IS 3114 MIDTERM COVERAGE

INTRODUCTION TO ENTERPRISE INFRASTRUCTURE

Enterprise technology and infrastructure refers to the concept of Information Technology (IT)
where resources and data are shared across an enterprise. (The term “enterprise” minimally
means across a sponsor’s entire organization, i,e., corporate versus department level, but it can
just easily be cross-organizational such as multi-agency).
Enterprise IT Infrastructure refers to the composite hardware, software, network resources and
services required for the existence, operation and management of an enterprise IT
environment, It allows an organization to deliver IT solutions and services to its employees,
partners and/or customers and is usually internal to an organization and deployed within
owned facilities.
KEY COMPONENTS OF ENTERPRISE IT INFRASTRUCTURE
1. Computer hardware platforms include client machines, as well as modern mainframes
produced by IBM. Blades servers are ultrathin servers, intended for a single dedicated
application, and are mounted in space-saving racks.
2. Operating system platforms includes platforms for client computers, dominated by
windows operating systems, and servers, dominated by the various forms of the UNIX
operating system or Linux. Operating systems are software that manage the resources
and activities of the computer and act as an interface for the user.
3. Enterprise and other software applications includes SAP,Oracle, and PeopleSoft, and
middleware software that are used to link a firm’s existing application systems.
4. Data management and storage is handled by database management software and
storage devices include traditional storage methods, such as disk arrays and tape
libraries, and newer network-based storage technologies such as storage area networks
(SANs). SANs connect multiple storage devices on dedicated high-speed networks.
5. Networking and telecommunications platforms include windows servers operating,
Novell, Linux, and UNIX. Nearly all LAN and many wide area networks (WANs) use the
TCP/IP standards for networking.
6. Internet platforms overlap with and must relate to the firm’s general networking
infrastructure and hardware and software platforms. Internet-related infrastructure
includes the hardware, software and services to maintain corporate Web sites,
intranets, and extranets, including Web hosting services and web software application
development tools. A Web hosting service maintains a large Web server, or series of
servers. and provides fee-paying subscribers with space to maintain their websites.
7. Consulting and system integration services are relied on for integrating a firm’s legacy
systems with new technology and infrastructure and providing expertise in
implementing new infrastructure along with relevant changes in business processes,
training, and software integration. Legacy systems are generally older transaction
 processing systems created for mainframe computers that continue to be used to avoid
the high cost of replacing or redesigning them.
SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE
Software architecture refers to the high-level design and structure of a software system,
outlining its components, interactions, and overall organization. It serves as a blueprint for the
system's construction and helps ensure that the software meets its functional and non-
functional requirements while being scalable, maintainable, and efficientIt is the structure of
the system which consists of software components, the externally visible properties of those
components and the relationship between them.
It is the structure of the system which consists of software components, the externally visible
properties of those components and the relationship between them.

SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE DISCUSSION PATH

1. Integration Patterns
refers to the strategies and approaches used to connect different software components and
systems within an organization.
2. Scalability and Performance Scalability - These factors determine how
well a software solution can handle increased workloads and deliver optimal performance to
users.
Performance - refers to how well a software system responds to user requests and processes
data. It encompasses factors such as response time, throughput, latency, and resource
utilization.

3. Security MeasuresSecurity measures are a crucial aspect of software architecture. Security

measures are put in place to protect software applications, data, and systems from
unauthorized access, data breaches, and other potential threats.
KEY SECURITY MEASURES RELATED TO SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE:
 Authentication and Authorization: These measures ensure that only authorized users
have access to specific parts of the software. Authentication verifies the identity of
users, while authorization controls their level of access based on roles and permissions.
 Encryption: Encryption is the process of converting data into a secure format that can
only be read with the appropriate decryption key. This prevents unauthorized parties
from accessing sensitive information.
 Data Privacy and Compliance: Software architecture should adhere to relevant data
protection regulations and industry standards. This includes handling user data
responsibly, providing mechanisms for data erasure, and obtaining necessary consents.
 Firewalls and Intrusion Detection: Firewalls and intrusion detection systems help protect
software applications from external attacks by monitoring and filtering incoming and
outgoing network traffic.
 Penetration Testing: Conducting regular penetration tests helps identify vulnerabilities
by simulating real-world attacks on the software system.
  Network Security: Proper network segmentation, secure communication protocols (such
as HTTPS), and proper network configurations contribute to overall software security.
4. Data ManagementData management within software architecture involves how data is
organized, stored, retrieved, and used within a system. Data management ensures that the
software architecture aligns with the organization's data strategy and needs.
KEY ASPECTS OF DATA MANAGEMENT IN SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE INCLUDE:
 Data Modeling and Design: Designing the structure and relationships of data entities to
ensure that the data accurately represents the business domain and Creating databases
that efficiently store and manage data, considering factors like data normalization,
indexing, and storage optimization.

 Data Synchronization: Ensuring that data remains consistent across different parts of the
system, especially when dealing with distributed architectures.

 Data Storage and Transformation: Determining where and how data is stored, whether
it's in relational databases, NoSQL databases, cloud storage, or other data storage
solutions and converting and mapping data between different formats or systems, such
as during data integration processes.
 Data Privacy: Implementing measures to protect sensitive data and ensure compliance
with privacy regulations.
5. Governance and ComplianceGovernance and compliance are critical aspects of software
architecture. They ensure that the software architecture aligns with the organization's policies,
regulations, and standards, while also facilitating effective management and control

6. Vendor RelationshipsVendor relationships involve collaborating with external vendors to

acquire software products, tools, components, or services that complement or enhance the
organization's software architecture. These relationships can impact various aspects of the
software development lifecycle and contribute to the overall success of the organization's
technology initiatives.
7. InteroperabilityInteroperability is about enabling diverse software systems to communicate,
interact, and share data effectively, regardless of differences in technology, platforms, or
programming languages. This is especially important within enterprise architecture and
information systems where multiple software solutions must collaborate to achieve
organizational goals. Interoperability is about enabling diverse software systems to
communicate, interact, and share data effectively, regardless of differences in technology,
platforms, or programming languages.

8. Business Continuity and Disaster RecoveryBusiness continuity and disaster recovery are
crucial aspects of software architecture. These components ensure that an organization can
continue its operations, even in the face of unexpected disruptions or disasters.
KEY ASPECTS OF DISASTER RECOVERY INCLUDE:
 Recovery Time Objective (RTO): Determining the maximum acceptable downtime for
different systems and applications.
  Recovery Point Objective (RPO): Defining the maximum acceptable data loss, indicating
how frequently data backups should be taken.
 Disaster Recovery Plans: Creating detailed plans that outline the steps to take during
disaster recovery, including roles and responsibilities.

 Backup Locations: Storing backups in geographically separate locations to ensure data is

not lost due to regional disasters
9. Service Level AgreementsAn SLA defines the expectations, responsibilities, and commitments
between the service provider and the customer. It lays out the agreed-upon performance
metrics and standards for the service being provided. For software architecture, SLAs are used
to ensure that the software systems and services meet specific requirements and standards,
while also providing a framework for accountability and communication.
10. Alignment and Business Goals Alignment with business goals means that the software
architecture is developed and maintained with a clear understanding of how it contributes to
the overall mission, vision, and objectives of the organization. This ensures that technology
investments and software development efforts are directly linked to achieving specific business
outcomes. ZACHMAN FRAMEWORK
Developed by John Zachman, an American business and IT consultant, early pioneer of
enterprise architecture. He developed the Zachman Framework in 1987 at IBM. It has been
updated several times.- It is a 2-dimensional scheme for descriptive representation of an
enterprise.
COLUMNS OF ZACHMAN FRAMEWORK• What (data) - what is the business data, information
or objects?• How (function) - how does the business work, i.e., what are the business'
processes?• Where (network) - where are the businesses operations?• Who (people) - who
are the people that run the business, what are the business units and their hierarchy?• When
(time) - when are the business processes performed, i.e., what are the business schedules and
workflows?• Why (motivation) - why is the solution the one chosen? How was that derived
from? What motivates the performance of certain activities?
Rules of Zachman Framework

 Each cell in the Zachman Framework must be aligned with the cells immediately above
and below it.
 All the cells in each row also must be aligned with each other.
 Each cell is unique.
 Combining the cells in one row forms a complete description of the enterprise from that
view.
ROWS OF ZACHMAN FRAMEWORK
Each row represents a distinct view of the organization, from the perspective of different
stakeholders. These are ordered in a desired priority sequence. A row is allocated to each of the
following stakeholders:Planner’s View (Scope Contexts) - This view describes the business
purpose and strategy, which defines the playing field for the other views. It serves as the
context within which the other views will be derived and managed.Owner’s View (Business
Concepts) - This is a description of the organization within which the information system must
function. Analyzing this view reveals which parts of the enterprise can be automated.Designer’s
View (System Logic) - This view outlines how the system will satisfy the organization’s
information needs. The representation is free from solution specific aspects or production
specific constraints.Implementer’s View (Technology Physics) - This is a representation of how
the system will be implemented. It makes specific solutions and technologies apparent and
addresses production constraints.Sub-Constructor’s View (Component Assembles) - These
representations illustrate the implementation-specific details of certain system elements: parts
that need further clarification before production can begin. This view is less architecturally
significant than the others because it is more concerned with a part of the system than with the
whole.User’s View (Operations Classes) - This is a view of the functioning system in its
operational environment.

THE OPEN GROUP ARCHITECTURE FRAMEWORK

The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF) is the most used framework for enterprise
architecture as of 2020 that provides an approach for designing, planning, implementing, and
governing an enterprise information technology architecture. TOGAF is a high-level approach to
design. It is typically modeled at four levels: Business, Application, Data, and Technology. It
relies heavily on modularization, standardization, and already existing, proven technologies and
products.
TOGAF helps organize the development process through a systematic approach aimed at
reducing errors, maintaining timelines, staying on budget and aligning IT with business units to
produce quality results.
The Open Group states that TOGAF is intended to:

 Ensure everyone speaks the same language

 Avoid lock-in to proprietary solutions by standardizing on open methods for enterprise
architecture
 Save time and money, and utilize resources more effectively
 Achieve demonstrable ROI
 Provide a holistic view of an organizational landscape
 Act as a modular, scalable framework that enables organizational transformation
 Enable organizations of all sizes across all industries to work off the same standard for
enterprise architecture
TOGAF is based on four interrelated areas of specialization called architecture domains/
PILLARS:1. Business architecture which defines the business strategy, governance, organization,
and key business processes of the organization.
2. Data architecture which describes the structure of an organization's logical and physical data
assets and the associated data management resources. 3. Applications architecture which
provides a blueprint for the individual systems to be deployed, the interactions between the
application systems, and their relationships to the core business processes of the organization
with the frameworks for services to be exposed as business functions for integration.
4. Technical architecture, or technology architecture, which describes the hardware, software,
and network infrastructure needed to support the deployment of core, mission-critical
applications.

ARCHITECTURE DEVELOPMENT METHOD

The Architecture Development Method (ADM) is applied to develop an enterprise architecture
which will meet the business and information technology needs of an organization. It may be
tailored to the organization's needs and is then employed to manage the execution of
architecture planning activities.
ENTERPRISE CONTINUUM
The Enterprise Continuum is a way of classifying solutions and architectures on a continuum
that range from generic foundation architectures through to tailored organization-specific both
within and outside the Architecture Repository.

ADVANTAGES OF TOGAF

 Structure and Processes: TOGAF provides a well-defined structure and set of processes
for designing and implementing enterprise IT systems. This structure can help
organizations ensure that their architecture is well-designed and aligned with their
business goals.
 Reusability: TOGAF provides a common framework that can be used across different
departments and projects within an organization. This can help organizations to improve
the reusability of architecture artifacts and reduce the cost and time of creating new
ones.
 Governance: TOGAF provides guidance on governance and management of enterprise IT
systems, which can help organizations ensure that their systems are aligned with their
business goals and comply with relevant regulations and standards.
 Flexibility: TOGAF framework provides flexible guidelines that can be tailored to the
specific needs of an organization. This can help organizations to adapt to changing
business needs and technologies.
DISADVANTAGES OF TOGAF

 Complexity: TOGAF provides a lot of guidance and processes, which can make it difficult
to implement and can lead to a lot of bureaucracy.
 Cost: Implementing TOGAF requires a significant investment in terms of time and
resources, which can be a significant disadvantage for smaller organizations.
 Inflexibility: TOGAF is a complex framework which may not be suitable for all
organizations and businesses. It may also not be flexible enough to adapt to the unique
needs of an organization.
 Lack of Practicality: TOGAF is a general framework which does not cover all the practical
aspects of enterprise architecture.
*****Note: Include Unit 2, 3, 4
Unit 2. ENERPRISE ARCHITECTURE PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE
Enterprise Architecture (EA) planning and governance are practices that encompass the
fundamental aspects of managing a business. They involve firm leadership, complete
knowledge of organizational structure, a confident direction, and the enablement of effective IT
processes to promote an enterprise’s strategies. EA planning and governance ensure that an EA
program is managed properly to reduce IT costs and risks while accelerating decision-making
and delivery.
EA governance is a system comprising the essential elements of business management. It aims
to create a set of guidelines and rules that work together to ensure that work to change an
organization aligns with its business goals and objectives.
The governance framework to sustain enterprise architecture is composed of the following
parts: Organizational Structure, Roles and Responsibilities, and Processes. The Architecture
Governance Framework is integral to the Enterprise Continuum, and manages all content
relevant both to the architecture itself and to architecture governance processes. It ensures
that the EA program is properly managed, and it produces artifacts and plans that are truly
representative of organizational goals and needs. It ensures that investment decisions are
aligned with the EA from initiation to implementation.
EA Planning
Enterprise Architecture (EA) planning is the process of defining the architecture for the use of
information in support of the business and the plan for implementing them. Here are some
examples of Enterprise Architecture Planning:
1. Single Sign-On (SSO) Architecture
This architecture example shows how different agencies and parties cooperate with products or
services. Publishers set out different production plans based on consumer needs. Developers
generate types according to these plans in a cloud database. Finally, all done products will be
forwarded to users.
2. Project Management (PM) Process Architecture
This architecture example shows how to identify, optimize production resources, and decrease
cost during the overall development process.
3. Business Development (BD) Model Architecture
This architecture example is used to label a business’s framework and the key factors that play
into that framework. The BD model considers factors like opportunities, influencers, channels,
partners, clients, governance, policies, and more, giving a thorough overview of how to
approach various decisions and situations.
4. Enterprise Architecture Life Cycle (EALC)
An EALC is the basic planning format applied to Enterprise Architecture and strategic planning.
Within an EALC, different activities in the project are implemented in a timely and effective
manner. There are several activities involved in Enterprise planning. First is to envision and
define the scope of the architecture environment. Second is to identify key stakeholders.
Within an EALC, a given application must be developed so as to take advantage of a shared
infrastructure. It should not adversely affect other systems in an organization.
5. Architecture Blueprinting
Architecture Blueprinting is a process that involves creating a high-level view of the enterprise
architecture. It includes identifying the business processes, data, applications, and technology
components that make up the enterprise architecture. The blueprint provides a visual
representation of the enterprise architecture and helps to identify areas for improvement.
6. Enterprise Architecture Plan Template
This template provides a step-by-step guide for IT leaders, managers, and teams of all sizes and
industries to develop an enterprise architecture plan. It includes sections for defining the scope
of the architecture environment, identifying key stakeholders, creating a high-level view of the
enterprise architecture, and developing a roadmap for implementing the architecture.
EA Governance
Enterprise Architecture Governance is a practice that encompasses the fundamental aspects of
managing a business. It involves firm leadership, complete knowledge of organizational
structure, a confident direction, and the enablement of effective IT processes to promote an
enterprise’s strategies. Here are some examples of Enterprise Architecture Governance:
Organizational Structure – A well-designed enterprise architecture governance structure can be
essential in reducing IT costs and risks while accelerating decision-making and delivery. EA
governance ensures that an EA program is managed properly to produce artifacts and plans
that are truly representative of organizational goals and needs.
Roles and Responsibilities – EA Governance comprises the enterprise structure and a set of
policies, processes, and procedures by which the enterprise can control the IT solutions, as well
as ensure that they are consistent with the enterprise architecture vision, principles, and
standards. The governance framework to sustain enterprise architecture is composed of the
following parts: Organizational Structure, Roles and Responsibilities, and Processes.
Processes – Architecture governance is the practice and orientation by which enterprise
architectures and other architectures are managed and controlled at an enterprise-wide level.
It includes the following: Architecture Governance Framework, Architecture Development
Method (ADM), Architecture Content Framework, and Architecture Capability Framework.
Enterprise Architecture Review Board (EARB) – EARB exists at some organizations, but not fully
functional. It is a group of stakeholders that reviews and approves the enterprise architecture
and its components. The EARB ensures that the enterprise architecture aligns with the
organization’s business goals and objectives.
Governance Framework – A sound governance framework to support implementation and
management of the enterprise architecture is necessary to ensure that the enterprise achieves
its EA objectives. The governance framework should be holistic and consider the enterprise’s
structure, policies, processes, and procedures.
The Role of Enterprise Architecture in Strategic Planning
The role of Enterprise Architecture (EA) in strategic planning is well documented in various
sources. Here are some examples of the role of EA in strategic planning:
EA can support decision-makers by providing relevant and timely business insights in times of
economic uncertainty, organizational change, or simply planning for a shift in business focus.
EA-derived insights into why projects fail to meet their goals can help guide strategic decision-
makers at the executive level, such as the CIO (Chief Information Officer), by showing where
potential cost savings or efficiencies might be made.
Planning EA is critical to a company’s performance. An Enterprise Architecture Life Cycle (EALC)
is the basic planning format applied to Enterprise Architecture and strategic planning. Within an
EALC, different activities in the project are implemented in a timely and effective manner.
The purpose of EA is to enable the Enterprise to most effectively achieve the mission, business
strategy, and goals through cycles of planning, design, deployment, and delivery of change. An
architected approach provides a rigorous planning methodology that validates the business
objectives, ensuring that they are feasible, deliver the desired business value, and their
achievement is cost-effective.
EA can help ensure that information systems do not operate in a vacuum. The way in which the
strategy is implemented can have a significant impact on whether it will be successful, and this
is where Enterprise Architecture may have a significant role to play.
EA helps businesses going through digital transformation, since EA focuses on bringing both
legacy applications and processes together in an attempt to form a seamless environment. The
use of EA frameworks rose in response to increases in business technologies during the 1980s,
when a need for a way to respond to rapid technology growth was integral to business
strategy.
EA planning typically involves all relevant stakeholders across the organization — not only IT
but also the heads of other departments and the senior management team — because this
architecture planning will affect everyone across the company. With this cross-functional group
all working together, discussing how proposed architectural changes can benefit their teams
and the company, and prioritizing these plans on an enterprise architecture roadmap (or other
technology roadmaps), the initiative will be more likely to earn executive buy-in than if the IT
team created a plan without input from these other groups.
Benefits of using Enterprise Architecture to streamline business processes:
1. Standardizing practices and procedures – EA can standardize practices and procedures,
which can help organizations reduce the risk of downtime, security breaches, and other
technology-related disruptions, enabling them to operate more efficiently and
effectively.

2. Improved alignment between business and IT strategies – EA provides a structured

approach for defining and managing business processes, information, applications, and
infrastructure, enabling organizations to ensure that their IT investments are focused on
meeting business objectives.
3. Simplifying complex processes – EA can help identify inefficiencies and redundancies in
business processes and streamline operations. This can result in improved productivity,
reduced costs, and better use of resources.
4. Increased efficiency – EA can help organizations become more efficient by providing a
holistic view of the organization’s current and future state. This view includes its
business processes, information systems, data architecture, technology infrastructure,
and human resources.
5. Better decision-making – EA provides a clear overview of the entire business, which can
help decision-makers make informed decisions. By providing key information focused on
the topic, decision-makers can see the current situation and decide at speed.
6. Better risk management – EA can help identify potential risks and vulnerabilities in the
organization’s systems and processes. This can help organizations take proactive
measures to mitigate risks and prevent potential problems.
7. Increased productivity – EA provides seamless oversight of business strategies and
organizational processes, which can result in increased productivity.
8. Reduced maintenance costs – EA can help organizations reduce maintenance costs by
identifying redundant or unnecessary systems and processes. This can help
organizations streamline their operations and reduce costs.
Enterprise architecture plays crucial roles in decision-making and risk management within an
organization. These roles help ensure that the organization's strategic goals are aligned with its
IT capabilities while also minimizing potential risks. Here are the key roles of enterprise
architecture in decision-making and risk management:

Alignment with Business Strategy:

Strategic Planning: Enterprise architecture helps align IT capabilities with the organization's
long-term business strategy. It ensures that technology decisions support the overall business
objectives.
Technology Investment Decisions:
Prioritization: It assists in prioritizing technology investments by providing insights into which
projects align best with the business strategy and provide the highest value.
Cost-Benefit Analysis: Enterprise architecture helps in evaluating the costs and benefits of
various technology options, aiding in informed decision-making.
Risk Assessment and Mitigation:
Risk Identification: Enterprise architects identify potential IT risks by assessing the current
architecture and technology landscape.
Risk Mitigation: They propose strategies and solutions to mitigate identified risks, helping the
organization make informed decisions to reduce exposure.
Interoperability and Integration:
Ensuring Compatibility: Enterprise architects ensure that new systems and technologies are
compatible with existing ones, reducing the risk of integration issues and data silos.
Data Flow Optimization: They optimize data flow across systems, enhancing data consistency
and reducing data-related risks.
Standards and Compliance:
Enforcing Standards: Enterprise architecture defines and enforces technology standards and
compliance requirements, reducing regulatory and security risks.
Audit Support: It helps in ensuring that technology assets adhere to industry regulations and
standards, facilitating compliance audits.
Scenario Planning:
Modeling Scenarios: Enterprise architects can model different future scenarios, allowing
decision-makers to evaluate the impact of various choices on the organization's architecture
and potential risks.
Performance Monitoring and Measurement:
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs): Enterprise architecture defines and tracks KPIs to measure
the performance of IT assets and systems, helping identify and address issues early.

Change Management:
Change Impact Analysis: Before implementing changes, enterprise architects assess their
impact on the existing architecture, helping in risk assessment and planning for a smooth
transition.
Change Governance: They establish governance processes to manage changes and ensure that
they align with the organization's strategic goals.
Cost Control:
Cost Optimization: Enterprise architects identify opportunities for cost optimization by
rationalizing technology assets and reducing redundancy.
Vendor Management:
Vendor Assessment: They evaluate technology vendors to ensure they meet the organization's
requirements and standards, reducing vendor-related risks.
Communication and Collaboration:
Facilitating Communication: Enterprise architects facilitate communication between business
and IT teams, ensuring that technology decisions are well-informed and aligned with business
needs.

UNIT 5.
BUSINESS ARCHITECTURE
Business architecture is a discipline that represents holistic, multidimensional business views of
capabilities, end-to-end value delivery, information, and organizational structure; and the
relationships among these business views and strategies, products, policies, initiatives, and
stakeholders.
KEY COMPONENTS OF BUSINESS ARCHITECTURE

1. Business Motivation - This includes the vision, goals, objectives, mission, strategies, and
plans of the organization. It helps define the organization's purpose and direction.
2. Business Products and Services - This includes the products and services that the
organization offers to its customers. It helps define the organization's value proposition.
3. Business Organization Structure, Roles, and Locations - This includes the organizational
structure, roles, and locations of the organization. It helps define the organization's
hierarchy and how it operates.
 4. Business Stakeholders - This includes the partners, suppliers, regulators, and customers
of the organization. It helps define the organization's relationships with external
entities.
5. Business Capabilities and Processes - This includes the organization's capabilities and
processes that enable it to deliver its products and services. It helps define the
organization's operational model.
6. Business Information Objects - This includes high-level objects such as customer
information, product information, and customer sales. It helps define the organization's
data architecture.
7. Strategy Clarification - This includes understanding the enterprise's "why" or purpose. It
helps define the organization's strategic direction.
8. Strategic Context - This includes the organization's external environment, such as
market trends, competition, and regulatory requirements. It helps define the
organization's strategic context.
9. Business Context - This includes the organization's internal environment, such as its
culture, values, and resources. It helps define the organization's business context.
10. Business Capabilities - This includes the organization's core competencies and the
resources required to deliver its products and services. It helps define the organization's
capabilities.
11. Value Streams - This includes the organization's value streams, which are the end-to-end
processes that deliver value to customers. It helps define the organization's value
proposition.

12. Process Models - This includes the organization's process models, which are the detailed
descriptions of the organization's processes. It helps define the organization's
operational model.
13. Systems and Applications Mapping - This includes the organization's systems and
applications mapping, which is the mapping of the organization's systems and
applications to its business capabilities and processes. It helps define the organization's
technology architecture.

B. INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE
Information Architecture is the practice of organizing and structuring content in a way that is
effective and sustainable. It involves the art and science of organizing and labeling websites,
intranets, online communities, and software to support usability and findability. Information
architecture is an emerging community of practice focused on bringing principles of design,
architecture, and information science to the digital landscape.
It is the structural design of shared information environments, and it involves a model or
concept of information that is used and applied to activities that require explicit details of
complex information systems. The key aspects of information architecture include organizing,
structuring, and labeling content in an effective and sustainable way to help users find
information and complete tasks.
Information architecture is important because it helps users understand where they are, what
they’ve found, what’s around, and what to expect. It informs the content strategy through
identifying word choice as well as informing user interface design and interaction design
through playing a role in the wireframing and prototyping processes.
Some examples of information architecture principles include creating a clear hierarchy, using
consistent labeling, and providing clear navigation. Information architecture has unique
research methods, such as card sorting and tree testing, which are commonly used in
information architecture.
TYPES OF INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE
1. Hierarchical Information Architecture – This type of information architecture is based on
a tree-like structure, where information is organized into categories and subcategories.
It is useful for organizing large amounts of information and making it easy to navigate.
2. Sequential Information Architecture – This type of information architecture is based on
a linear structure, where information is presented in a specific order. It is useful for
guiding users through a process or a series of steps.
3. Matrix Information Architecture – This type of information architecture is based on a
grid-like structure, where information is organized into rows and columns. It is useful for
organizing complex information and making it easy to compare and contrast.
4. Faceted Information Architecture – This type of information architecture is based on a
set of attributes or facets that describe the information. It is useful for organizing large
amounts of information and allowing users to filter and refine their search results.
5. Network Information Architecture – This type of information architecture is based on a
network-like structure, where information is connected to other related information. It
is useful for organizing complex information and showing relationships between
different pieces of information.

KEY PRINCIPLES OF INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE

The key principles of information architecture are:
1. Principle of Objects: Content should be treated as a living, breathing thing with a
lifecycle, behaviors, and attributes that make it unique
2. Principle of Choices: Users should be presented with meaningful choices that allow
them to navigate and interact with content in a way that makes sense to them
3. Principle of Disclosure: Users should be provided with information about the content
and functionality of a digital product in a way that is clear and understandable
4. Principle of Exemplars: Concrete examples of content and functionality should be
provided to help users understand how to interact with a digital product
5. Principle of Front Doors: Digital products should have a clear and obvious entry point
that allows users to easily access the content and functionality they need
6. Principle of Multiple Classification: Content should be organized in multiple ways to
support different user needs and mental models
7. Principle of Growth: Digital products should be designed to accommodate growth and
change over time, and should be flexible enough to adapt to new content and
functionality
8. Principle of Focused Navigation: Navigation should be focused on the user’s goals and
tasks, and should be designed to help them find what they need quickly and easily