Global NEST Journal, Vol 24, No 4, pp 621-628

Copyright© 2022 Global NEST

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Arid lands flood evaluation and mitigation measures using HEC-

HMS model and best management practices (BMPs)
Bdour A.N.*
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, the Hashemite University, P.O. Box 330127, Zarqa 13133, Jordan
Received: 08/12/2021, Accepted: 08/10/2022, Available online: 09/10/2022
*to whom all correspondence should be addressed: e-mail: [email protected]
https://doi.org/10.30955/gnj.004221
facilities that would absorb runoff water. We formulated
Graphical abstract
five proposals for flood mitigation derived from BMP
techniques for the purposes of stormwater management.
Rainfall-runoff natural disaster modeling was simulated
using HEC-HMS (Hydrological Modeling Systems). The
Geographic Information System (GIS) coupled with HEC-
HMS was employed in this study to delineate the
watershed line and to simulate streams discharges.
Results for investigating the construction of dry dams'
option showed a significant reduction in both peak
volumes and time to peak and consequently, the
mitigated flood spreads longer. Furthermore, downstream
calculations prove the contributions of other events on
increasing flood hazards downstream. Outlet bottom size
and storage capacity are the major parameters that
control flood hazards. Outcomes of this study would help
water resources managers and decision-makers who need
immediate action plans and operational responses when
floods occur. Discharge outflow rates were assessed using
HEC-HMS and CN methods, and modeling the studied area
using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). This study
reveals runoff volumes ranges of 0.04 to 0.77 cm/hr. Also,
Abstract results shows that the HEC-HMS model is capable of
This study emphasis on draining and slowing runoff simulating runoff-based event.
volumes in arid and semi-arid landsregions using HEC- Keywords: flash flood, arid land, HEC-HMS model, best
HMS model linked with various Best Management management practices, CN method
Practices (BMPs) alternatives. The proposed methods may
help significantly in reducing flash flood precipitation and 1. Introduction
improving instream water quality. It provides facilities to Water-powered engineers' endeavors have been
increase flood retention times and infiltration rates. embraced for quite a long time to lessen flood harm.
Recently, flash flooding in arid lands is occurring on almost More often, the point was to forestall floods and
every two-year basis and is threatening human lives and guarantee a fast outpouring of runoff volumes. Streams
damaging properties. Modern urbanization of the cities were channelized, redirected, fixed, and corseted in
has great impacts on flooding schemes, it increases peak levees, with next to zero ideas for waterway elements and
streamflows and it reduces the time to peak. Eventually, biodiversity protection. This methodology is presently
major cities experienced newly developed areas to generally reprimanded (Loucks, 2006). Initially, speeding
accommodate the increase of population, and thus up the stream regularly brings about exasperating floods
surface runoff volumes would increase substantially. In downstream. Besides, the interruption of the regular
addition to outflows from surrounding high desert lands examples can upset the residue balance, thus causing
which form a significant portion of flash flood volumes. disintegration or stores. Lastly, the results on biological
This study proposed a modern and progressive flash flood systems are regularly terrible (Lowe et al., 2020). The
management scheme that would emphasize on enhancing most effective method to both shield residents from
soil infiltration and runoff attenuation by construction floods and biodiversity from flood-the executives' plans is

Bdour A.N. (2022), Arid lands flood evaluation and mitigation measures using HEC-HMS model and best management practices
(BMPs), Global NEST Journal, 24(4), 621-628.
622 BDOUR

a hot issue (Jenkins et al., 2017). We promote that areas of the kingdom have dry climate characteristics
ecologist and hydraulic practitioners should work intently except Asir region in the southern part of the kingdom,
together to supplement applicable flood mitigation where it has special topography and local mountains,
solutions with eased effects on the environment. which usually receives annual rainfall greater that 300
In arid environments like the east region in Jordan, mm. On the contrary, most areas in Saudi Arabia receive
precipitation storms display solid spatial fluctuation, annual rainfall less than 200 mm.
particularly during thunderstorms and localized torrential Meteorological parameters are critical for any
rainstorms (Almazroui, 2010). All through the most recent hydrological studies. Rainfall intensities and distribution
couple of years, flooding has been one of the most should be measured accurately for any application studies
exorbitant calamities as far as both property harm and of rainfall data. Additionally, assessing runoff volumes and
human setbacks in the Kingdom. In 2018 almost all of the surface storage are important to supply domestic,
kingdom witnessed heavy rain and flash floods. The hot agricultural, and industrial demands (Goodrich et al.,
springs the surroundings Dead Sea flood was the most 2004).
influenced. Approximately 21 individuals are accounted
for to have been killed and the number of missing people
remains unknown. Many other cities in the country have
witnessed streets were under a meter (two feet) of water
on 26 October, and a large number of the casualties were
accepted to have suffocated in their vehicles. No less than
1200 vehicles were cleared away or harmed.
The climatological dispersion of yearly precipitation saw
by downpour measures across Saudi Arabia is displayed in
Figure 1 and the 10-year climatological satellite image is
displayed in Figure 2 (Habib and Nasrollahi, 2009).
Dryness is the predominant climatic attribute of Saudi
Arabia besides in the Asir district (shown in Abha in Figure
1), which gets yearly precipitation > 300 mm because of
its special geological setup and the nearby mountains, and
Figure 2. 10-year climatology observed by satellite for Saudi
an optional pinnacle situated in the upper east, which is
Arabia.
related with winter precipitation. Precipitation in the
majority of Saudi Arabia is < 200 mm. For the present study, the HEC-HMS model coupled with
GIS is employed for better output data performance. GIS
and remote sensing are well known tools for efficient
input data preparation. HEC-HMS is a hydrological model
offers various simulation scenarios of rainfall-runoff
processes which has been used to understand the
hydrological predictions in the studied watershed. The Soil
Conservation Service Curve Number loss method and the
Soil Conservation Service Curve Number unit hydrograph
are employed, lag routing method and constant monthly
base flow method. Various modeling scenarios shall
provide an insight about various hydrological processes
Figure 1. (a) Vicinity of Tabouk Region. (b) Rainfall gauge stations predictions, particularly rainfall and runoff storm events in
cover entire Saudi Arabia (after Almazroui, 2010). Tabouk watershed.
In arid environment like Saudi Arabia and Jordan, rainfall Also, this study proposed a modern and progressive flash
patterns exhibit strong temporal and spatial variability, flood management scheme that would emphasize on
particularly during heavy rainfall storm event and enhancing soil infiltration and runoff attenuation by
localized flash floods (Almazroui, 2010). Throughout the construction facilities that would absorb water such as
last few decades, the kingdom has witnessed several flood rain gardens and bio swales, rainwater collection systems,
events and it has been cost a lot of damages to public and and water reuse systems. We formulated five proposals
private properties and deaths and human causalities. For for flood mitigation derived from BMP techniques for the
example, the most intense flood was the 2009 event in purposes of storm water management. Various flood
Jeddah and other areas of Makkah Province (western mitigation structural measures proposed by hydraulic
coast of the kingdom) (Huffman, Bolvin, 2009). Civil engineers and biologists will be checked for the purpose
defence officials described the flood as the worst in the 30 of proposing operational plans responses to be
years. implemented once flash flood occur. The implementations
Rainfall gauge stations are distributed across the kingdom of these proposal required a coordinated effort between
as shown in Figure 1. Figure 2 shows 10-year climatology all parties involved and to be conducted on a long-term
observed by satellite (Habib and Nasrollahi, 2009). Most policy.
ARID LANDS FLOOD EVALUATION AND MITIGATION MEASURES USING HEC-HMS MODEL AND BMPS 623

2. Research methodology HEC-HMS model was used to identify the parameters

value in the studied watershed. The model adjustment
2.1. Data collection
initially was done by trial-and-error procedures. Since
2.1.1. Runoff volume calculations commonly the first assumed value is true in the
Commonly, the Rational Method used for hydrological calibration stage and then the modeled parameter will be
analysis of runoff. It uses the general form of the equation compared with measured ones for verification. Usually,
Q=CiA, in which Q is the runoff volume in acre-in/hr or the pre calibration values (assumed) can be adjusted if the
cubic feet per second (cfs), C is the runoff coefficient for a conformity with the observed parameters is not
given surface material and condition, i is the rainfall satisfactory. Commonly, trial and error approach allow
intensity in in/hr, and A is the catchment area in acres modeler to achieve a good agreement between modeled
(Gupta, 2001). The runoff coefficient C is requiring and observed hydrographs by adjusting the values of best
accurate evaluation; hence, it depends on soil type, land parameters based on the results of the model runs.
use, surface cover and slop of drainage basin. Agricultural
and forest land usually have low runoff coefficients in the
range of 0.05-0.4 (Alsharhan et al., 2001). On the contrary,
paved and concrete surfaces have much higher runoff
coefficients of about 0.9 (Alsharhan et al., 2001).
NRCS TR-55 is another common method for estimating
surface runoff, more complicated than Rational Method
since it employs several equations to calculate runoff peak
volumes (Gupta, 2001). CN is the most critical parameter
that affect the runoff calculations, it is a function of land
use and soil group. Similar to runoff coefficient, a higher
CN value associated with high runoff volumes, and lower Figure 3. Schematic diagram for building watershed model
CN value indicates low runoff. Typical CN value for arid processes.
lands is 91, while for agricultural land CN ranges of 30 to
84, depending on soil surface conditions (Mays, 2001). 2.3. Soil properties investigation
In this study, city area will be subdivided to assess runoff Soil infiltration rates in the study area are evaluated using
volumes and contributions in the overall flood. Also, soil Darcy's law. This law contains parameters of hydraulic
infiltration capacity and infiltration rates will be evaluated. conductivity, soil porosity, and hydraulic gradient. Such
This analysis is necessary to identify areas where parameters are best described soil nature, land cover,
mitigation action plans should be focused. porosity, and hydraulic conductivity of the soil column.
2.2. Mapping and modeling
ka
In this study, Geographic Information System (GIS) was Qz =
nL
employed to calculate the area of each surface group
type. We coupled GIS with Hydrological Modeling System In which Qz is the volumetric seepage rate, k is the
(HEC-GeoHMS) (Mays, 2001). HEC-HMS model was hydraulic conductivity, A is the area of watershed of
developed by US Army Corps of Engineers, Hydrological interest perpendicular to the direction of flow, ΔH/L is the
Engineering Center. The coupled version of these models change in hydraulic head divided by the seepage depth,
contains Arc Hydro tool, which has been used to delineate and n is the soil porosity.
two sub watersheds for Tabouk watershed. Inputs for GIS
3. Study area
modeling are surface topography, land cover, land use,
soil type, stream flows data, and physical characteristics of 3.1. Topography of the Tabouk Area
the watershed. Various HEC-HMS input models were Tabouk city has a desert climate surrounded by low relief
created for Tabouk Sub watersheds. These models will be of local mountains from east, west, and south, while the
used later on to simulate rainfall and runoff volumes city is open to the north. The city has an elevation of 700-
produced from storm water event. 800 m above main sea level. Mountains in the west of
The HEC-HMS model is built in this study from three study area has an average elevation of 1200 m above
historical storm event back on Jan 15th, 2011, Feb 26th, main sea level. Most of the catchment drainage area is
2007, and Dec. 7th, 2004. Rainfall data were obtained from located in the north side of the city. Basically, the Tabouk
six discharge gauging station located in the study area on basin is flat, drainage network extends southwards to
hourly bases. For the purpose of building the Harrah, three main wadis are located in the basin,
watershed model (basin model) several processes are namely Wadi Al-Khader (east) and Wadi Abu Nishaiah
executed as shown in Figure 3. The ArcGIS coupled with (east), and Wadi Al-Baggar (west) (Al-Baradi, 2000).
the extension HEC-GeoHMS and DEM are used to Tabouk city is underlain by a shale formation where silt
delineate and generate watershed parameters such as, and sandy soils are prevailed in several parts of the
elevations, stream network, stream lengths, flow paths, province. Figure 4 shows geological map of the study area
and slopes. (Masoud, 2009).
624 BDOUR

3.2. Climate of Tabouk Various flood scenarios with different return period
The climate of Tabouk city is dry most of the year, it has (different probabilities) can be tested. Such analysis is
occasionally influenced by Mediterranean Sea climate. invaluable to predict flood occurrence and to protect
Mean annual temperature in summer is about 28 Co and human lives and their properties (Figure 7). Also, it helps
12 Co in winter. Average annual rainfall is about 20 mm as in protecting flood mitigation structures by considering
shown in Figures 5 and 6. Evaporation rates are high and the safety check floods (i.e., maximum peak flow which
is almost about 40 mm. In winter season, sometimes the the dam can withstand without risk of failure and low-
penetration of cool Mediterranean air mass brings frontal probability but devastating dam-breaks).
rainfall events with high intensities (Alsharan and others,
2001).

Figure 6. Annual rainfall values for Tabouk City in mm (1975-

2019).

Figure 4. Geological map for the Tabouk area.

Figure 7. Isohyetal map shows average annual rainfall for Tabouk

city.

In this project, HEC-HMS has been employed to estimate

various runoff volumes resulted for the several scenarios
we proposed. HEC-HMS is a commercial model developed
by US Army Corps of Engineers, several sub-models are
embedded inside the model to compute hydrological
parameters such as channel routing values, rainfall losses,
runoff generations, and base flows. HEC-HMS package
Figure 5. Average Temperatures for Tabouk city.
comprises of three main model, namely basin model,
4. Results and discussion precipitation model, and control; model (Romali et al.,
2018). Basin model calculates watershed and routing
4.1. HEC-HMS modeling variables, and basin connectivity data as well. All rainfall
Nowadays engineers are capable to study and analyze data and computations are embedded in the precipitation
impacts of various floods with various intensities on a model. Timing information are included in control model.
hydraulic structure. The analysis involved calculations for Uses has the option to assign the proper data sets for
all hydrological parameters like peak flows and flood each model, then the whole run is executed using all data
hazards maps. In addition, modelers are able to do sets from the basin model, precipitation model, and
economical assessment by comparing several technical control model. Model structures and processes are given
solution, estimating the costs of avoided damages. in the technical manual (USACE-HEC, 2000, 2008, and
ARID LANDS FLOOD EVALUATION AND MITIGATION MEASURES USING HEC-HMS MODEL AND BMPS 625

2018). Follow to this section a brief description of the adverse impact of this response that in some cases of
model employed in this project is provided. delayed peak may become associated with other runoff
As we've mentioned earlier to this section, the HEC-HMS minor events which ultimately will increase flood hazards
model contains three main sub-models. The basin model downstream. Commonly, two significant parameters in
provides watershed physical elements (i.e., subwatershed flood mitigation; size of bottom outlet and its storage
areas, reaches, junctions, diversions, reservoir, sources capacity. Large runoff volumes can fill up storage capacity
and sinks, and hydrologic model for each element as quickly and thus there is a great need for flow control
shown in Figure 13. Terrain processing module (ArcHydro) structures (flow weirs and over spillway devices) to be
was used to delineate basin and sub-basin boundaries as provided to drain excess flows (Liu et al., 2021). Usually,
networks as needed for the basin model. DEMs data was flood risks drop consequently after overflows happen (Lai
obtained using an existing contour map 1:100,000 scale. et al., 2020).
HEC-HMS model was employed to calculate initial model On the other hand, small flow outlet reaches faster the
variables using model default values. HEC-GeoHMS then maximum storage capacity which permit earlier mitigation
was used to develop soil maps and land use maps, CN for actions.
each grid was assigned (10 m x 10 m resolution).
Averaging method linked within spatial analyst module of
ArcGIS was used to evaluate the weighted CN values for
each sub watershed. CN values were approximately in the
range of 83-95 for studied sub watersheds.
This study shows that basin-hydraulic responses are in the
form of runoff hydrographs and tables for hydrologic
characteristics (such as, peak discharges, time to peak and
lag time). Runoff, infiltration rates and interception are
presented in the form of a numeric form. Table 1 display
the main hydrological values used in this modeling.
Repeated revisions for storms of return periods 2, 10, and
100 years at different durations of 0.75, 1.25 and 1.75
hours were employed and analyzed. Analysis proved that
least frequent storms (large return period) bring rain
more than the most frequent ones (small return period).
HEC-HMS model calculate runoff volume rates in the
range from 0.04 to 0.77 cm/hr. Figure 8 show the runoff
distribution for two sub-basins within the study area.
Table 1. Primary values used in the HEC-HMS model runoff
calculations Figure 8. Physical characteristics for selected sub-basins
Variable Value considered in the HEC-HEM modeling. (a) Stream network, (b)
Rain fall duration (hr) 2.20 Soil type and (c) Runoff values.
Rainfall intensity (cm/hr) 0.87
Area ratio (RA) 0.25 4.3. Flood mitigation measures
Length ratio (RL) 2.00 Low cost and nonstructural structures used in mitigation
Bifurcation ratio (RB) 2.00 floods in urban settings are commonly known as Best
Management Practice (BMP). Non-structural measures
4.2. Construction of dray dams
are used in rural areas. These structural measures are
This study analyzed and assessed the impacts of used to reverse the disturbances caused by urbanization,
constructing a dray dam across floodplain, the dam has a many of these structures proven promising efficiency for
bottom outlet for the purpose of discharging main controlling and lessen damages caused by flash flooding
channel flow. All hydraulic, hydrological, and civil and combined sewer systems (Glas et al., 2020). Selection
engineering characteristics were described inconsistency of these mitigation structures are usually considered
with typology thus minimize impacts of river biodiversity. entire watershed characteristics, technical feasibility,
Outflows that exceed conduit capacity have been economical aspect, sustainability, environmental integrity,
modified. and public acceptance. Determination of the BMPs to
Figure 9a shows the dry dams' responses to various flood propose will be based on past and practical experience
magnitudes differently. Two types of dry dams are gained upon the implementation and monitoring of these
proposed, dam#1 with H=2 m, h= 1.25 m, and dam32; H=4 mitigation measures. In addition, theoretical and common
m, h= 1.25 m. All calculations were taken at 1000 m engineering sense will be used for the purpose of the
downstream of the dry dams. Outflow discharges are assessment. It is a learning by doing process based as
shown in Figure 9b. Primarily, the existence dry dams shown in Figure 10. Two main principles are embedded in
affect the hydraulics of flash flood by delaying peak flows this practice, namely promoting natural drainage systems
while it's obvious that flood waves last longer. The and urbanized surfaces. It combines both storm water
626 BDOUR

components and flood control components (Bathrellos et An extended detention basin is a structure that permit a
al., 2016). temporal storage for runoff. The design of such structure
with outlet device detains and attenuated the outflow
runoff and allow settling of sediments. Usually, EDB has
multistage facility for storage and attenuation. EDB
provides a better management tool for storm water
quantitatively and qualitatively. Expected removal of
suspended solids varies from 40-70 percent, mainly
depending on the designed settling time of the basin.

Figure 9. (a) dry dams construction effects; (b) computed Figure 11. An extended detention basin basic Components.
hydrographs delay and attenuation.
Typical components of EDB are shown in Figure 11.
Storage volume and detention time parameters must be
designed carefully for an extended detention basin.
Detention time usually defined as the time from
maximum storage is reached in the basin till 10 percent of
that storage remains in the basin. The combination of the
two parameters would control the outflow runoffs
velocities and travel times. Eventually, the construction of
such structure must slowly drain outflows and
consequently increase detention time. Furthermore,
design should provide enough detention time to ensure
the treatment of runoff volumes generated by storm
event. Better efficiency can be achieved for orifice
diameter greater than 9 cm.
4.3.2. Land erosion control
Sedimentation and soil erosion control measures should
be coordinated with any construction of land undergoing
development. Control measures like berms, mulching, silt
traps and others are recommended to put into service in
conjunction with infrastructure grading operations and
before the construction of any increment of urbanization
or land development. These measures are crucial for the
removal of suspended sediments from runoff sormwaters
draining from urban areas. Furthermore, stream banks
should be maintained and stabilized, removal of
vegetation covers and cut of trees should be prohibited.
Construction of roads, drainage improvements work, and
Figure 10. BMP low-cost structural measures. utility rights of way may consider as exceptional case.
Pavement with concrete or asphalt within trees zones
Herein, we formulated five proposals for flood mitigation should not be allowed. Installation of permanent
techniques for the purposes of storm water management. vegetation cover should be installed immediately as soon
as all utilities are in place and final grading phase is
4.3.1. An extended detention basins (EDB) design criteria achieved.
ARID LANDS FLOOD EVALUATION AND MITIGATION MEASURES USING HEC-HMS MODEL AND BMPS 627

Runoff attenuation and retention structures should Simulation results proved that least frequent storms (large
preserve natural topography and vegetation, where return period) bring rain more than the most frequent
possible. All constructed mitigation measure (on-site) ones (small return period). HEC-HMS model calculate
should be properly monitored and maintained by the runoff volume rates in the range from 0.04 to 0.77 cm/hr.
owner of this site. This practice is important to operate Also, results shows that the HEC-HMS model is capable of
these facilities appropriately and not become a source of simulating runoff-based event.
nuisance to public. For example, Stagnant water and
improper storage may result excessive algae growth and
uncontrolled runoff volumes, respectively. Outlet’s
conduits should be designed to prevent or to minimize
stream bed erosion.
4.3.3. Source control measures
In rural areas, where a natural and undeveloped
watershed exists, the spatial distribution of runoff is in the
form of mobilized small volumes which result in slowing
down the runoff flow volumes. Usually, wetlands, flood
plains, previous soils, and natural depressions are good
storages for such small waters. Urbanization and
development may cause serious damage to these natural
ways of attenuation and cleaning storm runoff though
decreasing permeability of soil, removing vegetation
cover, altering this natural way and transforming into
culverts and channels, and finally by leveling off the
irregular natural ground surface (Poulard et al., 2010).

Figure 14. Source control measures examples (pipe storage,

parking lot, porous pavement).
Figure 12. Examples on source control measures (Rooftop,
infiltration inlet and trench). Moreover, this study assessed the watershed hydraulic
response as a result of constructing a dray dam across
floodplain, two types of dry dams were evaluated, dam#1
with H=2 m, h= 1.25 m, and dam32; H=4 m, h= 1.25 m.
Analysis showed the existence dry dams affect the
hydraulics of flash flood by delaying peak flows while it's
obvious that flood waves last longer. The adverse impact
of this response that in some cases of delayed peak may
Figure 13. Infiltration trenches as an example on source control
become associated with other runoff minor events which
measures.
ultimately will increase flood hazards downstream.
Results also proven that HEC-HMS model can be reliably
Source control measure are considered as an extra effort
used for flood modeling of the watershed.
to improve methods of maintaining natural drainage
system behavior. It’s a supplementary tool and does not Nonstructural flood control and mitigation measures
cancel the role of other conventional structural practices. provided useful tools for prevent or avoid serious damage
Figures 12–14 represent number of urban low-cost consequences of flash floods in arid lands. Traditional
effective structural measures that proved to be very plans treat the results of flood rather than focus on
efficient as flood mitigation measures. operational or action plans to avoid floods. Five proposals
of BMPs were described in this study and general
5. Conclusions concepts were introduces, as follows:
The present study simulates basin-hydraulic responses • Optimal technical engineering solutions may not the
using HEC-HMS hydrological modeling system based on best due to social and political constrains
the hourly rainfall data from Tabouk watershed. The
Geographic Information System (GIS) coupled with HEC- • Urbanization should consider hydrological principles for
HMS was employed in this study to delineate the planning in addition to the administrative instructions
watershed line and to simulate streams discharges.
628 BDOUR

• To prevent flood consequences in arid lands, the Groundwater Recharge in a Desert Environment. The
management plans should be comprehensiveness in Southwestern United States, Eds. Hogan, J.F., Phillips, F.M.
terms of storm water drainage, pollution control, and and Scanlon, B.R. Water Science and Application 9, American
flood mitigation as well. Geophysical Union, pp. 77–99.
Gupta, R. (2001). Hydrology and Hydraulic Systems. Waveland
• Public participation and data accessibility are key press, USA.
practices to build the trust between officials and the Habib E.H., and Nasrollahi N. (2009). Evaluation of TRMM-TMPA
public to reach a successful management tool. satellite rainfall estimates over arid regions. American
This study proposes multi-alternative tool which may help Geophysical Union. Fall Meeting 2009, 2009AGUFM.H2012A
in applying flood mitigation measures using well defined 2002H.
structures/methods. Certainly, managers need immediate Huffman G.J., and Bolvin D.T. (2009). TRMM and Other Data
Precipitation Data Set Documentation. Laboratory for
responses and operational plans – when a flood occurs,
Atmospheres, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and
the demand for such action is robust. Managers and
Science Systems and Applications, Inc. Available at:
decision makers need quick and efficient plans to respond
http://precip.gsfc.nasa.gov/pub/trmmdocs/3B42_43B43_do
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needed on case-by-case bases to find the most Jenkins K., Surminski S., Hall J., and Crick F. (2017). Assessing
appropriate and efficient management scheme. The surface water flood risk and management strategies under
linkage between conceptual approach and the operational future climate change. Science Total Environment, 595, 159–
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Acknowledgement
Liu W.-C., Hsieh T.-H., and Liu H.-M. (2021). Flood risk
Author of this work would like to thank the Centre of assessment in urban areas of Southern Taiwan.
Environmental Education, Ministry of Environment, Saudi Arabia Sustainability, 13(6), 3180. doi:10.3390/su13063180.
for their support and assistance during the course of this study. Loucks, and Loucks D.P. (2006). Modeling and managing the
Conflicts of Interest interactions between hydrology, ecology and economics.
Journal of Hydrology, 328, 408–416.
The authors declare no conflict of interest. Lowe R., and Arnbjerg-Nielsen K. (2020). Urban pluvial flood risk
Data Availability Statement assessment-data resolution and spatial scale when
developing screening approaches on the microscale. Natural
All data will be available upon the request of reviewers.
Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 20, 981–997.
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