Measurements and Experimentation

Non Standard Method of Measurement

Go to a cricket ground with your friends. Measure the length of the cricket pitch using
your foot span as the unit of measurement. Tell your friends to do the same and record
the length of the pitch measured by each person. Is the measurement the same for
everyone?

Measurement without standard scales:

Raju and Ravi fight frequently over who is taller. They decide to measure their heights
by standing next to a wall and marking their heights.

They measure the height of each mark by using a gilli-danda to measure the distance
between the foot of the wall and their respective marks.

It is found that Raju’s height is equal to two dandas and one gilli, whereas that of Ravi
is equal to two dandas and two gillis. Hence, Ravi is taller than Raju. However, can
you rely on such measurement? Does this type of measurement accurately
determine their heights?
 Measuring the length of a cricket pitch with the help of your foot span or measuring a
person’s height with a gilli-danda are non-standard methods of measuring distances.

Measure your own height first by using a gilli-danda and then by using a stump
and a bail. Will you get the same result in both cases? If not, then can you explain
the reason for this?

Your height in terms of a gilli and a danda will not be equal to your height in terms of a
stump and a bail because the lengths of a gilli and a danda are not equal to lengths of a
stump and a bail.

Thread levelling:

In the activities, you found that it is difficult to measure the exact length or height using
foot span, gilli-danda, or other unconventional methods of measurements. However,
you can measure the exact height or length using thread.

Take a section of thread. This will be your one thread length. Now, fold and mark the

thread as in the middle. Fold the thread again and mark … at the folding points

respectively. These points will indicate … thread lengths. Now, you will be able
to measure your exact height in units of thread length.

Try to measure the exact length and breadth of your bed in units of thread length.

Tailors, carpenters, and farmers need a uniform system of measurement to measure

respectively the length of a cloth; the length, height, and width of a block of wood; and
the area of a cultivated land.

Non Standard Units of Measurement:

In earlier days the length was measured by using units that were based on hands and
feet.
These units include:

• Cubit- It is measured as the distance between the tip of the outstretched middle finger
and the elbow.

• Hand span- It is measured as the distance between the tip of the thumb and the tip of
the little finger of fully stretched palm of a hand.

• Fathom- it is the distance between the tips of the outstretched arms.

• Pace- It is the distance between two walking steps.
 These units were considered unreliable because they can vary from person to person
as the length of hands and feet are different in different people.

Difficulties with non-standard measurement systems:

Measuring lengths using labelled thread is also a non-standard system of distance

measurement. Some difficulties naturally arise in measuring distances. Suppose your
teacher asks you about the length of your desk. You can easily find the length in units of
hand span or thread length.

However, if he asks you to measure the distance between the school and your home or
between the sun and the earth, then you will face difficulties. You cannot measure these
distances using your hand span, gilli- danda, thread length, etc. Such quantities
required a standard scale of measurement.

Systems of Units

Measurement

It is the process of assigning a number to an attribute (or phenomenon) according to a

rule or set of rules.

Units

• A unit is the chosen standard of measurement of quantity, which has the same nature
as the quantity.
• To express any physical quantity completely, we need the numerical value and the unit
(u).

Physical quantity = nu

Fundamental Units: Units for fundamental or base quantities (length, mass and time)

Derived Units: Units obtained from fundamental units

Example:

Unit of speed (ms−1)

 Systems of Units

• CGS System: Base units for length, mass and time in this system are centimeter, gram
and second respectively.

• FPS System: Base units for length, mass and time in this system are the foot, pound
and second respectively.

• MKS System: Base units in this system are metre, kilogram and second.

• International System (SI) of Units: Based on seven base units; at present the
internationally accepted system

SI Base Quantities and Units

• Length − metre (m)

• Mass − kilogram (kg)
• Time − second (s)
• Electric current − ampere (A)
• Thermodynamic temperature − kelvin (K)
• Amount of substance − mole (mol)
• Luminous intensity − candela (cd)

Derived Units

• The units of different physical quantities can be derived from the seven basic
fundamental units. These are called derived units.
• Some common derived units are mentioned in the given table.

Physical
S.No. Relationship with Fundamental Unit Symbol
Quantity
1. Volume Length cube m3
2. Density Mass per unit volume kg m−3
3. Velocity Distance covered in unit time ms−1
4. Acceleration Velocity changes per unit time ms−2
5. Force Mass × Acceleration kg ms−2
6. Work Force × Distance traveled kg m2s−2
7. Pressure Force per unit area kg m−1s−2

We have seen various objects as large as a mountain to as small as a speck.

Therefore, to measure such large and small quantities, we have to use a simple
method.

Example:

Diameter of the sun = 1,391,000,000 m

Diameter of a hydrogen atom = 0.000,000,000,106 m

Thus, when we are using metre, we find that the content is either quiet bulky or very
small. At the same time, it is very inconvenient. Therefore, to counter this, we use a
standard form of expression as:

Diameter of the sun = 1,391,000,000 m = 1.39 × 109 m

Diameter of a hydrogen atom = 0.000,000,000,106 m = 1.06 × 10−10 m

The exponential part of a particular measurement is called the order of magnitude of a

quantity.

The prefixes and symbols for such order of magnitude are listed in the given table.
Multiple Prefix Symbol

10−15 femto f

10−12 pico p

10−9 nano n

10−6 micro µ

10−3 milli m

10−2 centi c

10−1 deci d

103 kilo k

106 mega M
 109 giga G

Bigger Units:

To know the distance between two or more heavenly bodies, for measuring heavy
materials used in daily life and to count the large span of time we require bigger units.

• For length, the bigger units used are:

(i) Astronomical unit (A.U.): It is the mean distance between Earth and Sun. 1 A.U. =
1.496 × 1011 m

(ii) Light year (ly): It is the distance travelled by light in vacuum, in one year. 1 ly
=9.46 × 1012 km

(iii) Parsec: 1 Parsec = 3.26 ly

• For mass, the bigger units use are:

(i) quintal: 1 quintal = 100 kg

(ii) metric tonne: 1 metric tonne = 1000 kg = 10 quintal

• For time:

(i) lunar month: 1 lunar month =29.5 days

(ii) Leap year
(iii) Decade
(iv) Century
(v) Millennium

Directions for writing units:

The following rules have been observed while writing the physical quantity:

• Symbols of units which are not named after scientists are written in the small letter. For
example, m, kg, q and so on.

• The unit which is named after a scientist is written with the first letter of his/her name in
the capital. For example, N for Newton, J for joule, W for watt and so on.

• While writing the full name of a unit we do not consider if the unit is named after
scientist or not, it is always written with lower initial letter. For example, the unit of length
as meter, mass as kilogram, force as Newton and so on.

• Compound units, formed by the product of two or more units are written after placing a
dot, cross or leaving a space between the two symbols. For example, the unit of electric
 dipole C.m or C××m or C m.

• The compound unit uses negative powers when one unit is divided by another. For
example, unit of power = joule/second = J s−1s-1.

• Shorter forms of units are never written in the plural. For example, 10 kilograms cannot
be written as 10 kgs.

• Units cannot be written with more than one prefix. In spite of writing kMW, we must write
GW.

• The prefix and symbol combined together become a new symbol for the unit. For
example, km3 means (103 m)3 = 109 m3. It does not mean 103 m3

Measurement of Length- Lab Method

Vernier Calliper

For measuring length of a rod, diameter of a sphere, depth of small bottle, etc., vernier
calliper is used. Vernier calliper was invented by Pierre Vernier. It has an accuracy up to
0.01 cm.

Principle: The vernier calliper consists of two scales: main scale with jaw J1 and vernier
scale with jaw J2. The main scale is graduated with division of 1 mm each. The vernier
scale graduation is such that the length of n division on it is equal to the (n-1)
divisions of the main scale. The vernier scale can slide over the fixed main scale such
tha the vernier scale can be fixed at any position on the main scale with the help of a
screw S.

Essential Parts:

1. Main Scale

It is a thin long strip of steel on which a scale in engraved in mm. The main scale is
generally 15 cm long.
2. Vernier Scale

It is a small movable scale, which slides along the main scale. It has 10 divisions adding
up to 9 mm length.

3. External jaws

J1 and J2 are called external jaws because they are used for measuring external
dimensions.

4. Internal jaws

J3 and J4 are collectively called internal jaws and are used for measuring internal
dimensions of a hollow object.

5. Tail

It is at the end of main scale and slides along with the Vernier scale.

When jaws J1 and J2 are closed, the zero mark of the main scale coincides with that of
the Vernier scale and 19th main scale divisions coincide with 20th Vernier scale
divisions.

Terms and Definitions:

• Pitch

The smallest value of length, which can be acquired directly from the main scale accurately,
is called pitch.

• Least Count

The magnitude of the smallest measurement, which can be measured by an instrument

accurately, is called its least count.

Formula for measuring a length

Length of an object is found by using the formula,

 Length = (Pitch × Main Scale Division) + (Least Count × Vernier Scale
Division)

Zero Error of Vernier Calliper

If the zeroes of M.S. and V.S. do not coincide, then the instrument is said to have a zero
error.

1. Positive Zero Error

If the zero mark of the Vernier scale lies on right hand side of zero mark of the main
scale, then the error is said to be positive and correction is said to be negative.

Correction = −Coinciding division of V.S. ×

L.C.

This correction has to be added to the measured length.

2. Negative Zero Error

If the zero mark of the Vernier scale lies on left hand side of zero mark of the main
scale, then the error is said to be negative and correction is said to be positive.
 Correction = (n − Coinciding division of V.S.) ×
L.C.

Where, n is the total number of Vernier scale divisions

Screw gauge

A micrometer screw gauge is used for measuring much smaller lengths than what a
vernier calliper can measure. It works with an accuracy of 0.001 cm. It is mainly used for
measuring the diameter of thin wires.

Principle of a Screw gauge

It works on the principle of a screw. This device can measure the thickness of a
sheet, diameter of wire, etc.

Construction

1. U-frame

It is a U-shaped steel frame with stud (fixed jaw) at one end and a nut at the other end.
2. Nut and screw

The nut is threaded from inside and the screw from outside.

3. Thimble and circular cylinder

The screw is connected to a hollow circular cylinder (S), which rotates along with nut on
turning.

4. Sleeve cylinder

It is a hollow cylinder attached to the nut.

5. Base line

Commonly called main scale or sleeve scale, it is the graduated line parallel to the axis
of the nut.

6. Circular scale or thimble scale

It is the hollow half cone moving over the sleeve cylinder.

7. Ratchet

It is attached to screw by means of a spring.

Terms and Definitions:

Pitch of Screw: It is the distance between two consecutive threads of the screw,
measured along the axis of the screw.

Least count of Screw: It is the smallest distance moved by its tip when the screw turns
through 1 division marked on it.

Formula for measuring a diameter

The diameter of a wire is measured by using the formula,

 Observed diameter = Main scale reading + Circular scale reading ×
L.C.

Of course the zero error, if any, has to be added or subtracted accordingly.

Zero Error:

When stud A and screw end B are joined and zero of main scale does not coincide with
that of the circular scale, the screw gauge is said to have a zero error.

1. Positive zero error

When zero line on circular scale is below the reference line, there is a positive zero
error and correction is negative.

Correction = −Coinciding division of C.S. ×

L.C.

2. Negative zero error

When zero line on circular scale is above the reference line, there is a negative zero
error and correction is positive.

Correction = (n − Coinciding division of C.S.) ×

L.C.

Where, n is the total number of circular scale divisions

3. Backlash error
A type of error known as backlash error occurs when the tip of the screw does not start
moving in the opposite direction on reversing the direction of rotation of the thimble at
once, but remains stationary for a part of rotation. This happens due to the wear and
tear of threads of a screw.

Measurement of Time

Before going into the subject, let us look at this animation.

 So, you have learned the importance of measuring time. You also have learned about
some time-measuring instruments, some from ancient and medieval ages and some
from modern times.

Let us learn about the units of time in detail.

Units of Time

In ancient times, people used large units for measuring time. For example, the time
interval between two consecutive sunrises was considered a day. However, they were
not able to accurately measure the time taken by relatively shorter events such as
lightning, rain, or time taken to cover a distance.

Period Method of measuring time in ancient times

Day Time between two consecutive sunrises

Month Time between two consecutive new or full moons

Time taken by the Earth to complete one

Year
revolution around the sun

Take a rubber ball and drop it from a height on to a hard surface. The ball will bounce
repeatedly and stop after some time. Which device would you require to measure the
time taken by the ball to stop?

We require some convenient units that can be used for measuring short as well as long
intervals of time.

• The internationally accepted unit of time is second. Its symbolic representation is s.

However, this unit is used for representing shorter durations of time only. Minutes (min)
and hours (h) are used for representing longer durations of time.

• We use different units of time depending on the requirement and convenience. For
example, it is easy to express the pulse rate using minutes as units of time. However,
while expressing the time taken to travel from Delhi to Jaipur, we use hours as the unit
of time.
 Modern Technology

Scientists use modern technology for scientific research to determine shorter intervals
of time such as millisecond (ms), microsecond (μs), and nanosecond (ns); and larger
intervals of time such as million years (MY), billion years (BY), etc.

Discuss with your teacher how the larger units of time are used in astronomy.
The given table shows the respective amount of Participant Display on
time taken by all the participants to cross the finish digital clock
line in a cycling race.
Ram 10:46:45
The time displayed at the start of the race was
Shyam 10:46:35
10:45:00
Ajit 10:46:57
Who took the least amount of time to finish the
race? Aditya 10:46:13
Jay 10:47:01
Ramesh 10:46:41

Till now, we were discussing the different types of clocks that are used by people today
to measure time. Now, the question that arises is – how is a clock able to measure
time?

The answer lies in the fact that a clock uses some kind of periodic motion in its working.
One such object that exhibits periodic motions is a simple pendulum. In this section,
we will discuss some common characteristics of a simple pendulum.

Characteristics of a simple pendulum

• A simple pendulum consists of a mass m that is suspended by a piece of string. The

mass is known asthe bob of the pendulum. A simple pendulum is shown in the given
figure. Here, point I represents the mean position of the bob.
• The bob begins to move to and fro when it is released from the extreme position II i.e., it
will go up to another extreme position III via mean position I, and then go up to
position II again via mean position I. It will continue to move in the same way. This back
and forth motion of the bob via mean position I is called the periodic or the oscillatory
motion of the bob.

• The bob completes one oscillation when it moves from extreme position II to extreme
position III via mean position I and then returns to extreme position II, following the
same path.

• The time taken to complete one oscillation is termed as the time period of the
pendulum. If a simple pendulum completes 15 oscillations in 5 seconds, then the time
period of the pendulum is 1/3 seconds to complete one oscillation.

• Consider T is the time period of a simple pendulum which means that in T seconds the
pendulum completes 1 oscillation. This implies that in 1 second, the number of
oscillations will be 1/T which is equal to the frequency of the pendulum i.e. f.

Take a stone and attach it to the ceiling by a thread. Now,

move it to one side up to a distance x (point A) and release
it.

It will go up to point B on the other side. Measure the

horizontal distance y with the help of a ruler. Is y = x?

You will find that the distance y < x. This is because air particles present in the medium
oppose the motion of the pendulum. Hence, its distance decreases continuously until
the bob comes to rest.
What will happen to the motion of the pendulum if it is allowed to oscillate in
space?

Suspend a bob in a vertical stand and allow it to oscillate. Measure the time required by
it to complete 10 oscillations. Wait until the bob comes to rest at the mean position.
Now, move the bob to a distance greater than the first distance and release it.

Measure the time taken by the bob to complete 10 oscillations again. Repeat the same
steps for different distances and record the time period in the following table. Is the
time period dependent on displacement x? Discuss this with your teacher.

S. Value of x (in Time taken to complete 10 Time

No cm) oscillations period

1. - - -

2. - - -

3. - - -

4. - - -

After performing this activity, you will find that the time periods for all distances are
nearly equal to each other. This activity shows that the time period of a pendulum does
not depend on the distance through which it is displaced.

Repeat the same activity by changing the mass of the bob and find out whether
the time period of a pendulum depends on the mass of the bob.

Modern quartz clocks and watches lose or gain one second once in 2 to 10 years!
 Galileo and the swinging lamp

Galileo was one of the greatest scientists of his time. He was a

physicist, astronomer, and mathematician.

Once when he was sitting in a cathedral, he noticed that the lamp,

suspended by a long chain from the ceiling, swung back and forth
because of wind currents. He measured the time taken by the
lamp to complete one oscillation using his pulse rate. He was
surprised to find that each oscillation took an equal amount of
time. He set up his own pendulum and obtained the same result
as that obtained with the swinging lamp. He concluded from his
findings that a pendulum takes equal time to complete each
oscillation.

Measurement of Time

• Atomic standard of time → Periodic vibrations produced in a cesium atom

• 1 second → time required for 9, 192, 631, 770 vibrations of the radiation of cesium 133
atom
• In our country, the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) has the responsibility of
maintaining Indian standard time.