective tissue. The tissue has a matrix that consists of scattered special cells and fibres that may
be yellow or white.
mast cells
macrophage
collagen
fibres
plasma
cell
fat cell
elastin
fibres
amorphous
ground
substance
fibroblast
smooth
muscle
cell
endothelial cell blood vessel

of capillary
Aerolar connective tissue

It is the widely distributed connective tissue that joins skin to muscles. It is found around muscles, blood vessels and
nerves.
Functions :
(i) It helps in supporting internal organs.
(ii) It helps in repairing the tissues of the skin and muscles.
(iii) It also helps in preventing infections.
Tissues 221
(b) Dense Regular Connective Tissue :- It is a fibrous connective tissue,

characterized by densely packed collection of fibres and cells. The principle
components of dense regular connective tissue are tendons and ligaments Fibroblasts
(i) Tendons are strong, inelastic structure that join skeletal muscles to
bones. It has a great strength but its flexibility is limited. Collagen
(ii) Ligaments, on the other hand, are elastic structure that connects bones fibres
to bones. It is highly elastic and has great strength. Ligaments strengthen
the joint and permit normal movement of bone but prevent over-flexion
and over-extension. Dense regular connective tissue
(c) Adipose Tissue : These are basically oval in shape filled with fat droplets. It
is found below the skin and in the bone marrow.
Fat Connective
Cytoplasm cell tissues fibres
Nucleus
Tendon
Muscle
Bone
Ligament
Blood Fat Connective

vessel globules tissue cells
Attachment of tendons and ligaments Adipose tissue
Sprain is caused by excessive pulling of ligaments.
Functions :
(i) It act as a fat reservoir.
(ii) It acts as an insulator. It reduces loss of fat from the body, that is, it regulates body temperature.
(d) Skeletal Tissue : It is a connective tissue whose matrix is composed of elastin. It is of two types – bone and cartilage.
There are 206 bones in the average skeleton of human body, but a baby’s skeleton has over 340 bones. This is
because as the baby grows, some separate bones join together to form the bone.
(i) Bone : Touch your limbs or fingers. Do you feel something hard inside. What is it? The hard parts in the body are the
bones. More than 200 bones form the body’s internal supporting frame work, called the skeleton. Bones are strong
and stiff, giving the body its shape, protecting internal organs and holding together the soft parts such as blood
vessels, nerves etc.
A single bone is rigid and tough and can hardly bend. But the whole skeleton can move because its bones are linked
at flexible joints, designed to reduced rubbing and wear. Bones are very strong, yet they are also very light weight.
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Structure of Bone : Most bones are not solid bone
Compact
throughout. They have three layers. Outside is a shell bone
of hard or compact bone, which is strong and stiff. Marrow
Inside this is a layer of spongy bone with tiny holes
for lightness. In the middle is the marrow, a soft and
jelly like substance that makes new red and white
cells for the blood. The whole bone is covered by a Spongy
bone
tough skin-like layer, the periosteum.
Bones form endoskeleton of human beings. The main Blood
functions of bones are : vessel
Osteon
(a) They provide shape to the body. (rod-like
(b) They provide skeletal support to body. subunit
Periosteum
bone)
(c) They serve as storage site of calcium and phosphate.
(d) They anchor the muscles. Structure of a bone
Have you ever thought, what happens if a bone breaks ?
It starts to repair itself. Bones are actually made of living tissues, so if they break, microscopic cells called osteoblast begin
to make new bone that fills the break or gap. After a few months the gap is joined and the bone is repaired.
A chemical agent called acetycholine is secreted at the axonic ends of many neurons. It is responsible for the
transmission of a nerve impulse across a synpase.
(ii) Cartilage : Touch your ear pinna, or your nose tip. Do you feel something hard but flexible. What is it? It is specialized
connective tissue that is compact and less vascular and very flexible. It is commonly known as cartilage. It is found in joints
and discs between vertebrae.
Functions :
(i) Cartilage provides support and flexibility to body parts.
(ii) It also smoothens surface at joints.
P oi n t
What will happen, if there are no bones in
the body?
SOLUTION
Bones provide the strong framework that supports the whole body and holds its parts together. Without bones you would
flop down in the floor like a jellyfish.
(e) Fluid connective tissue : This type of connective tissue links different parts of body and forms a continuity in the body. It
includes, blood and lymph.
(i) Blood : Blood is a fluid connective tissue, because in this tissue, cells move in a fluid or liquid matrix called blood
plasma. Basically, blood consists of a fluid called plasma that contain three types of blood cells. These blood cells are:
1. Red blood cell or Erythrocytes that carry oxygen.
2. White blood cells or Leucocytes to fight diseases.
3. Platelets to help blood to clot and seal a wound.
One cubic mm of blood (the size of a pinhead) contains 5 million red cells, 8000 white cells and 350,000
platelets.
Tissues 223
Functions of Blood : Blood has more than hundred jobs to do. Red blood Monocyte
(i) They transport oxygen, nutrients and hormones to the tissues. cells (white blood cell)
(ii) They transport excretory products from tissues to the liver
and kidney. Basophil
(iii) The red blood cells (RBCs) carry oxygen to tissues for (white blood cell)
Platelets
breakdown of food.
(iv) White blood cells (WBCs) play an important role in engulfing
and destroying foreign bodies.
(v) Platelets help in the clotting of blood. Lymphocyte
(white blood cell)
About one twelth of the body’s weight is blood.
Components of Blood
HOW PENICILLIN WAS DISCOVERED?

How does blood fight against germs or foreign organisms?
When germs enter the body, millions of white blood cells leave the blood stream and enter the infected tissue to attack and
digest them. During the process, dead germs and cells are seen as pus.
Germ
A white blood It spreads It digests the It expels the

cell moves towards round the germ germ or kills it remains of the
a germ to attack it and 'eats' it. with chemicals. germ as pus.
iN THE LAB
(i) Take a drop of blood on a clean slide.
(ii) Then observe it under microscope.
You will observe different types of blood cells in it. Identify them and write their functions.
(ii) Lymph : Lymph is a colourless fluid that has filtered out of blood capillaries. It is similar to blood but does not have RBCs and
some blood proteins. In lymph, white blood cells are abundant. Lymph flows in special vessels called lymph vessels.
Functions :
1. They transport nutrients that have filtered out of blood capillaries back into heart to be circulated again in body.
2. It brings waste products from tissue fluid to blood.
3. Lymph also protects the body against infection. It forms the immune system of the body.
An adult has about 5 liters of blood. It is roughly enough blood to fill seven wine bottles. More than half is
plasma.
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P oi n t
Why blood is considered a vital fluid?
SOLUTION
Without blood, the cells that make up the body’s tissue could not live. Blood carries food and oxygen to them to nourish
them and to enable new cells to develop. It also removes carbon dioxide and other waste products, so that they can be
expelled harmlessly from the body. Blood also carries hormones, the chemical substance that controls many of the body’s
activities. Its other function includes fighting infection, and helping to control temperature by carrying excess heat to skin
surface.
4. Nervous Tissue :
Brain
Close your eyes and feel things. Can you recognize the object? Yes, you can do.
But have you ever thought, how do you remember things?. Do sense organs help Spinal Cord
you remember things? No, the sense organs only collect information from your Peripheral
surroundings. It is the nervous system that helps you to remember and feel things. nerves
A tissue that is specialised to transmit messages in our body is nervous tissue.
Like a computer network, it sends tiny electrical signals to and fro, carrying
information from one part of body to another. The electrical signals are called
nerve messages and they travel along wire-like nerves, which spread in a vast
network through the entire body. The control of the whole nervous system and the
whole body comes from the brain.
The nervous system has three main parts —
1. Brain; 2. Spinal cord; 3. Peripheral nerves Human Nervous Tissue
The brain consists of billions of nerve cells and other tissue in top half of the
head. Its lower end merges into the spinal cord. Spinal cord is the body’s main
nerve. The spinal cord is inside a tunnel formed by the row of holes inside the Cyton
vertebrae of the backbone (or spine). Peripheral nerves branch out from the spinal Dendrites
cord and brain to reach every body part.
Neuron : The nervous system is built up of billions of very specialised cells called
nerve cells or neurons.Neuron is the basic functional unit of nervous system.
They are unique and the only type of cells that stop reproducing shortly after
birth. When neurons die, they are not replaced. They have specialised structure
Neurilemma
called axon and dendrites that send and receive information. There are more than
100 billion neurons in our body.
Nucleus
Different types of nerve fibres carry signals at different speeds. The Node of Ranvier
fastest signal travels at more than 120 m/sec. The slowest signals Medullary sheath
travel at 1-2 m/sec.
Axon
Each neuron consists of :-
(1) Cell body or cyton with a nucleus and cytoplasm. Cell body has two extensions
known as axons and dendrites.
(2) An axon is a long thread like extension of nerve cells that transmits impulses
away from the cell body. Terminal
(3) Dendrites, on the other hand, are thread like extensions of cell body that receive branches
nerve impulses.
Thus, axon transmits impulses away from the cell body while dendrites receive
nerve impulses. This coordinated function helps in transmitting impulses very A neuron – a unit of
quickly. nervous tissue
Nervous tissue exhibits two unique properties :-
(i) Irritability : It is the capacity of tissue to respond to the stimulus.
(ii) Conductivity : It is the capacity to transfer the response from one region to another.
FACTS ABOUT BRAIN

A new born baby’s brain grows almost three times during the course of its first year. The left side of the human brain controls the right
side of the body and the right side of the brain controls the left side of the body.
Tissues 225
SUMMARY
Tissues are group of cells similar in structure that work together to perform a particular function.
Plant tissues are of two types :
• Meristematic - Cells that are capable of cell division.
• Permanent - Mature cells that are incapable of cell division
Meristematic tissues are further classified as - Apical, lateral and intercalary meristems
Permanent tissues are classified as simple and complex tissue.
Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma are three types of simple tissues while xylem and phloem are two types of
complex tissues.
Animals tissues are of four types
• Epithelial tissue - It comprises squamous, cuboidal, columnar and glandular epithelium.
• Muscular tissues - It comprises striated, unstriated and cardiac muscles.
• Connective tissue - It comprises areolar tissue, adipose tissue, bone, cartilage, tendon, ligament and bone
• Nervous tissue - It is made of neurons that receive and conduct impulses
Neuron is the basic functional unit of nervous system. Each neuron consists of cell body, axon and dendrites.
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Multiple Choice Questions : (a) Parenchyma (b) Collenchyma

(c) Xylem (d) Phloem
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 17 multiple choice 14. Skin has
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out (a) Stratified squamous epithelium
of which ONLY ONE is correct. (b) Simple squamous epithelium
(c) Columnar epithelium
1. Which type of tissue forms glands? (d) Cuboidal epithelium
(a) Epithelial (b) Connective 15. Ciliated columnar epithelium is found in the lining of
(c) Nervous (d) Uterus (a) Respiratory tract (b) Kidney tubules
2. Which tissue provides flexibility to plants? (c) Oesophagus (d) Mouth
(a) Parenchyma (b) Collenchyma 16. Smooth muscles are likely to be found in
(c) Sclerenchyma (d) Aerenchyma (a) Muscles of legs (b) Muscles of arms
3. Which of the following are the components of xylem? (c) Stomach (d) Heart
(a) Sieve tube (b) Sclereid 17. Which connective tissue helps in storing fats?
(c) Companion cells (d) Tracheid (a) Tendon (b) Ligament
4. Which of the following tissues is composed of dead cells? (c) Adipose (d) Areolar tissue
(a) Phloem (b) Epidermis
(c) Xylem (d) Endodermis
5. Which of the following are simple tissues?
(a) Parenchyma, xylem and phloem DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion
(b) Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question
(c) Parenchyma, xylem and sclerenchyma on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that
(d) Parenchyma, xylem and sclerenchyma best describes the two statements.
6. In which of the following, growth is sub– apical?
(a) Root (b) Shoot (a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
(c) Petiole (d) Pedicle correct explanation of Assertion.
7. Which of the following tissue evolved first in animals? (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
(a) Muscular tissue (b) Skeletal tissue the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) Epithelial tissue (d) Connective tissue (c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
8. Which of the following helps in maintaining body
temperature ? (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
(a) Sweat glands (b) Connective tissue 1. Assertion : Muscle cells are also called myofibrils.
(c) Adipose tissue (d) Hair Reason : Muscle cells are very thin and elongated.
9. Which of the following tissue is more elastic? 2. Assertion : Epithelial tissues protect the under lying and
(a) Bone (b) Cartilage over lying tissues.
(c) Ligament (d) Adipose tissue Reason : Materials are exchanged between epithelial cells.
10. Which of the following cells are associated with immune 3. Assertion : Permanent tissue is composed of mature cells.
system of body?
Reason : Meristematic tissue is a group of actively dividing
(a) Platelets (b) WBC
cells.
(c) Macrophages (d) RBC
11. Which of the following is not a part of nervous tissue? 4. Assertion : Xerophytic leaves may contain sunken stomata.
(a) Cyton (b) Axon Reason : Spongy parenchyma is more in xerophytic plants.
(c) Myelinated (d) Nephron 5. Assertion : Tendon is present in all bone joints.
12. Pseudo stratified epithelium is present in Reason : Tendon connects the bones at the joints & hold
(a) Urinary bladder (b) Nephron them in position.
(c) Larynx (d) Trachae 6. Assertion : Ciliated epithelium helps in movement of particles.
13. Which type of permanent tissue helps in storing food in Reason : Cilia helps in movement.
plants.
Tissues 227
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
Multiple Choice Questions : Assertion & Reason :

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b) 1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c)
6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (b)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a)
16. (c) 17. (c)
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Chapter DIVERSITY IN LIVING

10 ORGANISMS
INTRODUCTION
There is a wide range of life forms (about 10 million -

13 million species) around us. These life forms have
existed and evolved on the Earth over millions of
years ago. The diversity we see today is the result
of 3.5 billion years of organic evolution. There is a
wide diversity in the flora (plants) and fauna (animals)
of the world. Every organism, whether plant or
animal, is unique in itself. Plants and animals have
different body plans and internal structures that help
them to survive.
Diversity in Living Organisms 229
DIVERSITY AND CLASSIFICATION

There are variety of living organisms in terms of size, which ranges from microscopic bacteria to tall trees of 100 metres. The life span
of different organisms is also quite varied. For example, a crow lives for only 15 years, whereas a parrot lives for about 140 years.
Such huge range of these life forms makes it very difficult to study them one by one. Therefore, we look for similarities among them and
classify them into different classes to study these different classes as a whole. Thus, classification makes our study easier. Classifica-
tion is a system of categorizing living things.
Biodiversity refers to variety of life forms found in a particular region.
Importance of classification:
(i) It determines the methods of organizing the diversity of life on Earth.
(ii) It helps in understanding millions of life forms in detail.
(iii) It helps in understanding the interrelationship among different groups of organisms.
(iv) It also helps in predicting the line of evolution. Evolution is a complex process by
which the characteristics of living organisms change over many generations.
Based on evolution, organisms can be divided into two types: Primitive and advanced
starfish amoeba
organisms. A primitive organism or lower organism is the one which has a simple body
structure and ancient body design or features that have not changed much over a period
of time. An advanced organism or higher organism has a complex body structure and organization. For example, an Amoeba is more
primitive as compared to a starfish. Amoeba has a simple body structure and primitive features. So, it is considered more primitive than
a starfish. Thus classification helps in predicting the line of evolution.
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
Organisms are classified on the basis of characteristics. It could be in terms of appearance or behaviour. These characteristics give
clues about how species evolved.
The broadest divisions are based on the most basic characters. For example, the primary characteristic on which the first division of
organisms is made is the nature of the cell. It is considered to be the fundamental characteristic for classifying all living organisms.
Nature of the cell includes the presence or absence of membrane-bound organelles. Therefore, on the basis of this fundamental
characteristic, we can classify all living organisms into two broad categories of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Then, further classifica-
tion is made on the basis of cellularity or modes of nutrition.
Some basic characters used in classification are-
1. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes
2. Unicellular and multicellular organisms
3. Autotrophs and heterotrophes
4. Level of organization of organisms
5. Type of body development.
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
Nomenclature is the process of giving scientific names to plants and animals. Carl Linnaeus devised a binomial system of
nomenclature (naming system) in which an organism is given two names:
(i) A generic name which it shares with other closely related organisms which has features similar enough to place them
in the same group.
(ii) A specific name which distinguishes the organism from all other species. No other organism can have the same
combination of genus and species.
The scientific name derived by using the system of nomenclature is followed all over the world as they are guided by a set of
rules stated in the International Code of Nomenclature.
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Certain conventions are followed while writing the scientific names:

1. The name of the genus begins with a capital letter.
2. The name of the species begins with a small letter.
3. When printed, the scientific name is written in italics.
4. When written by hand, the genus name and the species name have to be underlined separately.
For example, Humans are referred to as Homo sapiens. Similarly, mango is referred to as Mangifera indica.
Carl Linnaeus was the father of modern botany. He was a Swedish naturalist who laid the foundation of
modern classification and nomenclature in 1758.
HIERARCHY OF CLASSIFICATION
For developing a hierarchy of classification, we choose the fundamental characteristic among several other characteristics. For
example, plants differ from animals in the absence of locomotion, chloroplasts, cell wall, etc. But, only locomotion is considered as the
basic or fundamental feature that is used to distinguish between plants and animals. This is because the absence of locomotion in
plants gave rise to many structural changes such as the presence of a cell wall for protection, and the presence of chloroplast for
photosynthesis (as they cannot move around in search of food like animals). Thus, all these features are a result of locomotion.
Therefore, locomotion is considered to be a fundamental characteristic. By choosing the basic or fundamental characteristic, we can
make broad divisions in living organisms as the next level of characteristic is dependent on these. This goes on to form a hierarchy of
characteristics.
R.H. Whittaker proposed a five kingdom classification of living organisms on the basis of Linnaeus' system of classification. The five
kingdoms proposed by Whittaker are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
The kingdoms are further classified using the following subgroups:
KINGDOM PHYLUM CLASS ORDER FAMILY GENUS SPECIES
Living organisms are divided by groups called taxa (singular, taxon). The taxa ranges from having very broad characteristics
to much more specific characteristics. The smallest taxon is species. At the species level, organisms look alike and are able
to breed with one another. The next largest taxon is genus. At the genus level, there is a group of similar species that are
closely related.
As you can see from the figure, a species is the most specific group. A genus is a group of similar species. A family is a taxon
of similar genera. Take an example, Lion (Panthera leo) and tiger (Panthera tigris) are different species but they belong to the
same genus. This genus (Panthera) and another genus (Felis) which includes the domestic cat, also share some common
characteristics. Therefore, there is the larger cat-family (Felidae) which includes the genus of lion and tiger, and the genus of
the domestic cat. An order is a taxon of similar families. For example, the family of cats (lions, tigers, cats) and the family of
dogs (dogs, foxes, jackals, etc.) possess some common features and so they make an order. In the example cited here the
order is “Carnivora”. A class is a taxon of similar orders. For example, the orders of different animals like those of dogs, cats,
bats, whales, monkeys etc., have some common features such as hairy skin and milk-glands. The particular class of the
animals mentioned here is “Mammalia”. A phylum is a taxon of similar classes. For example, the classes of different animals
like the mammals, birds, reptiles, frogs, fishes, etc., together constitute the phylum chordata. (Plant taxonomists use the
taxon division instead of phylum). A kingdom is a taxon of similar phyla (plural for phylum). The Plant Kingdom consists of
all kinds of plants. The Animal Kingdom consists of all kinds of animals.
MNEMONIC
Classification of human beings:
Kingdom- Animalia
Phylum- Chordata
Class- Mammalia
Order- Primates
Family- Hominoidea
Genus- Homo
Species- sapiens
Try this memory tool to help you remember the order of the groups from kingdom to species : Keep Putting Chocolate Out For
Goodness Sake. The first letter of each word stands for one of the taxa.
Try to make the similar classification for DOG, TIGER, and CAT.
The basis for grouping organisms into five kingdoms is as follows:

(i) On the basis of the presence or absence of membrane-bound
organelles, all living organisms are divided into two broad categories
of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. This division led to the formation
of kingdom Monera, which includes all prokaryotes.
(ii) Then, eukaryotes are divided as unicellular and multicellular, on
the basis of cellularity. Unicellular eukaryotes form kingdom
Protista, and multicellular eukaryotes form kingdom Fungi, Plantae,
and Animalia.
(iii) Animals are then separated on the basis of presence absence of a
cell wall.
(iv) Since fungi and plants both contain a cell wall, they are separated
into different kingdoms on the basis of their modes of nutrition.
Fungi have saprophytic mode of nutrition, whereas plants have
autotrophic mode of nutrition. This resulted in the formation of five
kingdoms.
Let us now study each of these kingdoms one by one in detail.
I. KINGDOM MONERA
• The organisms belonging to this group are unicellular prokaryotes.
• The mode of nutrition may be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
• Cell wall may or may not be present.
• Examples: Bacteria and Blue green algae
II. KINGDOM PROTISTA
• The organisms belonging to this group are unicellular eukaryotes.
• The mode of nutrition may be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
• Cell wall, like monerans, may or may not be present.
• Examples: Diatoms, Protozoans (Amoeba). Bacteria Blue Green Algae
Monera
Protists include all microscopic organisms that are not bacteria, not animals, not plants and not fungi.
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III. KINGDOM FUNGI
• They are unicellular or multicellular eukaryotes.
• Cell walls in fungi are made of chitin.
• These do not contain chlorophyll and hence are heterotrophic. They may be
saprophytic (depend on dead or decaying organic matter for their food) or may be
parasitic (depend on living organisms for their food).
• Examples: Yeast, Mushrooms, Bread mould (Mucor), Lichen etc.
• Lichen is a group which has two varieties of plants, an alga and a fungus living
together. They co-exist for mutual benefit. This relationship is known as symbiosis. Paramecium Ameoba
Protista
The fungus absorbs water and mineral salts and supplies it to the alga. The alga
prepares food and supplies it to the fungus.
IV. KINGDOM PLANTAE:
• They are multicellular eukaryotes.
• They are usually autotrophic. They prepare their own food by the process of
photosynthesis.
• Their cells have cell wall, made of cellulose.
• They do not move from one place to another. They are stationary. Yeast Mushroom
• Examples: Moss, Riccia, Pinus, Mango etc. Fungi
With over 250,000 species, the plant kingdom is the second largest kingdom. Plant species range from the tiny
green mosses to giant trees.
Pinus Cedar
Plantae
P oi n t
List two ways in which fungi and plants are different.
SOLUTION
The cell wall in fungi are made of chitin, a complex carbohydrate. Plants have cell wall made of cellulose.
Also fungi do not contain chlorophyll and hence are heterotrophic. They may be saprophytic (depend on dead or decaying
organic matter for their food) or may be parasitic (depend on living organisms for their food). Plants, on the other hand, are
autotrophic. They prepare their own food by photosynthesis.
The classification of kingdom Plantae depends on the following criteria:

(i) Differentiated/ Undifferentiated plant body : The first level of classification depends on whether a plant body is well differentiated
or not. A group of plants that do not have a well differentiated plant body are known as Thallophyta.
(ii) Presence /absence of vascular tissues : Plants that have well differentiated body parts are further divided on the basis of the
presence or absence of vascular tissues. Plants without specialised vascular tissues are included in division Bryophyta,
whereas plants with vascular tissues are known as Tracheophyta.
(iii) With/without seeds : Tracheophyta is again sub-divided into division

Pteridophyta, on the basis of absence of seed formation.
(iv) Naked seeds/ seeds inside fruits : The other groups of plants having well
developed reproductive organs that finally develop seeds are called
Phanerogams. This group is further subdivided on the basis of whether
the seeds are naked or enclosed in fruits. This classifies them into Chalmydomonas Volvox Ulothrix
gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gymnosperms are seed bearing, non-
flowering plants, whereas angiosperms are flowering plants in which the
seeds are enclosed inside the fruit.
(1) Division: Thallophyta (Thallus-undifferentiated, Phyta-plant)
• It includes the simplest organisms.
• This group includes plants that do not contain a well differentiated Fristschiella Ulva Hydrodictyon
plant body.
• Their body is not differentiated into stem, root and leaves but is in the Algae
form of thallus.
• They are commonly known as algae.
Eichler in 1883 suggested a system to classify the plant kingdom which is well accepted. He said that the plant
kingdom is subdivided into two subkingdoms: Cryptogamae and Phanerogamae
The plant kingdom is broadly divided into two groups on the basis of reproductive organs and embryo
structure.
(2) Division Bryophyta

• These are the simplest forms of land plants. The plant body is flat and
lack true leaves and roots. Example: Riccia, Marchantia, Funaria
Riccia Marchantia Funaria

Bryophytes
(3) Division Pteridophyta
• They grow in damp cool shady places.
• The plant body is differentiated into stem, leaves and roots.
• Vascular system is present.
• They have inconspicuous or less differentiated reproductive organs.
• They produce naked embryos called spores.
• Example: Ferns
(4) Division Gymnospermae Ferns
• Gymnosperms are intermediate between cryptogams and angiosperms.
• They have well developed reproductive organs. Pteridophyta
• The male flower is a cone which produces pollen. The female flower is much larger and consists of a rosette of carpels which
bear ovules along the two margins.
• Example: Cycas, Pinus and Coniferous trees.
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Cycas Pinus
Gymnosperms
(5) Division Angiospermae
• This group constitutes the largest group of plants.
• Seeds are produced inside an ovary which later becomes the fruit.
• These are highly evolved group of plants.
• The plant body is distinctly differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.
Based on the number of cotyledons (seed-leaves) that form the seed, this group is divided into:
(i) Monocotyledons: Example: Rice, Wheat
(ii) Dicotyledons: Example: Beans, Mango
The plant with the largest flower is Rafflesia, which grows up to 1 m across.
The Welwitschia plant of the southern African scrub has two leaves, each many metres long, which lasts for
hundreds of years.
Rice Wheat Mango

Fig. 9.11 : Angiosperms
P oi n t
How gymnosperm is different from angiosperms?
SOLUTION
Gymnosperm Angiosperm
They are non-flowering plants They are flowering plants
They have naked seeds not enclosed inside They have seeds enclosed inside fruits.
fruits.
Examples include, Pinus, Cedar, Cycas, etc Examples include, Coconut, mango etc.
CRYPTOGAMAE AND PHANEROGAMAE

(I) Sub Kingdom Cryptogamae : (Crypto-hidden, Gammous-marriage)
These are lower plants that do not bear flowers or seeds. Their reproductive organs are inconspicious. They have naked
embryos called spores.
Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Pteridophyta belong to Cryptogams.
(II) Sub Kingdom Phanerogamae : This division is made up of plants that bear flowers and seeds and make up the
majority of the larger plants. The body is differentiated into true stem, leaves and roots. Propagation of the plant takes
place with the help of seeds. Seeds are formed as a result of sexual reproduction. The male and female gametes (sex cells)
fuse together inside the ovary (female part of the flower) and develop into the seed. In some plants seed is not produced
inside an ovary.
Phanerogamae is further directed into two divisions. Gymnosperms (naked seeded plants) and angiosperms (Seed borne
within a fruit).
V. KINGDOMANIMALIA
• They are multicellular eukaryotes
• They have heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
• Cell wall is absent.
• Examples: Round worm, Tape worm, House fly, Man etc.
The animal kingdom is the largest kingdom with over 1 million known species.
Animals are arranged progressively from simple single-celled protozoans to highly complex mammals. Kingdom Animalia is divided
into two major groups on the basis of presence or absence of a notochord.
Non-chordates do not possess a notochord, while all members of the phylum chordates possess a notochord.
Non-chordate is further divided into subgroups on the basis of the following features:
True tissue- Absent or Present
Body cavity- Absent or Present
Type of body symmetry- Radial or Biradial
Type of coelom development- Acoelom, Pseudocoelom or True coelom.
Type of true coleom- Enterocoelom or Schizocoelom
On the basis of the above features, non-chordates are divided into the following subgroups: Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes,
Nematodes, Annelids, Molluscs, Arthropoda, and Echinodermata.
Members of the animal kingdom are found in the most diverse environments in the world.
(1) Phylum Porifera (Sponges): These are simplest multicellular animals. They are mostly marine, non-
motile and found attached to the rocks. The cells are loosely held together and do not form tissues.
Example, Spongilla and Euplectella.
(2) Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria): They are exclusively marine animals that either live in colonies or
have a solitary life span. Example includes Hydra, Corals etc.
Sycon
Poriferans
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(3) Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) : Body is dorsoventrally flat and leaf like or ribbon-like with bilateral symmetry. The body
cavity has only one opening which serves as both the mouth and the anus. Example Planaria, Taenia, Fasciola.
Jellyfish Planaria Earthworm

Coelenterates Platyhelminthes Annelids
(4) Phylum Aschelminthes (Round Worm): They have triploblastic body showing bilateral symmetry.
Alimentary canal begins with the mouth and ends with the anus. Example Ascaris
(5) Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms) : Body is covered by a non-chitinous cuticle which may have
chitinous setae, or parapodia. The body is divided into several identical segments. Example Earthworm,
Leech.
(6) Phylum Arthropoda (Animals with jointed legs): This is the largest phylum with almost 80% of the
animal's kingdom in these phyla. Body is bilaterally symmetrical and segmented. It is divided into Aschelminthes
head, thorax and abdomen.
Scorpion Cockroach Spider Butterfly
Arthropoda
(7) Phylum Mollusca : They are aquatic in habitat but some land forms are also seen. Body is soft
and divided into three regions- head, dorsal visceral mass and ventral foot. Example Snail, Slugs,
Octopus
Pila
Mollusca
(8) Phylum Echinodermata: Body is radially symmetrical, star shaped, spherical or elongate.
Exoskeleton is spiny. Head is absent and five radially arranged arms are present. Example Starfish,
Sea urchin
(9) Phylum Hemichordata : They have characteristics of both invertebrate and chordate. Body is
divided into proboscis, collar and trunk.
(10) Phylum Chordata : All members of the phylum chordata possess
(i) A notochord
(ii) A dorsal nerve cord
(iii) Paired gill pouches Starfish
(iv) Post anal tail Echinoderms
However, some animals such as Balanoglossus, Amphioxus, Herdmania, etc. have a

notochord, which is either absent or does not run the entire length of the animal's body.
Therefore, these animals are kept in a separate sub-phylum called Protochordata, and the
rest of the chordates are included in the sub-phylum vertebrata.
Phylum Chordata
Notochord present at Notochord replaced by

larval stages; very rudimentary vertebral column in adults
Sub-phylum Sub-phylum Phylum Hemichordata

Protochordata Vertebrata
The members of the sub-phylum vertebrata are advanced chordates. They are divided into five classes: Pisces, Amphibia,
Reptilia, Aves, and Mammalia.
Sub Phylum Vertebrata
Class Class Class Class Class

Pisces Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia
Tetrapods
(i) Class Pisces: This class includes fishes such as Scoliodon, Tuna, Rohu, Shark, etc. These animals mostly live in water. Hence,
they have special adaptive features such as a streamlined body, presence of a tail for movement, gills, etc. to live in water.
Mackerel
Eel
Gurnard
Lamprey
Swordfish
Pisces
(ii) Class Amphibia: It includes frogs, toads, and salamanders. These animals have a dual mode of life. In the larval stage, the
respiratory organs are gills, but in the adult stage, respiration occurs through the lungs or skin. They lay eggs in water.
Examples: Frogs, toads and salamanders are amphibians.
Amphibians were the first animals to venture onto land. They emerged from the oceans over 300 million years
ago.
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Adhesive disk
Salamander
Newt
Common toad
Amphibians
(iii) Class Reptilia: It includes reptiles such as lizards, snakes, turtles, etc. They usually
creep or crawl on land. The body of a reptile is covered with dry and cornified skin Rattlesnake Viper
to prevent water loss. They lay eggs on land.
Cobra Coral snake

Python
Reptiles
(iv) Class Aves: It includes all birds such as sparrow, pigeon, crow, etc. Most of them have feathers.
Their forelimbs are modified into wings for flight, while hind limbs are modified for walking and
clasping. They lay eggs.
(v) Class Mammalia: It includes a variety of animals which have milk producing glands to nourish
their young ones. Some lay eggs and some give birth to young ones. Their skin has hair as well
as sweat glands to regulate their body temperature.
Blue whale is the largest mammal and water shrew is the smallest mammal.
Rhinoceros
Hippopotamus
Aves
Giraffe Elephant
Mammals
SUMMARY
Living world is rich in variety of plants and animals.

In order to facilitate the study of kinds and diversity of organisms, biologists have evolved certain rules and principles for
identification, nomenclature and classification of organism.
Nomenclature is defined as system of naming objects (plants and animals).
Identification determines the exact place or position of an organism in the set plan of classification.
Generic and specific names are from Latin language. First letter of the generic name starts with capital letter and of the species
name with a small letter.
Taxonomy is the branch of biology that deals with the framing of laws and principles of classifying the organisms on the basis
of their evolutionary relationship.
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Multiple Choice Questions : 12. Unlike animals, fungi

(a) Ingest their nutrients before digesting them.
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 20 multiple choice (b) Secrete enzymes and then absorb the digested nutrients
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out through their cell wall.
of which ONLY ONE is correct. Choose the correct option. (c) Have cell walls made of cellulose without chitin.
(d) Do not store energy in the form of glycogen.
1. A kingdom of unicellular eukaryotes is 13. Ferns are a type of
(a) Monera (b) Protista (a) Bryophyta (b) Pteridophyta
( c) Fungi (d) Plantae (c) Gymnosperm (d) Angiosperm
2. A diverse group of terrestrial organisms separated from other 14. The body of an organism "X" is covered with dry and
plants by lack of chlorophyll is cornified skin to prevent water loss. They lay eggs on land.
(a) Algae (b) Fungi The animal "X" belongs to which class of Chordata?
(c) Protista (d) Animalia (a) Amphibian (b) Reptilian
3. Who gave the term binomial nomenclature? (c) Avian (d) Mammalian
(a) Linnaeus (b) Whittakar 15. Which of the following organisms belongs to Phylum
( c) Aristotle (d) Robert Hooke echinoderm?
4. Which of the following statements is correct about yeast? (a) Starfish (b) Earthworm
(a) It lacks chlorophyll (c) Sponges (d) Butterfly
(b) It lacks nucleus 16. Which of the following characteristics is unique to avians?
(c) It lacks cell wall. (a) Presence of lungs
(d) It lacks cytoplasm (b) Presence of feathers
5. Which is the highest category of taxonomy? (c) Presence of scales
(d) Presence of mammary glands
(a) Kingdom (b) Phylum
17. The scientific name of humans is Homo sapiens. It belongs
(c) Genus (d) Species to genus
6. A group of related genera are classified as (a) Homo (b) sapiens
(a) Family (b) Order (c) Man (d) Humans
(c) Genus (d) Species 18. Which of the following correctly represents the correct order
7. The scientific name of mango is written as of various levels of classification?
(a) Mangifera Indica (b) Mangifera indica (a) Sp ec i es ® Gen us ® Fa m i l y ® Or d er ® Cl a s s
(c) mangifera Indica (d) mangifera indica ® Phylum
8. In Solanum tuberosum, Solanum is (b) Phylum ® Genus ® Order ® Family ® Class ®
(a) Species (b) Genus Species
(c) Order (d) Class ( c) Species ® Family ® Class ® Or der ® Genus
9. A plant that produces seed but not fruit is ® Phylum
(a) Cycas (b) Riccia (d) Class ® Family ® Or der ® Genus ® Phylum
(c) Mango (d) Spirogyra ® Species.
10. Notochord is present is 19. Which of the following produces seeds which are enclosed
(a) Star fish (b) Earthworm in fruits?
(c) Pila (d) Shark (a) Gymnosperms (b) Angiosperms
11. The difference between algae and protozoan is that algae are (c) Pteridophytes (d) Bryophytes
20. Which of the following is absent in ferns?
(a) Heterotrophic
(a) Flowers, fruits and seeds
(b) Always multicellular
(b) Roots, leaves and stems
(c) Photosynthetic (c) Vascular tissues
(d) Always unicellular (d) Spores
Assertion & Reason : 14. Assertion : Bacteria are prokaryotic.

Reason : Bacteria do not possess true nucleus and
membrane bound cell organelles.
followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question 10. Assertion : The science of classifiying organisms is called
on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that taxonomy.
best describes the two statements. Reason : Systematics and taxonomy have same meaning.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
the correct explanation of Assertion.
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
Multiple Choice Questions : 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (b)
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (a)
5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (b) Assertion & Reason :
9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (b)
1. (a) 2. (c)
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Chapter GENETICS
11
INTRODUCTION
Every living being produces offsprings that resemble, their parents in certain fundamental characters. For example, mango plant
produces seeds that germinate and give rise to mango plants. Similarly dogs produce puppy that grows into dogs, and humans
produce baby that grows into adult human. Hence, similarities intend to increase between members of a family i.e. parents and
offsprings. These similarities are not merely due to coincidence but due to some inherent mechanism called heredity. It is genetic
continuity between successive generation. But the heredity is never complete, the offsprings differ
from their parents. This difference is called variation. Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with
the study of heredity and variation.”
Modern genetics began in 19th century with the work of Gregor Johann Mendel, who formulated the
basic concept of heredity. Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) was a monk at Brunn, Austria. In 1856 to
1865 he worked as a teacher in natural history and mathematics at university of Vienna. During this
period Mendel developed curiosity over the pattern of inheritance of characters from parent to offspring.
Mendel is regarded as the ‘father of modern genetics’ for his significant and pioneering contributions to the field of genetics.
Genetics 243
The puzzle of how characteristics are passed on from one generation to the next, or even why some characteristics skip a generation,
was solved by an Austrian monk called Gregor Mendel (1822- 1884). Mendel grew peas, and studied their sizes and colours. By
recording how these characteristics were passed on from one generation to the next, he worked out on a set of the basic rules of
genetic inheritance on how different characteristics are passed down through the generations.
NOTE
Hybrid : A plant and animal produced by parents that have different hereditary characteristics.
MENDEL’S WORK ON HEREDITY

Gregor Mendel was the first scientist to study the pattern of inheritance. He did this by using different varieties of pea plants (Pisum
sativum) which he grew in his garden. Mendel chose pea plants for studying inheritance because pea plants had a certain clear cut
difference to identify them. For example, some pea plants were tall while others were dwarf. Some pea plants produce round-yellow
seeds while others produced wrinkled-green seeds.
The advantage characters found in pea plants are :
(i) Life cycle in the pea plant is very short.
(ii) Pea plant produce a large number of seeds.
(iii) Pea plants exhibit natural self pollination, because the petals of flowers remain closed.
(iv) It was possible to conduct cross pollination by transforming pollen grain from one flower to another.
Mendel appeared in 1850 for passing a teaching certificate. Though he studied little science in school and
has never attended a university, he succeeded in passing the examination in physics but failed in Geology and
classification of mammals. He spent his last day in a conflict of church and died in 1884, without even
knowing that he will be father of genetics in future.
MENDEL’S EXPERIMENT
Mendel performed experiments in three stages :
(i) Selection of pure or true breeding parents.
(ii) Hybridisation and obtaining first (F1) generation.
(iii) Self pollination of hybrid to get generations like F2 and F3 and So on.
(i) Selection of Parents:
NOTE
A pure breeding variety produces offspring having similar characterstics. For example : white flower plant produces white flowered
offsprings etc.
Mendel selected fourteen pure breeding variety of peas as the material for his experiments. The pure breeding nature of each variety
was insured through self pollination. He eliminated the plants which did not form similar offsprings. The true breeding plants formed
the parent (P) generation.
Mendel employed seven characters with easily distinguishable contrasting forms. The characters were seed colour, seed shape,
flower colour, pod colour, pod shape, flower position and plant height.
The following table represents the contrasting characters:-
Parameters Contrasting characters
1 Length of stem Tall and dwarf
2 Position of flower Axial and terminal
3 Nature of the pod (fruit) Inflated and constricted
4 Colour of unripe pod Green and yellow
5 Colour of seed coat Grey and white
6 Nature of the seed coat Round and wrinkled
7 Colour of flower Purple and white
An organism is homozygous for a trait, when it has two copies of same allele. An organism is Heterozygous for
a trait when it has two different alleles.
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Dominant Recessive Dominant Recessive

Character trait trait Character trait trait
Seed shape
Spherical Wrinkled
Seed color Flower
position
Yellow Green
Flower color Axial

Terminal
Purple White
Ped shape Stem

height
Inflated Constricted
Ped color
Green Yellow
Tall Dwarf
(ii) Hybridization and obtaining first generation :-

Mendel selected true breeding tall (TT) and dwarf (tt) pea plants. Then, he crossed these two plants. The seeds formed after
fertilization were grown and theseplants that wereformed represent thefirst filial or F1 generation. All the F1 plants obtained were tall.
NOTE
In genetics, genes are represented by letters. A capital letter shows that a gene is dominant, and a small one that it is recessive.
Parents X
Tall plant Short plant
Progeny
(F1 Generation)
Tall plant Tall plant Tall plant Tall plant
Cross pollination of tall and short plant
The gene which decides the appearance of an organism even in the presence of an alternative gene is known
as dominant gene. On the other hand, the gene which can decide the appearance of an organism only in the
presence of another identical gene is called a recessive gene.
Genetics 245
(iii) Self pollination of hybrids to get generations like F2 and F3 :

Then, Mendel self-pollinated the F1 plants and observed that all plants obtained in the F2 generation were not tall. Instead, one-fourth
of the F2 plants were short.
Selfing of F1 X
Tall pea plant Tall pea plant
F2generation
3 tall : 1 short
Self pollination of F1 plants.

From this experiment, Mendel concluded that the F1 tall plants were not true breeding. They were carrying traits of both short height
and tall height. They appeared tall only because the tall trait is dominant over the dwarf trait.
NOTE
Genotype is the description of genes present in an organism. For example, TT, tt or Tt.
Phenotype is the characteristic which is visible in an organism. For example, tall or dwarf are phenotypes of a plant.
MENDEL’S OBSERVATION
(i) The F1 hybrids always showed one of the parental forms of the trait.
(ii) Both the parental forms of the trait (contrasting forms of the trait) appeared without any change in the F2 generation.
(iii) The two contrasting forms in a trait did not show any blending either in the F1 generation or in the F2 generations.
(iv) The form of the trait that appeared in the F2 hybrids is called dominant form and it appeared in the F2 generation about three
times in frequency as its alternate (recessive) form.
MENDEL’S FINDINGS
On the basis of the experiment, Mendel postulated three laws which are known as Mendel’s law of heredity. These are:
(i) Law of dominance
(ii) Law of segregation
(iii) Law of independent assortment.
(1) Law of Dominance
This law has its basis for monohybrid cross. According to this law “when a cross is made between two homozygous (pure line)
individuals considering contrasting allele of same characters, then the allele that appears in F1 hybrid is called dominant and the other
is recessive”.
(2) Law of segregation or law of purity of gamete
According to this law “In F1 hybrid the dominant and recessive character though remain together for long time but they do not mix with
each other and separate or segregate at the time of gamete formation. Thus the gamete formed, receive either dominant or recessive
EBD_7029
246 BIOLOGY
character out of them. This law is called law of purity of gametes i.e., a gamete when
formed is always pure for a particular trait, just because of the fact that they always ×
contain the factors which determines single trait pertaining to a particular character.
RR yy rr YY
NOTE (round. green) (wrinkled yellow)
Monhybird cross: It involves cross between two parents that differ only in one
heritable character. For example : Tallness and dwarfness.
Dihybrid cross: It involves cross between two parents that differ in two heritable
characters. For example, round-yellow seeds and wrinkled green seeds. Ry rY
(3) Law of independent assortment
In dihybrid cross the phenotype observed were round yellow, wrinkled yellow, round
green and wrinkled green and appeared in the ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1. Such a ratio was F1
observed for several traits.
Mendel crossed pea plants having round green seeds (RRyy) with pea plants having
wrinkled yellow seeds (rrYY). Rr Yy
(round. yellow)
Since the F1 plants are formed after crossing pea plants having green round seeds
and pea plants having yellow wrinkled seeds, F1 generation will have both these An example of dihybrid crosses
characters in them. However, as we know that yellow seed colour and round shape of
seeds are dominant characters, therefore, the F1 plants will have yellow round seeds.
CHROMOSOMES - THE CARRIERS OF HEREDITY

Chromosomes are only visible when a cell nucleus is about to divide. The chromosome number
is constant for the individuals of a species and every cell has the same number. Humans have
46 chromosomes.
In 1915, T.H. Morgan noted peculiar similarity between chromosomal behaviour and Mendelian
factors and supported the chromosomal theory of inheritance propounded by N.S. Sutton in
1902. According to the chromosomal theory of inheritance, the Mendelian factors came to be
known as ‘genes’. Genes occur on the chromosome in a linear fashion. Each characteristic or
trait seems to be controlled largely by gene.
Chromosomes are thread like bodies found in the nucleus of a cell. We

have a total of 46 chromosome in our cell. Chromosome
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)

Watson and Crick (1953) at Cambridge proposed the double helical structure of DNA. The X-ray photographs showed that
the DNA was a helix and the width of the helix is 2nm. The purine and pyrimidine base were stacked 0.34 nm apart in a
ladder. The helix made one full turn every 3.4 nm. Thus, there are 10 layers of bases stacked in one turn. Since the width of
the helix is 2 nm it can accommodate only two stands and not three.
They found that the best model, which satisfied all the X-ray data, was a double helix with the sugar phosphate chain on the
outside and the bases on the inside. The two chains run in an antiparallel fashion with one chain having a
5’ – 3” orientation and the other DNA, adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C) The two
strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds.
Frederick Meisher was the first who proved that DNA is a genetic material.
Genetics 247
NOTE
Autosomes: The chromosomes other than the sex chromosome. Each member of an autosome pair (in diploid organisms) is similar in
length and in the gene it carries.
P oi n t
Why are genes important?
SOLUTION
Genes are important as they are responsible for transmitting traits, characteristics, diseases and all other hereditary information
from one generation to another. Genes are the basic chemical units of DNA molecules found in chromosomes. Our behaviour
and personality traits are determined by our genes. Each gene carries instruction for specific characteristic such as curly or
straight hair, eye colour, or albino skin.
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)

You must have noticed that brothers or sisters often look alike. Have you ever thought, how it happens?
It is the inherited traits that makes their physical appearance so similar. An inherited trait is a particular genetically determined
characteristic that distinguishes a person. The traits of children are determined by the traits that are passed on from their
parents. Some traits are obvious in a family, a child’s nose is shaped like their mother’s nose, but some traits are less obvious.
You may have similar traits to many of your classmates even though you are not related to them. For example you roll
tongue but your brother may not.
There are numerous traits in humans, but some traits occur more frequently than others. About 70-90% of the human
population have free-hanging earlobes and can roll their tongue. The traits which occur more commonly are called dominant
and those which are less are called recessive trait.
HUMAN GENETICS
The process of creating new life is called reproduction. A man’s body makes male sex cells, which are called sperms, and a woman’s
body produces ova, which are female sex cells. When a sperm joins with an ovum, a new cell is formed. This cell contains all the
information needed to build a unique human being.
The instructions that tell the body how to develop genes, and the study of genes is genetics. Genes are sections of a long thread like
structure are called DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid), which is packed in bundles, called chromosomes. Chromosomes are packed inside
a control unit called nucleus. Human cells have 46 chromosomes, which are inherited from parents.
Let us discuss, how these genes work?

Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes. Each gene, or gene group, on one of these chromosomes, act together with its
partner on the other paired chromosome. This gives an instruction to create or control characteristics.
Genes for certain features, such as eye or hair colour, or blood group, have different forms, called alleles. So a gene pair might be made
up of alleles giving identical instructions, or alleles giving different instructions.
EBD_7029
248 BIOLOGY
HUMAN BLOOD GROUP

The blood group character is controlled by a set of three alleles. IA, IB and i. Genes IA and IB both are dominant over gene IO or i, but not
over each other.
l For blood group B, the genotype would be IB IB or IBi.
l For blood group AB, the genotype would be IAIB.
l For blood group O, the genotype would be ii.
SEX DETERMINATION (GIRL OR BOY)

In human beings, the females have two X chromosomes and the males have one X and one Y chromosome. Therefore, the females are
XX and the males are XY.
The gametes, as we know, receive half of the chromosomes. The male gametes have 22 autosomes and either X or Y sex chromosome.
Type of male gametes: 22+X OR 22+ Y.
However, since the females have XX sex chromosomes, their gametes can only have X sex chromosome.
DNA is a double-straned coiled molecular chain held together by linearly held nucleotide. They make gene.
Type of female gamete: 22+X
Father Mother
XY XX
XX XY XX XY
Daughter Son Daughter Son

Sex determination in Human
Thus, the mother provides only X chromosomes. The sex of the baby is determined by the type of male gamete (X or Y) that fuses with
the X chromosome of the female.
GENETIC DISORDERS
A large number of diseases are known to be inherited from the parents to the offspring. Such diseases are known as genetic disorder.
Most of these diseases are caused by the expression of recessive genes.
Most common and prevalent disorders are haemophilia, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anaemia, colour blindness, thalassemia etc.
Some genetic diorders are discussed below :
(i) Haemophilia:
• It is a sex linked recessive disease. It transmits from unaffected carrier female to some of the male progeny.
• In this disease a single protein that is a part of the cascade of proteins involved in the clotting of blood is affected. Due to this,
in an affected individual a simple cut will result in non-stop bleeding.
• The heterozygous female (carrier) for haemophilia may transmit the disease to sons.
• The possiblity of a female becoming a haemophilic is extremely rare because mother of such female has to be at least carrier and
father should be haemophilic. It is called royal disease, because it shows a number of haemophilic descents as queen Victoria
was a carrier of the disease.
Genetics 249
Cross between haemophilic carrier female and normal male :
Carrier female Normal male

XX
h
XY
X
h
X X X Y
h h
XX XY XX XY
Normal Normal Carrier Haemophilic
female male female male
(ii) Sickle cell anemia

• This is autosome linked recessive trait that can be transmitted from parents to the offspring when both the partners are carrier for
the gene.
P oi n t
When was haemophilia discovered
in the royal line?
SOLUTION
Haemophilia is an inherited deficiency whereby the substance necessary for blood clotting is missing. The transmission of
this condition is sex linked, being present mostly in males but carried solely by females. Sons of a haemophilic male are
normal, but daughters, although outwardly normal, may transmit this deficiency to half of their sons. The existence of
haemophilia in certain royal families of Europe is well known. Working from family trees it seems probable that Queen Victoria
naturally produced the gene for haemophilia.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Scientists have discovered how to extract genes and use them in different ways, for instance in medicine, farming and
industry. This manipulation of genes is known as genetic engineering.
The main technique used in genetic engineering is called gene splicing. Chemicals called restriction enzymes are used to cut
specific genes out of DNA. Other enzymes, called ligases, are used to splice, or join, the genes with DNA taken from a
suitable organism.
This modified DNA, known as recombinant DNA (rDNA), can then be used in different ways. For example, it may be placed
in a fast-breeding bacterium. This reproduces very quickly to create lots of bacteria, each containing the rDNA with the
specific gene.
EBD_7029
250 BIOLOGY
SUMMARY
The process by which characters or traits are passed from the parents to the offspring is called heredity.
Variations means differences between the individuals of the same species.
The science which deals with the study of heredity and variations is known as genetics.
An Austrian monk namely Gregor Johann Mendel was the first person to study genetics. He is known as ‘Father of Genetics’.
Mendel proposed that a pair of factors which are now called genes, control inheritance.
Genes were found to occupy specific position on thread like structure called chromosome.
The paired condition is known as diploid.
DNA is the most important constituent of a chromosome.
DNA is a macromolecule in which a large number of nucleotide units are present.
The females carry two X-chromosomes as sex chromosome.
The males carry one X and one Y chromosome as sex chromosome.
Genetics 251
Multiple Choice Questions : 10. Sections of DNA are called

(a) Chromosomes (b) Genes
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 1-7) : This section contains 7 multiple choice (c) Nucleus (d) None of these
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out
of which ONLY ONE is correct. Assertion & Reason :
1. Which genotype characteristics in an organism is
heterozygous for two genes? DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion
(a) RRYy (b) RrYY on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that
(c) RRYY (d) RrYy best describes the two statements.
2. Which one is a sex–linked disorder?
(a) Leukemia (b) Cancer
(c) Night Blindness (d) Colour blindness
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
3. Which of the following is considered as a recessive
the correct explanation of Assertion.
character of Mendel?
(a) Round seed (b) Wrinkled seed
(c) Axial flower (d) Green pod
4. Which is the functional unit of inheritance? 1. Assertion : Workers prior to Mendel could not work on the
(a) Chromosome (b) Gene principles of inheritance
(c) Cistron (d) Allele Reason : They considered the individuals as a whole
complex of characters.
5. Which of the following is not true to haemophilia?
(a) Royal disease (b) Bleeder’s disease 2. Assertion : The law of segregation is one of the most
important contribution to biology.
(c) X-linked disease (d) Y-linked disease
6. Which of the following is not a hereditary disease? Reason : It introduced the concept of hereditary factors as
discrete physical entities which do not become blended.
(a) Cretinism (b) Cystic fibrosis
3. Assertion : The genetic complement of an organism is
(c) Thalassaemia (d) Haemophilia
called genotype.
7. The genetic component of an organism is called its
Reason : Genotype is the type of hereditary properties of
(a) DNA (b) Genotype
an organism.
(c) Phenotype (d) Chromosome
4. Assertion : Mendel successed to know the process of
8. In how many chromosomes were the seven characters
inheritance.
chosen by Mendel located?
(a) 5 (b) 7 Reason : He considered a single character at one time
(c) 4 (d) 1 5. Assertion : Mendel’s seven characters are confined to only
four chromosome.
9. The structure of DNA is
(a) linear (b) cystic twisted Reason : Test cross is a cross between F1 hybrid and
recessive parent.
(c) double holical (d) spiral
EBD_7029
252 BIOLOGY
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
Multiple Choice Questions : Assertion & Reason :

1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (b) 1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b)
5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b)
9. (c) 10. (b)

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3. Conservation of Plants and Animals 67-90

4. Cell-Structure and Functions 91-122

5. Reproduction in Animals 123-148

6. Reaching the Age of Adolescence 149-180

7. Pollution of Air and Water 181-198

8. Life Processes 199-209

10. Diversity in Living Organisms 228-241

11. Genetics 242-252

Table : Some other examples of crops

1. We classify crop plants:

- To understand the climatic requirement of different crops.

Preparation of Sowing of Addition of Irrigation Protection Harvesting Storage of food

Ploughing Levelling Manuring

METHODS OF SOIL PREPARATION

Tools used for ploughing are : plough, hoe and cultivator.

Levelling of agricultural land

CHARACTERISTIC OF PLANTS THAT ARE USED FOR COLLECTING THE SEEDS

METHODS OF SOWING SEEDS

TOOLS USED FOR SOWING SEEDS

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE SOWING SEEDS IN SOIL Modern method of sowing

What do you observe?

Tomatoes and chillies

ADDITION OF MANURE AND FERTILIZERS

Then take three empty jars and label them as A, B and C.

Soil mixed Soil mixed Soil without

Plant nutrients Soil after repeated cereal crops

Traditional Method Modern Method

Moat Dhekli Rahat Chain Pump Drip System Sprinkler System

Rahat Chain pump

EFFECT OF EXCESSIVE IRRIGATION OF WATER

PROTECTION FROM WEED

(a) Harrow (b) Trowel (Khurpi)

Spraying weedicide Sickle (Used in harvesting)

VARIOUS WAYS OF WEEDING

Forage harvesters Combine

STORAGE OF FOOD GRAINS

Seeds sown in soil Germinating seeds

What did you observe?

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE STORING SEEDS

Table : Examples of high-yielding varieties of crops

Crops High yielding varieties in India

THE GREEN REVOLUTION

Why green revolution is called green?

FOOD OBTAINED FROM ANIMALS

Sl. No. Category of Animal Type of food/ material Sources

Very Short Answer Questions : 5. Why is manure better than fertilizer?

7. What happens if the farmer grows Mustard during rainy

Assertion & Reason : 2. Assertion : Fertilizers provide quick replenishment of plant

13. Compost is a mixture of various decaying organic substances,

(d) Threshing: 8. Continuous plantation of crops in a field makes the soil

Its excessive use causes It protects the environment and

soil. 11. Down

Disc Fine adjustment

WHERE DO MICROORGANISMS LIVE?

Bacteria Fungi Protozoa Algae