CHAPTER ONE

Introduction: Communication an overview

1.1 Meaning of Communication

The word Communication is derived from a Latin word “cummunicare” which means “to share”.
Therefore, the word communication means sharing of ideas, messages and words expressed
through a language, which is easily comprehensible to the listener. Communication starts with a
sender, who has a message to send to the receiver. The sender must encode the message and select
a communication channel that will deliver it to the receiver. In communicating facts, the message
may be encoded with words, numbers, or digital symbols; in communicating feelings; it may be
encoded as body language or tone of voice.
Definitions:
Peter little: communication is the process by which information is transmitted between
individuals and/or organization so that an understanding response results.
W. H. Newman and C. F. summer: Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, and
emotions by two or more persons.

Keith Davis: Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one
person to another.
American Management Association: Communication is any behavior that results in an exchange
of meaning.
Generally communication is a process that involves the transfer of information and understanding
from one person to another person. Communication is a shared meaning among two or more
people through verbal and non-verbal transactions.
Business communication is a specialized field and branch of general communication. It is hardly
possible to make a basic difference between the two. The process and the principles that regulate
them are similar. Their difference lies in their application to situations. General communication is
concerned with many roles at large. On the other hand business communication is concerned with
business activities like internal business activities: maintaining and improving the morale of
employees, giving order to workers, prescribing methods and procedures, announcing policies
and organizational changes, and etc… as well as external business activities: selling and buying
goods and services, reporting the government and shareholders on the financial condition of the
business operations and etc…

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 1.2 Significance of Business Communication

 It promotes managerial efficiency

 It is an aid to planning and decision making
 It strengthens control and operations
 It increases co-operation and understanding
 It is a basis of leadership action
 It develops co-ordination
 It leads to job satisfaction
Nature/Characteristic of Business communication

 It is not that begins at one time and stops at another.

 It concerns all managers at all level of management.
 It facilitates managerial functions.
 It facilitates managerial roles.
Objectives of Business Communication

 To develop understanding and information among all workers and this is necessary for
group efforts.
 To foster an attitude which is necessary for motivation, co-operation and job satisfaction
 To discourage the spread of misinformation and rumors which can cause conflict and
tension
 To encourage the subordinates to give ideas and suggestions for improving up on the
product or work environment and taking these suggestions seriously
 To prepare workers for a change in methods of operations by giving them necessary
information in advance
 To improve the labor management relations by keeping the communication channels open
and accessible
 To encourage social relations among workers by encouraging inter-communication
 To develop sound intra organizational and inter organizational relations in order to achieve
the desired business goals
1.3 Communication in Management

Communication is central to the entire management process for four primary reasons:

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  Communication is a linking process of management. Communication is the way
managers conduct the managerial functions of planning, organizing, staffing, directing,
and controlling. Communication is the heart of all organizations

 Communication is the primary means by which people obtain and exchange

information. Decisions are often dependent upon the quality and quantity of the
information received. If the information on which a decision is based is poor or
incomplete, the decision will often be incorrect.

 The most time-consuming activity a manager engages in is communication. Managers

spend between 70 to 90 percent of their time communicating with employees and other
internal and external customers.

 Information and communication represent power in organizations. An employee

cannot do anything constructive in a work unit unless he or she knows what is to be
done, when the task is to be accomplished, and who else is involved. The staff
members who have this information become centers of power.

The ability to communicate well, both orally and in writing is a critical managerial skill and
a foundation of effective leadership. Through communication, people exchange and share
information with one another and influence one another's attitudes, behaviors, and
understandings. Communication allows managers to establish and maintain interpersonal
relationships, listen to others, and otherwise gain the information needed to create an
inspirational workplace. No manager can handle conflict, negotiate successfully, and succeed
at leadership without being a good communicator.

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 CHAPTER TWO
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

2.1 Elements Of The Communication Process

Process of Communication
1. Sender (communicator): is the source of the message who initiates the communication
process. The sender is the one who has certain ideas, information, feelings, attitudes,
intentions, or emotions which he or she wants to share with the receiver. When you send
a message you are the writer or speaker depending on whether your communication is
written or oral.
2. Encoding: is the process of selecting and organizing bits of information into
transmissible message language.
3. Message: the result of encoding is the message- either verbal or non verbal. When you
compose a message, you need to consider what content to include, how the receiver
interpret it and how it affect their relation.
4. Channel: is the formal medium of transmission of the message.
5. Decoding: is the process by which the receiver interprets the message and translates it
into meaningful information.
6. Feed back: is a response from the receiver. It is the process of checking and clarification
by asking questions and repeating the message to ensure that the encoding and decoding
results in mutual understanding of the message. It is the only way through which the
sender can know whether his or her messages are interpreted as intended or not.
Advantage of feed back
 It makes the communication process two way or bilateral and enhances the accuracy of
employee understanding and performance
 It increases employee satisfaction with their job
Disadvantage of feed back
 It is a time taking activity
 It is difficult to elicit
 Employees do not want to give positive feedback to the management
7. Noise: is any interfering factor that, if present, can distort the intended message. It can
be present in any element.

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 2.2 Barriers to Communication
Barriers to communication include anything that prevents a message from being received
and/understood. Barriers are therefore, synonymous in many ways with noise. Though
technological noise is less of barrier and more of an obstacle, a technological problem does not
usually stop communication, though it may block it temporarily. Technological problems are also
perhaps the easiest problem to solve.

Barriers are usually of human rather than technological origin. Human barriers are often less
visible but generally more consequential. So here we would focus on human barriers and we can
classify those barriers as,

1. Socio-cultural Barriers

2. Psychological Barriers and

3. Organizational Barriers

1. Socio-Cultural Barriers

Communication always involves other people. An individual can be carrier of culture but one
person can’t create culture because culture is a group of phenomenon.

Culture is powerful. The languages we use, the food we eat, how we dress, what we believe and
so on, are all powerful cultural traits. We accept them as if they where non-confront able and non-
debatable we implicitly believe in our culture and generally conform to its tenets. Culture is
critically important to communication. Culture which occurs at national, ethnic, regional and even
organizational levels can be a barrier to communication precisely because culture is both powerful
and defining of groups.

By participating in a culture we are conforming to social norms, whether implicitly or explicitly.

Social norms are tacit or informal ‘rules’ about what is done, how, where, when and by whom.
We have norms in communication e.g. gestures, the meaning of color, tone of speech and the
meaning of symbols. What is interesting from a communication perspective is that not only are
social norms and cultural traits essential because they enable better communication, but also that
these same norms and traits can be barriers to communication. The key socio-cultural elements
that may be barriers are;

I. Group think
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 II. Confliction values and beliefs

III. Stereotyping and ethnocentrism

IV. Language and jargon

Groupthink
Groupthink is a social phenomenon which occurs when group behavior dominated and stifles the
decision making process (Janis 1982) it occurs when social norms or a group’s desire for
consensus overwhelms its desire to reach decisions that are in its best interest. It is what happens
when shared values and conformity get out of control. Group thinking is a major problem in
business, where people work extensively in groups and teams. Being aware of some of the key
elements of groupthink can help you to recognize it and avoid it.

Groupthink is characterized by;

1. Similarity and hidden differences, group members over-communicate and emphasize

their similarities.
2. Reliance on shared rationalizations. The group develops and maintains strong shared
beliefs without questioning their accuracy or their underlying assumptions. Rather than
recognizing some management or strategic error to explain failure, the group will
rationalize or blame external forces.
3. Collective pattern of defensive avoidance. Defensive avoidance means that the group
collectively avoids and refused to confront any issue or information that threatens to
challenge their shared views or decisions.
4. Lack of vigilance. One way that groups avoid having to confront contradictory evidence
to decisions is through lack of vigilance.
5. Suppression of worrisome defects. All group leaders and organizations have
weaknesses. When groupthink is operation, each defect is specifically suppressed. This
functions to maintain the appearance of group similarity and collective identity.
6. Unwarranted Optimism. While optimism and enthusiasm are generally helpful for
organizations unwarranted optimism may be detrimental. Groupthink is often
characterized by an optimism that function more to impress other group members than to
encourage the organization in its efforts.

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 7. Sloganistic Thinking. Slogans are usually part of the optimism cited above when
management begins to think in terms of its own slogans or in clichés, it prevents analysis.
Slogans trade upon shared values and ideas. There is often no new thinking involved. This
is particularly dangerous when organizations environments are changing.

Confliction of values and beliefs

Culture is based on shared beliefs and values. When communication occurs across
cultural boundaries, the potential for misunderstanding magnified. Cultural and social
norms are so ingrained that people act upon them without being consciously aware of
doing so. When cross cultural business ventured fail, the participants are often unable to
understand why. It is usually a communication failure stemming from a lack of knowledge
about each others basic values and norms. Organizations need to ensure they are familiar
with potential cultural differences before attempting to do business across cultures.
Knowing the values, beliefs and norms of the others culture can avoid communication
problems.

Stereotyping and Ethnocentrism

There is a difference between being aware of another culture’s belief s and values and
stereotyping all members of that culture based on your assumption about them.
Stereotyping is the attempt to predict people’s behaviors based on their membership of a
particular group. Stereotyping tends be associated with superficial behaviors and
inaccurate information rather than deeply held beliefs and norms. Stereotyping is a
barrier to communication because it prevents people from being seen as individuals and
their messages being heard. Stereotyping is dangerous. It can lead to prejudice,
discrimination and racism.

Ethnocentrism is related to stereotyping. Ethnocentric people see their own culture as the
only valid one and find all other lacking by comparison. They measure all others by the
standards of their own cultures, which they believe to be superior. Like stereotyping,
ethnocentrism is a breeding ground for prejudice and discrimination. Even in their
mildest form communication with an ethnocentric bias are patronizing and
condescending.

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Language and Jargon
Language can create barrier to communication in several ways. The most obvious is
trying to communicate when there is a major language difference between the receiver
and the transmitter of the message. But sometimes translations are not a straightforward
process. Idiomatic expressions in a language do not easily translate and often led to
miscommunication.

Language can be a barrier to communication even when both parties speak the same
language. Status and class differences result in different usages of languages that are
often the means of identifying or excluding groups of people. Jargon can serve the same
purpose. Many professions such as engineering& medicine, fore example, have their own
jargon which serves to mark the boundary between professionals and their clients. Jargon
tends to signal inclusively, or who is and insider, and exclusively, who is an outsider.
2. Psychological Barriers

Psychological barriers are those relations to the individual and the individual’s mental
and emotional state, key psychological barriers are;
 Filtering
 Perceptions
 Faulty memory
 Poor Listening Skills
 Emotional Interference

Filtering
People tend to hear what they want to hear and see what they want to see. People have differing
degrees of attention. Some are more open to new ideas and information and see more than others.
We are often unaware of our selective bias. Often our filters and biased are a result of personal
value systems or our cultural backgrounds the key to avoiding filtering problems is to listen
carefully to read carefully and to be aware that we all have tendency to be selective about the
information and data with which we are confronted.

We are constantly bombarded with so much information that we do not hope to process it all, so
some amount of selectivity is always required. We are all limited by our cognitive powers. Indeed

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few, if any of us, could handle such a volume of information and data. This is referred to as
bounded rationality (Simon 1962) and is caused by;

I. Limited time and other resources for collection information

II. Differing expectations of managers and others regarding that what constitutes relevant
information
III. Limited ability to understand process and use large amounts of information.

Perceptions
Like our filtering system we each have our perceptions of how we view the world. We have
perceptions of reality that we trust and we behave according to those beliefs, which in turn,
influence our behavior. We often do not realize that we filter out information that conflict with
our perceptions of the world. Our perceptions and filtering systems also affect how we
communicate, including how we encode and decode messages. Our perceptions can be barriers to
communication. We can refuse to acknowledge or attend to what is being communicated because
we have preconceived ideas about its relevance to our lives.

Faulty Memory
If you do not remember what has been communicated to you, the communication is incomplete or
ineffective. Memory plays an important role, therefore, in successful communication. We never
actually lose what we have once experienced through action hearing, reading, smelling or
touching through we may be unable to access those memories. Good memory skills can be
learned and should be practiced if you want to become and effective communicator.
First, you have to focus your attention on the information you want to remember. You need to
select it from amongst all the information you are receiving at any given time. Secondly, you have
to store the information you need to get it from your immediate (sensory) memory into your long-
term memory. Thirdly, similar to using a computer, you have to be able to access the
data/information when you need it.
There are number of techniques that aid information retention by moving newly acquired
information to long-term memories. The key elements to better memory are;

 Understanding  Over learning

 Breadth of knowledge  Association
 Active recall

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I. Understanding what you need to remember. Set up frame with in which to organize
details and their relationship to each other. If the whole makes sense, the parts are
easier to recall. Before you try to fix details in your mind, know the structures and
main emphasis of what is being communicated to you. Similarly, when
communication with other try to structure the message and over-communication the
main points of emphasis.
II. Breadth of knowledge about the subject of communication is important because the
more thoroughly and deep you go into a subject, the better you will remember it.
Broadening knowledge increases the number of associative links between one aspect
of atopic and another, and makes the whole structure stronger. Your communication
both as a sender and receiver benefit from wider knowledge in the subject area.
III. Active recall. This is making deliberate and conscious effort to recall what you hear or
read. While it is still fresh in your mind, seems to open the recall channel in your mind
at a time when it is the easiest to open. You can help receivers of your
communications recall the messages by restating at the end the main elements of your
communication. In oral presentation it is conventional wisdom that you tell your
audience what you are going to tell them. What you are doing is making it easier for
the receiver to recall your message.
IV. Over-learn that material you need to be able to produce on demand. In a business
situation you might need to be able to remember detailed elements of business or
marketing plans on a moment’s notice. Over learning deals with knowing a subject
well beyond the point of mastery. It is an extension of the conscious effort to recall,
the point where conscious effort is no longer needed.

V. Build association between what you already know and what you have to
remember. Doing this is like constructing a chain, which will lead you to the other
end. Human minds very greatly in the type of associative links to which response
comes easiest. There is no one best method, but visualizing and making use of
mnemonic devices are commonly used.

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Poor Listening Skills
Inadequate memory skills can also be attributed to poor listening. We may not remember some
one’s name simply because we were not paying enough attention when we where introduced. Day
dreaming, reading, listening to another conversation rather than the one in which we are engaged.
Few people listen with complete attention for more than a few seconds at a time unlike writing or
talking skills, listening skill have intended to be given little priority. Yet, managers must listen to
their customers, their employees, their shareholders and other.

Some listening problems are fairly obvious-problems caused by external distractions or lack of
interest. Other listening problems are more subtle (Millar, Crute and Hargie 1992) such as:

 Verbal Battling
 Fact Hunting
I. Verbal Battling happens when instead of listening and absorbing what the other
person has to say, we start to debate the ideas in our hands we may be more focused on
coming up with counter argument or criticisms than on what is being said. When we
do this, we lose track of the points the person is making.
II. Fact Hunting occurs when, instead of listening for the main theme or general points
in the argument, people concentrate on the detailed facts and lose sight of the overall
message.

We can think much faster than we speak and can either help to listen, or add to the distraction.

Sometimes someone appears to be listening to you suspect they are not. There are recognizable
types of listeners

 Feigning listeners  Self-centered listeners

 Limiting listeners  Positive or active listeners

Feigning listeners are people who appear to be attentive and are making some appropriate non-
verbal signals but their minds are elsewhere. Limiting listeners only give limited attention to what
you are saying. They are focusing on specific topics or comments and may distort or misinterpret
other things you say.

Self-centered listeners are only really concerned with their own views and may be simply
looking for your agreement. They may appear to be listening to what is being said but rather than

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actually hearing what is said they are selecting only those elements of the communication that
they can use to support their own views.

Positive or active listeners are those who internally absorb and process the information they
receive but also encourage the other person to talk and demonstrate clearly that they are paying
attention. To be a positive listener you need to develop three (Bolton 1987)

- Attending Skills
- Following Skills
- Reflecting Skills

Attending Skills relate to engaging with the speaker, being alert and appearing to take in what is
being said.

Following Skills are to do not only with mentally following the conversation but also physically
indication that you are following. Your body language including head nodding and your verbal
response (e.g. saying such things as “yes”, “uh-huh”) all indicate that you are following the
conversation. As active listeners you are also taking note of the speaker’s body language and
other non-verbal communication so that you can determine meaning and gauge the credibility of
what you are being told. Finally you need to reflect on the material so that it can go from your
sensory to your short-term to long-term memory. All of these combine to create a positive listener
who is actively engaged in communication process.

Emotional Interference
Emotions can be a barrier to communication both in sending and receiving messages. When
people are angry, fearful or sad their communication skills can be impaired. This is not something
you can necessarily control in others but you can control your emotions to a degree.

If you are angry you may say things you don’t mean or refuse to communicate things that need to
be said. If you are fearful or anxious, for example, in giving an oral presentation, your
nervousness can affect your audience receives your message. Your anxiety will be communicated
to them and they will not be able give full attention to what you are saying. Positive emotion can
be barriers to communication. Too much exuberance or overusing humor can detract from the
seriousness of your message. A measured approach that conveys your message in a firm and clam
manner works best.

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 3. Organizational Barriers

Some communication problems are specific to organizations; organizational barriers are primarily
related to the organizations structure, culture, pattern of work and communication flows. The
most common organizational barriers:

1) Information overload
2) Message competition
3) Information distortion
4) Message filtering
5) Conflicting messages
6) Communication climate
7) Status difference
8) Structural problems

Information overload is a common compliant in our ”information”, society we are bombarded

with information from directions; letters, phone calls, e-mail, text messaging on mobile phones,
radio, film, television and newspapers. New technologies for communication have not so much
replaced traditional sources as added them.

Message Competition
Information overload leads to message competition. The amount of information we deal with
every day force us to make choice about what is important and what can be ignored. Managers are
put under more stress by the potential danger of missing or ignoring important messages and thus
threaten their effectiveness.

Information Distortion
A potentially bigger cost can be paid by organizations that suffer from information distortion.
Taller organizations mean that information has to pass through more departments and people
before getting its destination. This may caused the information to be distorted due to
misunderstanding.

Sometimes information distortion can be less innocent. Information may be misinterpreted or

even blocked on purpose. Manager who feels threatened by information simply not pass it on, or
they may misinterpret the information to superiors or subordinates. Of course information

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distortion works both up and down the communication channels. Subordinates might pass
information up to superiors only when it enhances their standing, or they may withhold
information that threatens their position.

Message Filtering
Managers select the communication to which they pay attention by filtering or screening them
when passing on information managers once again filter information or reproduce it in
abbreviated form for the consumption of others. This process happens at many levels in
organization. This filtering of messages means that communication can often become distorted
and reduced.

Confliction of Messages
Confliction of messages can undermine communications and credibility. Leaders and mangers
should ensure that their messages are consistent. This is not to say that people can not change
their minds or their approaches or their way of working. However, your messages should not
change arbitrarily or randomly or according to emotional whims if you want to be taken seriously.
Consistency builds credibility, makes messages stronger and enhances communication process in
organizations credibility is important element of communication.

Communication Climate
In many ways, good communication dependent up on a management style or organizational
climate that is relatively free and open to communication. Organizations need to open
communication channels vertically both up and down the channels mean that messages will be
distorted. To few communication channels means the message are blocked and too little
information will flow.

Status Difference
Status difference exists in most organizations. Status difference can be a barrier to communication
because managers may listen less carefully to subordinates. Subordinates tend to read more in to
messages from superiors than is perhaps intended.

Structural Problems
The more hierarchical levels through which information must pass, the longer it will take to do so.
This makes effective much more difficult and can put tall (hierarchical) organization at a

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competitive disadvantage compared to those with flatter structures.

Overcoming Organizational Barrier

A key way to overcome organizational barrier is to have people in the organization who are
effective communicators. Effective communication requires:

I. Perception IV. Control

II. Precision V. Congeniality

III. Credibility

Perceptive people seem to be able to predict how a message will be interpreted. They anticipate a
reaction and shape the message accordingly. Then they key in on feedback. Respond
appropriately and correct any misunderstanding. Precise people are able to communicate in away
that provide the receiver with a clear understanding of the message. They create shared mental
pictures because they communicate in such a way as to be understood. When they say something
they mean it. This allows you to trust what they say to trust their information and to be
comfortable with their intention. Effective communicator shape and control what they say. Their
communication gets result. They also are generally friendly people in organizations. They show
respect for others. Maintain good relations and are relatively easy to get along with if you work
with them you tend to want to work with them again.

2.3 Interpersonal communication and teamwork

Interpersonal communication is usually defined by communication scholars in numerous ways,

usually describing participants who are dependent upon one another and have a shared history. It
can involve one on one conversations or individuals interacting with many people within a
society. It helps us understand how and why people behave and communicate in different ways to
construct and negotiate a social reality. While interpersonal communication can be defined as its
own area of study, it also occurs within other contexts like groups and organizations.

Interpersonal communication includes message sending and message reception between two or
more individuals. This can include all aspects of communication such as listening, persuading,
asserting, nonverbal communication, and more. A primary concept of interpersonal
communication looks at communicative acts when there are few individuals involved unlike areas
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of communication such as group interaction, where there may be a large number of individuals
involved in a communicative act.

Individuals also communicate on different interpersonal levels depending on who they are
engaging in communication with. For example, if an individual is communicating with a family
member, that communication will more than likely differ from the type of communication used
when engaged in a communicative act with a friend or significant other.

Overall, interpersonal communication can be conducted using both direct and indirect mediums of
communication such as face-to-face interaction, as well as computer-mediated-communication.
Successful interpersonal communication assumes that both the message senders and the message
receivers will interpret and understand the messages being sent on a level of understood meanings
and implications.

Within any organization there are projects that require a team's effort. While working in a group
has benefits, such as the ability to forge new friendships and equal distribution of work, it can
often be a source of tension and stress among its members. Problems can come about when
deadlines aren't met, for instance. However, most problems can be solved or prevented with
effective communication among members. Effective communication involves open-mindedness,
active listening and the ability to focus. Members should come into the team with understanding
and acceptance of the fact that they are working with other people who will have different ideas
and different ways of looking at things. No one should come to the group with personal prejudices
but with a willingness to listen to ideas no matter where they come from. Team members should
keep in mind that the bottom line is reaching the goal(s) they have set.

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 CHAPTER THREE
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

To compose effective messages you need to apply certain specific communication principles. The
basic business communication principles known as seven C’s of business communication provide
guidelines for choosing content and style of presentation. The seven C’s are as follows:

Completeness

Your message is complete when it contains all facts the reader or listener needs for the reaction
you desire. It is necessary for bringing the desired results without the expense of additional
message. In order to achieve completeness in your communication:

 Answer all questions that are asked

 Give something extra, when desirable
 Check the five Ws questions these are Who, What, When, Where, Why,
And other essential such as How

A. Answer all questions asked

Replying to an inquiry or request, answer all questions asked, and even anticipate the reader’s
reaction by providing other relevant information.
B. Give something extra when desirable
Sometimes, as an intelligent writer, you know what your reader may need to know about any
certain thing. In this case you must include anything that is of your reader’s benefit.
C. Check the five Ws questions
The five question method is useful when you write requests, announcements, or other informative
messages. For instance, to order (request) merchandise, make clear WHAT you want, WHEN you
need it, to WHOM and WHERE it is to be sent, HOW the payment will be made.
Conciseness:

A concise message saves time and cost for both sender and receiver. Conciseness means saying
what you have to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing the other C qualities. To
achieve conciseness in your message:

A. Eliminate wordy expressions

B. Include only relevant statements
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  be focused,
 prune & avoid long explanations
C. Avoid unnecessary repetitions
 use short forms
 use pronouns
A. Avoid Wordy Expression

So as to avoid wordy expression, consider the following important mechanism.

1. Use single-word substitutes instead of phrases whenever possible without changing meaning.

E.g. Wordy: - at this time. Instead of “at this time” you can just use only a concise word: - NOW,
Always try to use “To the point Approach” in business scenario perspective.

Wordy: In due course

Concise: Soon
Wordy: Due to the fact that
Concise: Because
Wordy: In spite of the fact that
Concise: Although
2. Avoid that and which clauses in your sentences whenever possible as the longer your
message and do not add any contribution to make the message is more understandable to
your message receiver so that they should be avoided.
Example:
Wordy: She bought desks that are of executive type.
Concise: She bought executive type desks.
3. Avoid over using: avoid over using of words at the beginning of sentences in your message
such as there is, there was, it is, it was, there are, there were and son.
Example:
Wordy: There are four rules that should be observed.
Concise: Four rules should be observed.

B. Include only relevant information

Always try to provide only relevant information to the receiver of the message. Stick to the
purpose of the message, prune irrelevant words and rambling sentences, omit information obvious
to the receiver, avoid long introductions and get to the important point tactfully and concisely.
Example:
Wordy: We hereby wish to let you know that our company is pleased with the confidence
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 You have reposed in us.
Concise: We appreciate your confidence.

C. Avoid unnecessary repetitions

Sometimes repetition is necessary for focusing some special issue. But when the same thing is
said two or three times without reasons, the message become wordy and boring, therefore it
should be avoided.

There are some ways to eliminate unnecessary repetition:-

1. Use shorter name after you have mentioned the long once one.

E.g. instead of “debrebirhan blanket factory is better to say “debrebirhan factory”

Instead of “kembolcha textile factory” is better to say “kembolcha factory”

2. Use pronouns or initial.

E.g. Instead of world trade organization use WTO or You can use IT for Information
Technology. (Keeping in views that receiver knows about these terms).

3. Cut out all needless repetition of phrases or sentences.

Consideration:
It means that you prepare every message with the recipient in mind and try to put yourself in his
or her place. So, try to visualize you readers with their desires, problems, emotions, and probable
reactions and then handle the matter from this point of view. In the following four ways it
indicates that you are considerate:
 Focus on “You” instead of “I” or “We”
 Show readers interest/benefit
 Emphasize on positive and pleasant facts
 Apply integrity and ethics

A. Focus on YOU instead of I &WE

Your receivers are usually more concerned about themselves than about you or the company you
represent. They are more likely to read your message when they see their name and the pronoun
“you” rather than “I” “WE” “US”.

Example:
 A) I want to send my congratulations for your promotion (“I” attitude )
 B) Congratulations to you on your promotion (‘you’ attitude)
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 A)We will ship soon the goods in your May 4 order (“we” attitude)
 B)You should receive by may 8 the TV screens you ordered on may 4 (“you “attitude_)
 A) We pay eight percent interest on the loan (“we” attitude)
 B) you earn 8% interest on the loan (“you” attitude)
Exercise: rewrite the following paragraph by using “we approach” so that it will attain
consideration principles of communication.

May I take this opportunity to express my thanks for the account you recently opened with our
store. We are pleased to furnish a wide variety of products for the home of the individual
customer. We want you to take full advantage of the store services, for we have the largest store
in the city. Also we make deliveries for our customer free of charge within a 30 miles radius of
our store. We welcome you to Ebony. If we can be of additional help please let us know.

B. Show readers benefits & interest

Readers may react positively when benefit are shown to them. Always try to address his/her need
and want. Always show/write to reader what has been done so far as his/her query is concerned.
Always avoid that has not been done so far.

Always write a message in such a way how audience should be benefited from it. They will be
more likely to react favorably and do what you suggest if you show that benefits are worth the
effort and the cost. In situations where actual direct reader benefit is impossible or irrelevant to
the subject matter, the message should at least show interest in and concern for the readers needs
or viewpoint.

Even a simple request gets better response when a reader benefits plug accompanies it. For
example, an insurance company that wanted to update its address files sent to half its
policyholders a double postcard with this message.

Because we have not written you in some time please help us bring our records up to date by
filling in and returning the other half of this card.

Only 3% of these cards came back.

To the remaining half of its policy holders the firm sent the same request reworded to show
readers benefit: So that dividend checks, premium notices and other messages of importance may
reach you promptly, please fill out and the other half of this card. This request brought 90% of the
cards back in a few days. Though your company is in business to make a profit, you omit that
selfish sounding idea; the reader assumes it anyway and is motivated only by what benefits he/she

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receives. Reader-benefit appeals are desirable also n job applications, favor requests, and
announcements to your customers, prospective buyers, and the like.

C. Emphasize, positive and pleasant facts

The communicator should

 Stress what can be done instead of what cannot be done, and

 Focusing on words your receiver can consider favorably
D. Apply ethics and integrity

To be truly considerate, you need also to apply integrity – high moral standards, personal honor,
truthfulness and sincerity – to your written and oral messages. Integrity is indispensable in our
jobs, in business transactions, in social and political activities, in everything we do. Without it
business communication would provide worthless, & our confidence in people would be
shattered.

Ethics is concerned with what is right and wrong in human conduct. Codes of ethics provide
standards enabling us to determine the fundamental distinction between right and wrong human
behavior.

3. CONCRETENESS

It means that message should be specific instead of general. Misunderstanding of words creates
problems for both parties (sender and receiver). When you talk to your client always use facts
and figures instead of generic or irrelevant information. Being definite, vivid and specific rather
than vague, obscure and generally leads to concreteness of the message. Facts and figures being
presented in the message should be specif.

The following mechanism helps to make you communication or message concrete.

 Use specific facts and figures

 Put action into verbs
 Choose vivid image building words by comparison & figurative language
A. Use specific facts and figures

Using specific facts and figures, whenever possible adds up to the concreteness of your message.
The receiver of your message would be very comfortable with your speech when you can support
some of your ideas with facts.

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Example;
Vague: Please send us the following items by the end of this month.
Clear: The following items should reach us on or before 21 August

Vague: A lot of people in Ethiopia are facing drought.

Clear: Currently, around 10 million people in Ethiopia are need of food assistance.

Exercise: Rewrite the following in concrete form as the sentences are too general and vague

 Our product has won several prizes.

 These brakes stop a car within a short distance.
 Put action in your verbs

Active verbs make writing forceful and more interesting to read or hear.

Example;

Passive: These figures are checked’

Active: The research department checks these figures.

Active verbs also make sentence specific, personal and concise.

Example;

Specific: “The chief executive decided” is more explicit than “A decision has been made.”

B. Choose vivid, and image building words

Use comparisons, figurative language, and concrete instead of nouns.

Comparisons

A1) there are a great, many solder joints in the space craft, and each must have just the right
amount of solder.

A2) the spacecraft has 2.5 million solder joints. If an extra drop of solder had been left on these
joints, the excess weight would have been equivalent to the payload of the vehicle.

Figurative language

Figures of speech may express an idea more vividly than literal language.

Example:
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A1) x product helps you lose your double chin in four weeks, if you use x as directed.

A2) if two chins quarrel for a place on your collar, x product helps settle the argument. Only one
chin remains after you use x just four weeks as directed.

C. Concrete, instead of abstract noun

This is especially very important as subjects of your sentences. Concrete nouns represent subjects
your recipient can touch, see, smell, hear or taste. Abstract nouns as subjects designate intangible
concepts. They bring vague ‘picture’ if any, to a person’s mind.

4. CLARITY

Clarity demands the use of simple language and easy sentence structure in composing the
message. When there is clarity in presenting ideas, it’s easy for the receiver/decoder to grasp the
meaning being conveyed by the sender/encoder. In effective business communication the message
should be very much clear. So that reader can understand it easily. You should always choose
precise words. Always choose familiar and easy words. Construct effective sentences and
paragraphs.

In business communication always use precise words rather longer statements. If you have a
choice between long words and shorter one, always use shorter one. You should try your level
best to use familiar/easy to understand words so that your reader will quickly understand it.

By implementing the following mechanism it is possible to make your message clear:

 Choose short, familiar & conversational words.

 Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.
 Include examples, illustrations & visual aids when it is desirable.
A. Choose short, familiar and conversational words

When you have a choice between a long word and a short word one, use the short, familiar and
conversational word that your reader or listener will quickly understand. Also, use synonyms
instead of Latin terms if they, though short, may be unfamiliar to your message receivers.

Example;

 Circa(L) – about
 Subsequent – after
 Promulgate – announce , declare
 Inadvertence – error
 e.g..(L) – foe example
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  Domicile – home , house
 Remuneration – pay
B. Construct effective sentences and paragraphs

Arranging your words in well-constructed sentences and paragraphs is also an essential task that
requires adaptations to your reader. Important characteristics to consider are; length, unity, and
coherence.

Length as short as desirable

Generally, short sentences are preferred. The suggested average sentence length should be about
17 to 20 words. Because of a pleasing variety of length is desirable, you can have a range of from
3 to 30 or more words. But when a sentence exceeds 40 words, try to rewrite it in to more than
one sentence. Please also note that it is important that your sentences are not too short either.

Unity to express main ideas

In a sentence where simple, compound and complex unity means that you have one main idea and
any other ideas in the sentence must be closely related to it. In a paragraph, unity likewise means
you have one main idea or topic. Usually atopic sentence is a good way to express the main idea
(Of course, a one-or two sentence paragraph need not have topic sentence). The preferred
position for the topic sentence in most paragraphs is at the beginning, where it receives the best
emphasis. The sentences that follow it contain the details to help develop the main idea. However,
if you think you reader will consider your main topic unfavorable or unclear, you may be wise to
place the supporting details firs and then lead up topic sentences at the end.

Coherence for clear meaning

Arrange words clearly so that the ideas clearly express the intended meaning. Place the correct
modifiers as close as possible to the word it is supposed to modify.

Example:

A1) Being an excellent lawyer, I am sure you can help us (unclear)

A2) being an excellent lawyer, you can surely help us or as you are an excellent lawyer, I am sure
you can help us (clear)

For coherence in a paragraph each sentence should be relevant to the main idea expressed in the
topic sentences. Transitional words and phrases correctly placed within paragraphs help to point
one sentence to another. Likewise they can lead the reader from one paragraph to another.

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 C. Include examples, illustrations and other visual aids when desirable

When you have complicated or lengthy explanation in a letter, speech, or report, you will often
find you can improve the clarity by giving your receipts an example, analogy, or illustration.
Furthermore, visual aids such as headings, tabulations, itemizations, picture, and charts are
definite aid to clarity and easy understanding. Some important statements may be underlined,
numbered, colored, or typed in CAPITALS or italics or on short lines with wider margins.

5. Courtesy

In business, almost everything starts and ends in courtesy. Courtesy means not only thinking
about receiver but also valuing his feelings. Much can be achieved by using polite words and
gestures, being appreciative, thoughtful, tactful, and showing respect to the receiver. Courtesy
builds goodwill. Courtesy strengthen relations. Knowing your audience allows you to use
statements of courtesy; be aware of your message receiver. True courtesy involves being aware
not only of the perspective of others, but also their feelings. Courtesy stems from a sincere you-
attitude. It is not merely politeness with mechanical insertions of “please” and “Thank you”.
Although Appling socially accepted manners is a form of courtesy. Rather, it is politeness that
grows out respect and concern for others. Courteous communication generates a special tone in
their writing and speaking.

To achieve Courtesy to your message:

 Be sincere , tactful, thoughtful and appreciative

 Omit expressions that hurt , irritate, or insult
 Choose nondiscriminatory expressions
A. Be sincere, tactful, thought full and appreciative

Though few people are intentionally abrupt or blunt, these negative traits are common cause of
discourtesy. Sometimes they stem from a mistaken idea of conciseness, sometimes from negative
personal attitudes.

Example:

A1) your letter is not clear at all; I can’t understand it. (Tactless, blunt)

A2) if I understand your letter correctly, it seems that it needs some clarification. (Tactful)

A1) apparently you have already forgotten what I wrote you two weeks ago. (Tactless, blunt)

A2) as mentioned in my may 15 letter or memo to you continue with the facts (tactful)

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 B. Omit expressions that irritate, hurt and belittle

The thoughtful business communicator should avoid expressions that might offend the reader or
listener.

Irritating expressions

Here is the list if expressions that you should avoid, particularly when used with “you’ and
“your”.

 Contrary to your inference

 I do not agree with you
 You failed to you are probably ignorant of the fact that
 You failed to we are amazed you can’t
 You neglect
 You leave us no choice
 You surely don’t expect etc
C. Choose nondiscriminatory expressions

Courtesy also requires use of nondiscriminatory expressions that refer to any particular, gender,
and race, ethnic, Origin, etc
Instead of these gender-specific words. Choose these Bias Free words
Businessman Business person or business worker
Chairman Chair, chairperson, worker, employee
Manpower Worker, employee
Newsman Newscaster or reporter or journalist
Salesman Salesperson, sales, representative, agent
6. CORRECTNESS

At the core of correctness are the proper grammar, punctuation and spelling. However, message
must be perfect grammatically and mechanically. The term correctness, as applied to business
messages also mean three characteristics: Use the right level of language, Check the accuracy of
figures, facts and words, Maintain acceptable writing mechanics.

Therefore, correctness in your writing can be achieved through:

 Using the level of the language

 Checking accuracy of figures, facts and words.
 Maintaining acceptable writing mechanics

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  Use the right Level of Language
We suggest that there are two level of language:
1. Formal
2. Informal.
Formal and Informal Words
Formal writing is often associated with scholarly writing: doctoral dissertations, master’s thesis,
legal documents, top-level government agreements and other material where formality is
demanded.

Informal writing is more characteristic of business writing. Here you use words that are short,
well-known and conversational as in this comparison list:

Formal informal formal informal

Anticipate expect endeavor try

Ascertain find out interrogate ask

Deem think (believe) procure get

 Checking Accuracy of Facts and Figures

Check Accuracy of Facts, Figures and words it is impossible to convey meaning precisely,
through words, from the head of the sender to a receiver. Our goal is to be as precise as possible,
which means checking and double-checking to ensure that the figures, facts and words you use
are correct. “A good check of your data is to have another person read and comment on the
validity of the material”

 Maintaining acceptable writing mechanics

Acceptable writing mechanics include correct punctuation, capitalization, and syllabication, and
spelling –plus correct sentence and paragraph structure, already mentioned under clarity. This
area also includes using correct format, for letters, memos, and reports.

Two common weaknesses in writing mechanics that deserve special thought and brief attention
are mentioned here. These are incorrect spelling and careless omissions.

Spelling errors

Business executives and customers expect you to spell correctly and may begin to question your
overall ability if you misspell – especially the customer’s name and every day words like
convenience, questionnaire, stationery, personnel and accommodation. Errors of transposition

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 (‘nad’ instead of and) are spelling errors that show carelessness.

Careless omissions

Another way to maintain correct writing mechanics is to double –check for any careless omissions
of punctuation marks or words needed for grammatical accuracy. Sometimes even small omission
can lead to costly miscommunication.

CHAPTER FOUR
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

1) Internal and External Communication

External communication refers to communication with outside sources such as customers,
suppliers, professional associations, government organization etc. As the external environment
has become more dynamic and turbulent, regular exchange of information with outside agencies
and individuals becomes essential. Whether by phone, fax, video tape, or letter, much of this
communication is carefully orchestrated, and some occurs informally. Two functional units
particularly important in managing the flow of external messages: the marketing department and
the public relation department. Marketing focuses on selling goods and services, whereas public
relations is more concerned with developing the organization’s overall permutation.
Internal communication takes place within the organization among managers and other
personnel between department, superiors and subordinates. Vertical and horizontal
communications take place with in the organization.

2) Formal and Informal Communication

2.1) Formal channel of communication is established by the management and formally
shown in the charts of the organizations .It is the channel which is deliberately and consciously
established. Formal channel is the line of communication for transmission of messages and
information officially within and outside the organization. The formal communication channel is
used to transmit official messages, policies, procedures, directives, and job instruction….

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 Downward Communication
When vertical communication flows from a higher level to one or more lower levels in the
organization it is known as downward communication. Downward communication flows from the
top of the organization and carries the message that translates top management planning and
decision making into orders that direct office employee. Some examples of downward
communication are:
 Information related to policies, rules, procedures, objectives, and other type of plans
 Work assignment and directives
 Feedback about work performance
 General information about the organization such as its progress and status

Upward Communication
The vertical flow of communication from, a lower level to higher levels in the organization is
called upward communication. This may take place from the supervisor to middle level manager,
from manager to general manager and then from general manager to board of directors. It moves
in the opposite direction and is based up on the communication demand system designed by
management to receive information from operational level. It helps managers judge the
effectiveness of downward communication and enables them to learn about organizational
problems. Major areas of information should be communicated from lower level through upward
communication are:

 The activities of subordinates in terms of their achievement progress and plans

 Unresolved work problems in which subordinates may need help from seniors
 Suggestions (ideas) for improvement in offices or department/organization
 The feelings of subordinates about their jobs, associates, working environment and etc …

Lateral Communication:
It usually follows the pattern of workflow in an organization occurring between members of work
groups between one work group and another between members of departments having the same
status. Its main purpose is to provide a direct channel for organizational co-operation and problem
solving.

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 Diagonal Communication
Diagonal communication refers to interchange of message among two persons located at different
levels of hierarchy and outside the direct chain of command. It serves the purpose of coordination
and integration and involves by passing the chain of command as in the case of horizontal
communication. It is used to speed up information flow to improve understanding and to
coordinate for the achievement of organizational objectives.

2.2) Informal channel of communication

Known, as the grapevine is communication that takes place without regard to hierarchical or task
requirements. Informal communication can be thought of as relating to personal rather than
positional issues. In other words Informal channel or the grapevine does not follow the formal
channels established by the management. This type of communication arises on account of
natural desire of people to communicate each other and is the result of social interaction of
people.
Characteristics of Informal Communication
 It is very fast and spontaneous
 It is not entirely reliable
 Its messages are difficult to stop once they get started
 It is accessible to everybody in that organization
 It can be supportive or obstacle to the effort of management

Types of Grapevine Chains

Single strand Chain: In this chain Person “A” tells to a single person “B”, who tells it to a person
“C” and so on.

The Gossip Chain: a person being the source of the information transmits to too many individuals.

Probability Chain: here individuals are indifferent about to whom they offer information. They tell
people at random and those people intern tell other at random.

Cluster Chain: Here person “A” conveys the information to few selected individuals, some of
whom then inform a few selected individuals.

3) From the point of view of human aspect

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Intrapersonal communication: is communication with in oneself. It refers to speaking to oneself.
Thinking, encoding, decoding are can be examples. This shows that intrapersonal communication
is the foundation for interpersonal communication and there is no interpersonal communication
without intrapersonal communication.
Interpersonal Communication: is a communication flow from individual to individual in face to
face and group settings. It is a type of communication that exists between or among people.

Verbal and Non-verbal Communication

Verbal communication can be of two types, oral and written. The main difference between the
oral and written is the time factor. Written communication is slower in preparation, in conveyance
(carrying or transmitting) and in perception (understanding).
Non-verbal Communication: is the process of communication without words. People use
nonverbal signals to support and clarify verbal communication. Generally, nonverbal
communication is presented in the following main categories:
Appearance: conveys nonverbal expressions that affect recipient’s attitude towards the verbal
message, even before they read or hear them. It can be of two types:
Personal appearance: clothing, hair style, cosmetics, jewelry, neatness, etc…are parts of personal
appearance. They can convey impressions regarding occupation, age, nationality, social and
economic level, etc … depending on circumstances.
Appearance of surroundings: it includes office size, location of the office, furnishings, machine
and equipments, wall decorations, floor, lightings, etc…
Body language: it includes the following:
Facial expression: are (eye and face) especially helpful means of communicating non-verbally.
They can show hidden emotions like anger, annoyance, confusion, enthusiasm, fear, joy, love
interest, sorrow, surprising and uncertainty.
Gestures and postures: gestures (traffic and deaf people). Postures convey impression of self
impressions of self confidence, status and interest.
Smell and touch: various smell or odors and artificial fragrances on human beings can sometimes
convey emotions and feelings better than spoken words. For example some odor on equipment
can indicate- smoke, fire, decay or dangerous leaks…
Touching people in different ways can silently communicate friendship, approval, anger or other
feelings.

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SILENCE, TIME AND SOUND:
Silence: can actually cause serious hard feelings, loss of business, loss of sales, sometimes loss of
profit and loss of opportunities.
Time: is important in many ways. So, being on time for appointments, for work each day and for
deadlines communicate favorable nonverbal messages in our culture.
Sound: in addition to speaking person voice, other human sound like clearing throat, language,
etc…also communicate non-verbally. Sometimes nonhuman sounds like bells, cars, trains,
airplanes all can be significant nonverbal communicators.

CHAPTER FIVE

PUBLIC RELATIONS

Objectives of the chapter:

After completing this chapter, you should able to:

Understand the meaning, the need for, and objectives of public relations.
Describe the different components and tools of public relations.
Understand the essence of media relations.

Public relations involve the cultivation of favorable relations for organizations and products with
its key publics through the use of a variety of communications channels and tools. Traditionally,
this meant public relations professionals would work with members of the news media to build a
favorable image by publicizing the organization or product through stories in print and broadcast
media. But today the role of public relations is much broader and includes:

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  building awareness and a favorable image for a company or client within stories and
articles found in relevant media outlets
 closely monitoring numerous media channels for public comment about a company and its
products
 managing crises that threaten company or product image
 building goodwill among an organization’s target market through community,
philanthropic and special programs and events
5.1 DEFINITIONS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
PR is the part of a marketing and communications strategy that crafts an organization’s
message(s) to its diverse publics including customers, prospects, investors, employees, suppliers,
distributors, media/journalists, social media networks, the government and the public. The
following are some of the definitions of public relations;

“Public Relations is the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual
understanding between on organization and its publics.” (Institute of Public Relations, USA)

“A public relations is the attempt by information persuasion and adjustment to engineer public
support for an activity, cause, movement or institution.” (Edward L. Bernays)

“Public Relations is a combination of philosophy, sociology, economics, language, psychology,

journalism, communication and other knowledges into a system of human understanding."
(Herbert M. Baus)

“The Management function which gives the same organized and careful attention to the asset of
goodwill as is given to any other major asset of business.”(John W. Hill)

"Public Relations is distinctive management function which helps establish and maintain mutual
lines of communication, understanding, acceptance and cooperation between an organization and
its publics; involves the management of problems or issues; helps management to keep informed
on and responsive to public opinion; defines and emphasizes the responsibility of management to
serve the public interest; helps management keep abreast of and effectively utilize change, serving
as an early warning system to help anticipate trends; and uses research and sound and ethical
communication as its principal tools."(Rex F. Harlow)

5.1.1 NEED FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS

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Investing on Public relations will help the organization to achieve its objective effectively and
smoothly. Public Relations is not creating good image for a bad team. Since false image cannot be
sustained for a long time. Though the organization product or services are good it need an
effective Public Relations campaign for attracting, motivating the public to the product or service
or towards the purpose of the program. It is not only encouraging the involvement from the public
but also resulting in better image.

Effective Public Relations can create and build up the image of an individual or an organization or
a nation. At the time of adverse publicity or when the organization is under crisis an effective
Public Relations can remove the "misunderstanding" and can create mutual understanding
between the organization and the public.

5.1.2 OBJECTIVES OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Like other aspects of marketing promotion, a public relations is used to address several broad
objectives including:

 Building Product Awareness – When introducing a new product or re-launching an existing

product, marketers can use a PR element that generates consumer attention and awareness
through media placements and special events.

 Creating Interest – Whether a PR placement is a short product article or is included with

other products in “round up” article, stories in the media can help entice a targeted audience to
try the product. For example, around the holiday season, a special holiday food may be
promoted with PR through promotional releases sent to the food media or through special
events that sample the product.
 Providing Information – PR can be used to provide customers with more in depth
information about products and services. Through articles, collateral materials, newsletters
and websites, PR delivers information to customers that can help them gain understanding of
the product.
 Stimulating Demand – A positive article in a newspaper, on a TV news show or mentioned
on the Internet, often results in a discernable increase in product sales.
 Reinforcing the Brand – In many companies the public relations function is also involved
with brand reinforcement by maintaining positive relationships with key audiences, and
thereby aiding in building a strong image. Today it is ever more important for companies and

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 brands to build a good image. A strong image helps the company build its business and it can
help the company in times of crises as well.
5.1.3 ELEMENTS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

 A planned effort or management function.

 The relationship between an organization and its publics
 Evaluation of public attitudes and opinions.
 An organization’s policies, procedures and actions as they relate to said organization’s
publics.
 Steps taken to ensure that said policies, procedures and actions are in the public interest and
socially responsible.
 Execution of an action and or communication program.
 Development of rapport, goodwill, understanding and acceptance as the chief end result
sought by public relations activities.
5.1.4 THE COMPONENTS AND TOOLS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

"Public"

A group of similar individuals; an assortment of persons having the same interests, problems,
circumstances, goals; it is from such persons that opinion emanates.

Public is a varied creature; it comes in many forms and sizes. Public has a multitude of wants and
desires; it has its likes and dislikes, sometimes, strong likes and strong dislikes. Employers make
for a public and employees another public; the government is a public and citizens constitute
another public, and so on, each of these groups is a public of the sort, tries to attract a different
audience with its own tools and techniques.

"Relations"

Human wants to create the need to establish relations with one another. The representative wants
of the individuals will profoundly affect their relationship. To understand any relationship,
therefore, one must understand the wants of those involved. 'Relationships are of all possible
types. We have relationship by ran-superior to inferior, inferior to superior, and equal to equal.
We have relationship by sentiment-benevolent, Friendly, suspicious, jealous, hostile.

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A relationship may be active, or it may be passive it may be good or it may be bad, or it may be
neutral. At any rate, the relationship is there to be accepted, ignored or altered, as desired.

Propaganda:

Propaganda is the manipulation of symbols to transmit accepted attitudes and skills. It describes
political application of publicity and advertising, also on a large scale, to the end of selling an idea
cause or candidate or all three.

Campaigns:

These consist of concerted, single-purpose publicity program, usually on a more or less elaborate
scale, employing coordinated publicity through a variety of media, aimed, at a number of targets,
but focused on specific objectives. A campaign objective may be the election of a candidate, the
promotion of political cause or issue, the reaching of a sales goal, or the raising of a quota of
funds.

Lobbying:

It entails the exertion of influence, smooth and measured pressure on other, exercise of persuasion
cum-pressure. In essence, it means a group putting its points of view forward in an attempt to win
the other groups support.

Advantages of Public Relations

Public relations offers several advantages not found with other promotional options. First, PR is
often considered a highly credible form of promotion. One of PR’s key points of power rests with
helping to establish credibility for a product, company or person (e.g., CEO) in the minds of
targeted customer groups by capitalizing on the influence of a third-party -- the media. Audiences
view many media outlets as independent-party sources that are unbiased in their coverage,
meaning that the decision to include the name of the company and the views expressed about the
company is not based on payment (i.e., advertisement) but on the media outlet’s judgment of what
is important. For example, a positive story about a new product in the business section of a local
newspaper may have greater impact on readers than a full-page advertisement for the product
since readers perceive the news media as presenting an impartial perspective of the product.

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Second, a well-structured PR campaign can result in the target market being exposed to more
detailed information than they receive with other forms of promotion. That is, media sources
often provide more space and time for explanation of a product.

Third, depending on the media outlet, a story mentioning a company may be picked up by a large
number of additional media, thus, spreading a single story to many locations.

Finally, in many cases public relations objectives can be achieved at very low cost when
compared to other promotional efforts. This is not to suggest public relations is not costly, it may
be, especially when a marketer hires PR professionals to handle the work. But when compared to
the direct cost of other promotions, in particular advertising, the return on promotional expense
can be quite high.

Disadvantages of Public Relations

While public relations hold many advantages for marketers, there are also concerns when using
this promotional technique. First, while public relations uses many of the same channels as
advertising, such as newspapers, magazines, radio, TV and Internet, it differs significantly from
advertising in that marketers do not have direct control over whether a message is delivered and
where it is placed for delivery. For instance, a marketer may spend many hours talking with a
magazine writer, who is preparing an industry story, only to find that their company is never
mentioned in the article.

Second, while other promotional messages are carefully crafted and distributed as written through
a pre-determined placement in a media vehicle, public relations generally conveys information to
a member of the news media (e.g., reporter) who then redrafts the information as part of a news
story or feature. Thus, the final message may not be precisely what the marketer planned.

Third, while a PR campaign has the potential to yield a high return on promotional expense, it
also has the potential to produce the opposite if the news media feels there is little value in
running a story pitched (i.e., suggested via communication with the news outlet) by the marketer.

Fourth, with PR there is always a chance that a well devised news event or release will get
“bumped” from planned media coverage because of a more critical breaking news story, such as
wars, severe weather or serious crime.

Finally, in some areas of the world the impact of traditional news outlets is fading forcing public
relations professionals to scramble to find new ways to reach their target markets.
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5.2 MEDIA RELATIONS

Using the media to communicate with the public is often part of the communications strategy.
Even organizations that do not have a formal communications plan can benefit from building a
relationship with the media and from understanding the ways in which the media can help them
meet their communications goals.

5.2.1 Types of Media

“Media” is a generic term that includes print media (newspapers and magazines) and electronic
media (TV, radio, and the Internet).

A. Print Media
Print media is ideal for comprehensive, thought provoking information and useful for conveying
long-lasting information (i.e. things that will still be true in a week or two). Print media is most
interested in research results, figures, statistics, explanations through interviews, testimonials, etc.

Newspapers

Newspapers can be daily, weekly, bi-weekly, monthly, etc. They can come in standard or tabloid
size and reach a significant percentage of the reading public. Because of the broad demographic
reach of most newspapers, it is difficult to target a specific audience.

However, newspapers are effective in increasing awareness of the organization and its activities
within a specific geographical area.

Magazines

Magazines are usually focused on a more specific target audience but they have a much longer
lead time (many days and even weeks between the writing and the publication of a story) so it is
important to take into account the sort of news you are going to spread. Magazines are better
suited for more in-depth coverage than newspapers.

Others

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Other types of print media like flyers or brochures can either inform or educate a targeted group
of people.

B. Electronic Media
Electronic media is immediate so timing is critical and deadlines are even tighter. This type of
media favours brief and specific stories and is ideal for transmitting impact information: overall
data, specific figures, and brief testimonials.

Television

Television stations may be interested in stories that have a strong visual element, such as an event
involving a local dignitary or the opening of a new treatment center with high-tech equipment,
etc. Television is one of the most popular and appealing media for these types of stories, but it can
be expensive. Television commercials are costly to produce and air-time, even for a 15-second
spot, is very expensive. There are other options to consider, though, including:

 Public service announcements (PSAs): In some countries, many television stations (both
national networks and community stations) broadcast PSAs, but their requirements vary
dramatically. Phone each station and ask about the formats and deadlines for PSAs. The PSA
producer or public relations person will be able to help you. When writing a PSA, brevity is
the goal. Stick to the facts and make sure you include the name and address of the
organization as well as the person in charge of handling media relations.

 News coverage: Television news coverage can be difficult to obtain. Program directors, like
editors, receive a huge number of news releases and requests for coverage, but a well-written
press release (see page 5) will sometimes get their interest.
 Local programs/interview shows: These, rather than newscasts may be the best option for
hemophilia organizations. Talk shows and newsmagazine shows cover a wide range of
human interest stories. They use in-studio interviews as well as on-location shoots.
 Community television programming: Although the community television audience is smaller
than that of a larger network, community TV is the best bet for in-depth television exposure.
Radio

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Radio offers the public a fast, effortless way of getting information. It is a popular medium and
one to take advantage of. Local stations are often looking for local news. Radio provides
numerous publicity opportunities: PSAs, newscasts, current affairs programs, interview programs,
and open-line shows where listeners can call in and share information and opinions.

Internet

In today’s electronic age, the internet — where it is available — is an increasingly important way
to communicate with the public. It is often the first place people will look when searching for
information about an issue or organization. Therefore, it is very important that hemophilia and
other inherited bleeding disorders organizations maintain easy-to-navigate and updated websites
about their organizations and work. In addition, the internet offers a variety of other tools that
reach a broad and international audience, which should not be overlooked. These include online
journals, publications, news-alerts, on-line press release services, blogs, and social media websites
(such as Face book or MySpace), amongst others.

CHAPTER SIX
MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION

A. Written Communication
Written communication occurs through a variety of means such as business letters, reports
memos, instructions, rules and regulations, policy manuals, information bulletins, etc. In many
cases considerable time and effort are expended in preparing written communication. Written
communication ensures that every one concerned has the same information and it provides a
permanent record for future reference
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Advantages of written communication

 It serves as a permanent record for future reference

 It reduces the possibility of misunderstanding and misinterpretation
 It is the easy method of providing detailed information
 It is reliable for transmitting lengthy statistical data
 It informs formal authoritative action
 It can be evaluated and checked for accuracy

Disadvantages of written communication

 It may be more time consuming for lengthy reports
 It is the part of red tap’s and bureaucratic system of control
 There is no guarantee that it will be received and read by the person concerned. It may be
lost in transit or may reach in the hands of irrelevant person concerned.
 It does not provide opportunity for immediate response
 It fails to convey personal feelings and hence does not create cooperative spirit
 It leads to excessive formality in personal relations

Business Letter
Business letters are purposeful internal or external communications designed to communicate
business messages or information between the letter producer and the reader or the supplier and
the potential customer.

Requirements of a good business letter

A good business letter should meet the following requirements:

 A business letter should be communicative, that is to say the message or information the
letter is to carry should be readily understandable by the reader
 A business letter has standard and supplemental parts that should be appropriately used.
The various standard and supplemental parts are as the following:

1) Letter Heading: this standard letter part identifies the name of the business establishment
together with the postal and telephone, fax, etc. addresses of the sender of the letter.
2) Message Date Line: this is a letter part that indicates the date, the month and the year in
which the letter is written.

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3) Inside Address: this part carries the postal, telephone, fax, etc. addresses of the receiver of
the business letter.
4) Salutation: this part of a business letter is a simple expression of greeting and appears
beneath the inside address. The salutation is often designed based on the first line of the
inside address.
5) Message Heading/subject line: it is meant to convey the reader the central idea or the
theme of the letter in a few logically arranged communicative words.
6) Body of the Letter: is the subject matter of the letter.
7) Complimentary Closures: also known as subscription, are simple expressions of
compliments positioned immediately following the concluding paragraph of a business
letter. Some of the widely used complimentary closures are: ‘yours faithfully’, ‘yours
truly’, ‘sincerely yours’…
8) Signature: this part of a business letter carries the signer’s or writer’s signature followed
by his/her job title in succession.
9) Identification initials: in contemporary business letter writing, these initials are supposed
to correspond to the first letters of the full name of the person/secretary shouldering the
responsibility of typing out the letter, and are represented by small letters.
10) Attention Line: is the first supplemental letter part that appears above the salutation. The
purpose of this letter part is to enable an executive to re-address the letter to the concerned
authority in the same organization.
11) Post Script (Ps.): refers to any forgotten essential that must be included in the body of a
business letter. It is represented by Ps and is printed following the signature are of the
letter.
12) Enclosure Notations: these are standard notations which refer to important materials that
need to be attached with the original letter.
13) Copy Notations: are standard abbreviations which refer to copies of letters that need to be
sent to heads of offices or individuals concerned to make them become aware of the issues
that the letters communicate.

Sample of Business letter

Gateway Training Center

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 P. O. Box 3355

Hawassa, Ethiopia

20th March, 2006

IBM computer Manufacturing Company

New York, USA

Attention: the sales manager

Dear Sir,

Subject: Letter of enquiry, dated 1st March, 2006

We are planning to launch practical computer training program in the coming academic year.
We then require 100 personal computers and 2000 high density diskettes for the training
program.

Could you, therefore, supply the items on the usual trade terms?

Yours Sincerely

Eshetu S.

General Manager

abc

Encls. Details of prices and information brochure

Cc. Copy to administrative and finance manager

Ps. please supply us two laser jet printers

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Types of Business Letters
Letter of enquiry: are designed by the enquirer with the aim to provide with business
information she/he is interested in. Thus, such letters, often request for price list, catalogue,
brochures, reservation, or other business service.

Letter of order: is deigned by a potential customer with a view to placing an order for a certain
commodity from a prospective supplier. When designing a letter of order that has to do with
foreign trade the letter write is required to include essential details such as quantity and type of
specification, mode of transport, type of freight, insurance, type of payment and delivery date.

Claim/complaint letters: is written when a customer has a cause for complaint. A complaint may
arise when a customer feels that he/she has received a wrong order, or inferior quality or
merchandise of different quality.

Letter of Adjustment: are positive replies to complaints made by potential suppliers. These
letters are purposefully designed by suppliers with the aim of fully or partially adjusting the
complaints made by potential customer.

Letter of credit: most of the time, trade could be carried out under terms of credit. Thus letters of
credit will be of paramount significance should you want to do business with a supplier on credit.

Letter of acknowledgement: is designed by a prospective supplier to acknowledge the receipt of

a letter of order sent by a potential customer.

Letter of recommendation: convey information about a job candidate or about someone

applying to a college or university.

Sales letters: this letter written to a potential customer in order to activate them to a company’s
products. Its aim is to increase awareness of potential customers.

Employment Letters:
Application Letter as one type of personal letter, can be solicited (invited application) and
unsolicited (applications for job that are not advertised)

In writing application letter remember to include:

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 Name of the magazine from which you read the vacancy
Emphasize your personal quality and skill
Explain your past experience (if any), or tall your educational background

Resume /Curriculum Vitae (CV)

A resume is a structured, written summary of a person’s education, employment, background and
job qualifications. It is a document containing supportive information and is enclosed to the
application letter. It includes: personal data (name, age, sex, nationality, date of birth, personal
address), educational background (name of elementary school, high school, college/university),
special training (if any), work experience, hobbies and references.

Memorandums (memo)
The memorandum is a kind of short/informal report, and is a means of communication widely
applied by management for internal communication purpose. A memorandum is purposely
designed either to communicate policies to low level authorities or rank, on the other hand, and
the present factual information to top management or to assist in decision making or problem
solving, on the other. As internal mean of communication, memorandum can be thus move:

Downward from top management to low level officials in an organization carrying policy
guidelines and procedural statements.
Upward from low level officials to top management to assists in problem solving and
decision making process.

Business Report:
Business reports are highly specialized means of communication which are of pivotal importance
in presenting factual information to the reader, on the other hand and identifying a problem,
investigating it and providing solutions and recommendations to top level management in
business organizations in order to facilitate problem solving and decision making process, on the
other.

Classification of Reports
Based on Content:

 Informational Reports: carry objective information from one area of business to another.
Omit comments or recommendations, e.g. annual reports, periodic reports …
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  Analytical Reports: attempts to solve problems by way of identifying problems gathering
and analyzing facts and providing recommendations, e.g. market surveys, research
reports…

Based on interval of transmission:

 Periodic report: are issued regularly i.e. monthly, quarterly…

 Progressive report: are issued occasionally between the start and finish of a certain project
or an operation. E.g. project reports
 Special reports: are issued regularly in response to non-request and emergency tasks and
special occasions.

Based on directions report travel:

 Internal reports: move vertically up-ward or down-ward within a certain business

establishment.
 External reports: move out of the bounds of a certain organization for general public
consumption

Component of a formal Business report

A formal report always conveys the impression that the subject is important. The longer the report
and the information in it, the greater the number of components it usually contains and complex
information is easier to digest when presented in smaller places. The three basic divisions of a
formal report are:

(1) Preliminaries:

 Title page: it may contain the following information: sub title, name of the author, name of
the authority for whom the report written, contract, project or job number and etc…..
 Letter of Authorization: if you have received a letter authorizing you to conduct a study,
then this letter becomes part of the final report.
 Letter of transmittal: introduces the report (not the subject matter of the report) and offers
it to the reader.
 Acknowledgement:
 Table of contents: present the major divisions of the report and indicates their respective
pages. There are two ways for dividing of outline for contents: numerical-letter
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 combination and decimal system style.
 Table of illustration: a separate list of illustrations is given immediately after the table of
contents if there are a large number of table and figures. If the number of illustrations is
very large, divide it into two parts, namely, list of tables and list of figures.
 Synopsis or summary: presents the report in a nutshell without any illustrations and
explanations.
(2) The Body

 Introduction: it includes statement of the problem, purpose of the report, definition of

terms, research procedure, the scope and limitation of the report
 Discussion: it includes review of the related literature and finding and analysis.
 Conclusion and recommendations
(3) Supplemental parts

 Appendix: contains materials which is needed to support the main body of the report but
too detailed/voluminous to be included in the text such items as tables, pictures, maps ….
 Bibliography: is a list of sources used when preparing the report or paper.

B. Oral communication
Oral communication is the face to face communication between individuals .It may be in the form
of direct talks and conversation or the public address .It also includes telephone calls or talking on
the intercom system .It is the most effective when settling a dispute among employees.

Advantages of oral communication

It is direct, simple and time saving device of communication
It is least expensive form of communication
It conveys personal relationship, friendliness and develops a feeling of belongingness
It removes if there is any misunderstanding between persons
It lays mutual understanding and confidence
It allows both parties to participate in a situation where motivation is important

Disadvantages oral communication

There is formal record of the communication held
There is a possibility of distortions of message especially if the oral message has to pass
through a long chain of command
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 Lengthy and distant communications cannot be much effective
It may carry less weight being informal
The formal authority cannot be transmitted effectively in oral transactions
It can be misunderstood and more or less different meanings might be conveyed by a
manner of speaking
It can be misunderstood and more or less different meanings might be conveyed by a manner of
speaking

1. BUSINESS SPEECH
Making a speech is an essential tool that promotes organizational/or institutional images as
well as individual prestige. Speech is often made in business or social situations with a view to
informing, advertising, persuading or entertaining a limited audience.

To make a speech more effective, it should be organized in essential parts, i.e. introduction,
body and conclusion to appeal to the interests of the listeners.

A speech may be:

Narrative Speech: it is concerned with time and action. More specifically narrative speech is
a form of disclose which recounts a series of related events in such away as to develop a central
meaning. Examples fables and parables

Explanatory Speech: this type of speech explains about something by giving important and
relevant reasons that really explains it.

Descriptive Speech: this type of speech concerned based on describing, expressing and
persuading idea, opinion about something.

Persuasive Speech: this type of speech specifically focuses on convincing some one through
the force of reason and appeal to prejudice, deep seated convictions, hopes and fear seat. It is able
to make some body do or believe something.

Business speech can also fall into several categories depending up on the presentation
techniques used to address to a limited audience. It is thus, important that practicing speakers
have awareness about the following business speech types:

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 Impromptu Business Speech: this type of speech delivered to a limited audience without any
preparation of the speaker.

Extemporaneous Business Speech: this is a well prepared, rehearsed and outlined speech. In
delivering such a type of business speech, the speaker can refer to important ideas, fact and
figures printed on pieces of paper or cards.

Memorized Business Speech: the speaker requires a lot of time for preparation and rehearsal
prior to presentation. A speaker is likely to forget what he/she wants to say due to stage fright.

Textual Business Speech: is a well prepared/researched business speech presented by reading

from printed pages. This type of business speech is used when the issue to be presented is
complex in content.

Guidelines for Effective Speech:-

Determine the purpose of speech: the purpose of speech may be either to inform
(aims at increasing the audience’s awareness and understanding of a subject) or
preside (aims to get the audience to adapt the speaker’s point of view on an issue.)
your audience.
Know your audience: the speaker have to have an aware about his audience’s age,
size, group, knowledge and also religion and ethics.
Be well organized: the speaker should know all the procedures regarding to his
speech and he should know carefully how audience understand the message.
Research your topic (by using published and unpublished source): primary sources-
observation and consulting, and secondary sources- reports and published research
Anticipate and prepare for questions from audience
Practice critically
Minimize nervousness
Establish eye contact with your audience
Be honest in what you say

Characteristics of Good Speaker:-

Look at your audience
Vary your volume and speed
Speak clearly
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 Use appropriate gesture
Check your postures
Watch and listen for feedback

2. ACTIVE LISTENING
Listening is a combination of what you hear, what you understand, and what you remember. It
includes hearing or receiving oral stimuli from the environment, connecting or processing the
stimuli into meaningful message, and storing message from immediate or delayed retrieval.

Listening involves five related activities, which most often occur in sequence:

Sensing: is physically hearing the message and taking note of it.

Interpreting: is deciding, and absorbing what your. As you listen, you assign meaning to the
words according to your own value, beliefs, ideas, expectations, roles, needs, and personal
history.

Evaluating: is forming an opinion about a message.

Remembering: is storing a message for future reference. As you listen, retain what you hear by
taking notes or by making a mental outline of the speaker’s key points.

Responding: is acknowledging the message by reacting the speaker in same fashion.

Types of Listening
Content listening: it enables as to understand and retain the message. The goal of content
listening is to understand and retain information imported by a speaker.

Critical Listening: is an even more active process. Not only does it involve listening for
information it involves analyzing and evaluating information. Listening critically means listening
with the intent of evaluating or judging what you hear. It requires a high level of involvement and
concentration.

Active or Emphatic Listening: is the highest level of listening. It requires concentration,

retention, and judgment. More important, it requires empathy (the ability to put yourself in some
one else’s place and understand his or her feelings). The goal is to understand the speaker’s
feelings, needs and wants so that you can appreciate his or her point of view regardless of whether
you share that perspective.
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Guidelines for Effective Listening
Listening is a process that can be improved if the receiver takes an active role. The following
guidelines can help you to improve your listening skills:

Concentrate on the message: people normally speak at 100 to 200 words a minute. Listeners,
however, are capable of hearing up to 500 words a minute. This mismatch between speaking and
listening speeds makes it necessary for people to concentrate diligently in order to listen
effectively.

Determine the purpose of the message: oral message have purposes, as do written message. As a
listener, you need to determine the purpose of the oral message so that you can decide on the
mode that you will use when listen to message are cautious, skimming, and scanning listening.

Keep an open mind: the speaker presents the message from his/her view point respect this
viewpoint by not aching your own biases to block what being said.

Use feedback: is important. The speaker may volunteer where information he or she receives
positive feedback.

Minimize note taking: you will not be able to concentrate on listening if you attempt to record
everything that is said, instead record key words and ideas in outline.

Analyze the total message: watch the speaker’s action and facial expressions; listen to his or her
tone of voice.

Don’t talk or interrupt: an individual cannot talk and listen effectively at the same time.

Cause for Poor Listening

Baisedness against the speaker (internal distraction): because of the difference in
background, culture, behavior, etc
External distractions: environmental disturbances like: highly decorated conference
rooms, distracting perfume, sitting arrangement (closer to each other) and etc...
Thinking speed: if the receiver has potential to listen more than the words per minute the
speaker is speaking, this will create some gap and can divert the attention of the listener.
Premature evaluation: if the receiver is in a position to conclude the speaker’s message
after getting a hint (little part), his listening focus will decline and become poor.

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 Semantic problems: if the speaker uses jargon (technical) words, the receivers cannot
listen actively.
Delivery style: the volume variation, facial expression… can influence the listener.

3. TELEPHONING AND FACE TO FACE COMUNNICATION

Telephoning: is one of the most frequently performed activities in offices, and is, in fact, one of
the fastest means of communication in a business environment. When we communicate with
people by means of office telephone, we represent the business organization we are working for,
however insignificant our position may be. Thus, when we use the telephone either as a caller or a
receiver for business purposes, our sincerity and helpfulness are very much required. On the other
hand, any reflection of insincerity, discourtesy or artificiality is likely to bring about negative
reaction not only against us as telephone users but also against the organizations we are working
for.

Suggestion for Effective Telephoning (one to one)

Preplanning by a caller:

Know the specific purpose of your call

Know the name and occupation (if pertinent) of the person you are calling
Consider the best time to phone, from the standpoint of that person and of your
company
Plan your opening statement
Jot down the questions you want to ask. Try to limit your call to one main point.
Have paper and pen handy for note-taking also place near the phone any information
for reference during the conversation.
Behavior during the telephone conversation

 When you are the caller

Introduce yourself
If the person you are calling is not in, ask the best time to reach that person or you
can leave a message.
 When you answer a phone call:

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 With a clear pleasant voice answer promptly, usually with your name and department. On
receiving incoming calls, we should always be ready to answer the phone call as promptly as
possible with a friendly and warm tone. Under no circumstances should we make callers on the
hold for more than a few seconds.

Face-to-face Communication is simply interaction that occurs in the presence of two or more
people. Face-to-face oral communication may mostly occur in the form of one-to-one or one-to-
many business conversational situations.

Apparently, business etiquette requires that certain formalities should be consistently observed
when people are involved in the process of inter-personal communication that is in face-to-face
conversation. This category of oral communication may take the form of introductions, greetings,
invitation, requests for information, offering to help, making apologies, etc…

A successful group conducted by mail or by phone would be much less likely because of the
lack of instant feedback and the absence of nonverbal cues to meaning. But the above reasons put
face-to-face communication the most advantageous.

In opening face-to-face conversation the following communication structures could be used

by individuals: “Good morning” or “Good afternoon” or “How do you do?”

For make polite communication responses, we can use the following structure “Good morning,
may I help you?” or “Good morning, what can I do for you?”

2. INTERVIEW
The word ‘interview’ is derived from the word ‘intrigue’ meaning right between. Interview means
any planned oral conversation with a specific purpose involving two or more people. It is a
planned conversation with predetermined purpose that involves the asking and answering of
question.

Types of Interview

The various types of interviews call for different communication skills

 Job interviews: the job candidate wants to learn about the position and the organization the
employer wants to learn about the applicant’s abilities and experience both hope to make a good
impression and to establish rapport.

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 Information interviews: the interviewer seeks facts that bear on a decision or contribute to
basic understanding. Information flows manly in one direction. One person asks a list of
questions that must be covered and listens to the answers supplied by the other person.
 Pervasive interviews: one person tells another about a new idea, product, or service and
explains why the other should act on the recommendations pervasive interviews are often
associated with, but are certainly not limited to selling.
 Exit interviews: the interviewer tries to understand why the interviewee is leaving the
organization or transferring to another department or division.
 Evaluation interviews: a supervisor periodically gives an employee feed back on his or her
performance. The supervisor and the employee discuss progress toward predetermined
standards or goals and evaluate areas that require improvement
 Counseling interviews: a supervisor talks with an employee about personal problems that are
interfering with work performance. The interviewee is concerned with the welfare of both the
employee and the organization.
 Conflict-resolution interviews: two competing people or groups of people explore their
problems and attitudes. The goal is to bring the two parties closer together, case adjustments in
perceptions and attitudes, and create a more productive climate.
 Disciplinary Interviews: a supervisor tries to correct the behavior of an employee who has
ignored the organization’s rules and regulations. The interviewer tries to get the employee to see
the reason for the rules and to agree to comply
 Termination interviews: a supervisor informs an employee of the reasons for the termination.
The interviewer tries to avoid involving the company in legal action and tries to maintain as
positive a relationship as possible with the interviewee.
General guidelines to be followed in all types of interviews

Most interviews consist of the following 3 things. These are

Planning the interview

As an interviewer you are in charge of setting the goals and establishing question before the
interview begins

Determine goals for the interview: make sure that why the interview is take place (determine
the primary and secondary goals)

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 Consider the approach or strategy that will be best to achieve your goals: the considerations
involve interview’s needs, goals and interests as well as your own.
Choose appropriate questions: Before the interview, review and write down key questions and
content areas that you want to cover. The types of questions that can be used are:
 Open ended questions: Invite the interviewee to offer an opinion, not just a yes no, or
one-word answer. “What do you think your company wants most from its suppliers?”
 Direct open ended questions: You have some what more control over the interview,
but you still give the other person some freedom in framing a response. This form is
good to use when you want to get a specific conclusion or recommendation from some
one, for example, “What would you do to improve customer satisfaction in the
southern region?”
 Closed-ended questions require yes or no answers or call for short response. “What is
your grade part average?”
 Restatement questions: questions that mirror a respondent’s previous answer. They
invite the respondent to expand on an answer “You said that you dislike eating injera.
Is that correct?”
Establish an atmosphere in keeping with your goals: decide on that the last suitable and
effective of your goals
Choose the most appropriate seating arrangement: the place chosen for interview must be
appropriately quiet comfortable and free of distracting and interruptions.

Conducting the interview

Establish a pleasant atmosphere begin with sincere. Begin with sincere, pleasant comments
that establish harming and good will.
Review that agenda: state that purpose of the interview
Listen attentively. Active listing is essential.
Percent questions in language that fellows that seven c’s principles
Clarity actions to be taken after the interview: let interviewee know that will happen next.
Work to achieve agreement on action to be taken what, when, why, where , by whom and
how.
End the interview sincerely

Evaluating the interview (follow-up after the interview)

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 3. MEETING
A business meeting is a gathering where purposive discourage occurs among three or more people
who exchange information on a common topic or problem, for better understanding or for solving
a problem

Types of meeting

Information exchange meetings

There may be a meeting where department managers present their progressive reports including
their problems and challenges (bilateral comm.)

Information giving meeting

The top management may prepare a meeting in order to communicate some new amendments and
policies to officials of the org. (unidirectional comm.)

Fact finding and problem solving meetings

First a problem is perceived in an organization, and there may be meeting arrangement to identify
the source (cause) of the problem and to solve the problem.

Preparation meeting

Planning steps before the meeting

Determine the purpose

Decide who should participate
Arrange for meeting date, time , place
Announce agenda: Agenda means a list of things to be done at meeting
Take care of physical arrangements
The Role of Chair person

Before the meeting

 Plan the meeting agenda

 Preparing the location: decide where you wilt hold the meeting and reserve the location
During the meeting

 Be on time and started the meeting

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 He plays facilitating role
After the meeting

 The chairperson has to be evaluating the meeting. The final common negotiation decision
must conclude.
Minutes

Consists of written book or sheet, are record of the proceedings and resolutions passed at a
meeting. It contains the date, place, members, present proposals and decisions taken by way of
resolution.

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