Reviewer in

Science
Ireview nyo din ang parts ng
female and male reproductive
organ pati ang menstrual cycle
lalabas din yun sa exam.
Module 3:
Coordinated
Functions of
Nervous
System
Nervous System

Your Nervous System connects all your

body parts and transmits signals from
one part to another. It is a system of cells,
tissues and organs that regulate the
body’s response to internal and external
stimuli.
1. Central Nervous System

The CNS serves as the main

processing center for the
entire nervous system.

CNS is referred to as
“central” because it
combines information from
the entire body and
coordinates activity across
the whole organism.
Brain

Is an organ located within the

skull that functions as organizer
and distributor of information for
the body and controls all body
functions of a human being.
 Spinal Cord

Serves as a channel for

signals between the brain
and the rest of the body
and controls simple
musculoskeletal reflexes
without input from the
brain.
Cerebrum

Cerebellum

Brain Stem
Cerebrum

Large, upper part of the

brain that controls the
activity and thought.
 Cerebellum

The part under the

Cerebrum that controls
posture, balance, and
coordination
Brain Stem

Part that connects the brain

to the spinal cord and
controls automatic functions
such as breathing, digestion,
heart rate, and blood
pressure.
Brain Stem
 Cerebrum
Large, upper part of the brain that controls
the activity and thought.

Brain
Cerebellum
The part under the Cerebrum that controls
Is an organ located within posture, balance, and coordination.
the skull that functions as
organizer and distributor
of information for the Brain Stem
body. Part that connects the brain to the spinal
cord and controls automatic functions
such as breathing, digestion, heart rate,
and blood pressure.
2. Peripheral Nervous
System

The PNS connects the

central nervous
system to the organs
and limbs.
 A. Somatic
Nervous System

This system is associated with

the voluntary control of the
body movements and has two
main parts.
 Spinal Nerves

Somatic Cranial Nerves

Nervous
System
 Spinal Nerves

Nerves that carry motor and

sensory signals between spinal
cord and the body.
Cranial Nerves

Are the nerves fibers that

carry information into
and out of the brain
stem.
B. Autonomic
Nervous System

This system is associated

with the involuntary control
of body movements
 Sympathetic

Autonomic Parasympathetic
Nervous
System
Sympathetic

It is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress

(example increased heart rate and breathing, dilation of
pupil, sweating, etc.)
it is essential for preparing the body for emergency
response in endangering situations, also known as
the “fight-or-flight” response.
 Parasympathetic

It maintains body functions and restores body

to normal or relaxed mode.
Example The response constricts bronchi so
that breathing is slowed to a resting pace.
Within the eyes, the PSNS causes the pupils to
constrict.
Identify if the situation depicts somatic or autonomic

1.Trembling because of fear Autonomic

2.Writing an essay Somatic
3.Reflex Autonomic
4.Dilation of the pupil Autonomic
5.Dancing Somatic

Activity
 The 1. Nervous System has two main divisions, which are
the (2) Central Nervous System and(3) Peripheral Nervous
System. The CNS has two main parts: the (4) Brain and the (5)
Spinal Cord.
Under the PNS, the (6) Somatic Nervous System regulates
the voluntary movements while the (7) Autonomic Nervous
System regulates the activities that are not under conscious
control. This also has two divisions that are opposite of each
other the (8) Sympathetic and the (9) Parasympathetic.
Answer Key
Module 3:
Coordinated
Functions of
Nervous System
Sub topic: Neurons
 Nervous System Definition Endocrine System
The complicated network The collection of glands,
which produces hormones,
of nerves that carry
function in regulating the
messages or signals from body's growth and
and to the spinal cord development, metabolism,
and brain to other parts tissue function, reproduction,
of the body. sleep, anger, emotions and
other internal functions. They
work in sending signals to
various parts of the body with
the help of hormones and act
as the chemical messenger
 Nervous System Endocrine System
The nervous system The endocrine system
The rate of shoes the quick response responds slowly by
response to the stimuli, by the secreting hormones,
action potentials and traveling through the
neurotransmitters circulatory system to the
target tissue

Kind of Localized Response The response is spread

Response
widely
 Nervous System Endocrine System
Duration of
Temporary and reversible Permanent response
response

Hormones are the kind of

Neurotransmitters chemical signals used to
Mode of
along neurons transmit the signal to the
Transmission
of Signal transmit target tissue through the
electrochemical bloodstream of other
signals body fluid
Nervous Signals are Endocrine
transmitted by
System System

Neurons The hormones flow

through the blood stream
or other body fluid
 The Nerve Cell
• The basic unit of the Nervous system is
the nerve cell, and nerve cell is called
neuron. There are billions of neurons in
the body.
• Neurons are specially intended for
information processing and signaling.
They relay and receive messages
(impulse) between the brain and the
body, and within the brain and spinal
cord.
Motor and Sensory Neurons

Sensory nerves report information to the brain. It is a one-

way communication from the body to the brain. Motor
nerves respond by sending messages from the central
nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to the body for
movement. Motor nerves send messages in the opposite
direction from the CNS to the body.
Motor Neurons Sensory Neurons
transmit impulses from the transmit impulses from
brain to muscles, glands, or sensory nerves (receptor) in
other neurons from CNS going the Peripheral Nervous
to the CNS System (PNS) going to
Central Nervous System
(CNS)

• To put it simply, sensory neurons are for “feeling,” and

motor neurons are for “doing.”
Basic Parts of Neuron
Dendrite

Soma

Axon
Basic Parts of Neuron

1. Dendrites carry impulses towards the cell body. Dendrites

are treelike extensions at the beginning of a neuron that help
increase the surface area of the cell body. These tiny
protrusions receive information from other neurons and
transmit electrical stimulation to the soma. Dendrites are also
covered with synapses, a single dendrite can be one (1) meter
long.
Basic Parts of Neuron

2. Cell Body (Soma) is where the signals from the dendrites

are joined and passed on. The soma and the nucleus do not
play an active role in the transmission of the neural signal.
Instead, these two structures serve to maintain the cell and
keep the neuron functional.
Basic Parts of Neuron

3. Axon carry impulses away from the cell body. Axon pass
impulses to the dendrites of other neurons or cell body of
muscle cells.
 Nerve Impulse
Neurons are cells with the special ability to carry signals or
impulses. Thoughts, emotions, learning, and many body
functions are carried by nerve impulses in the neurons.

A nerve impulse is a combination of an electrical charge and

chemical reaction. A nerve impulse is not a flow of electricity,
but an electrochemical signal moving along a neuron.
 Nerve Impulse

When a nerve impulse comes to

an end of an axon, it produces
the chemical, called
NEUROTRANSMITTER to be
released. The chemical crosses
the space between neurons
called SYNAPSE and stimulates
the nerve impulse to start in the
next dendrite.
 Nerve Impulse
Through our 5 senses, we are constantly receiving information
from the environment and sending messages to the brain.

• STIMULUS refers to any factor in the

environment that may trigger a
nerve impulse.
• RESPONSE on the other hand is a
reaction to a stimulus.
STIMULUS is received by the body and a
RESPONSE is made.
 Nerve Impulse
Messages do not travel in both directions along the same
neuron. Only the axon of the neuron releases neurotransmitters
that cross the space between neurons.
Nerve Impulse

Reaction Time is the length of time

between application of a stimulus and
detection of a response.
Coordination between Endocrine
and Nervous System

• Enables the body to carry out its activities and functions

efficiently and smoothly.
• Enables the body to respond to stimuli effectively so as to take
action quickly and avoid injury.
• Enables the nervous system to detect changes in the body or
environment and relate it to the endocrine system for producing
the hormones required for join response and action.
Coordination
between
Endocrine and
Nervous System
Without coordination
between the nervous system
and the endocrine system,
the body cannot function as a
whole.
 Evaluation

True or False: Write True if the statement is true and capital letter F
if the statement is false.
1.Axon carry impulse towards the cell body F
2.Response is the reaction to a stimulus. True
3.A nerve impulse is a combination of an electrical charge and
chemical reaction. True
4.Cell Body is where the signals from the dendrites are joined and
passed on. True
5.Under Nervous System, the signal is transmitted by neurons. True
 Evaluation

F 6. Stimulus refers to any factor in the environment that may not

trigger a nerve impulse.
True 7. The chemical crosses the space between neurons called
Synapse.
F 8. Motor Neurons transmit impulses from nerves around the body
going to brain and spinal cord

+ 2 points for students who have an assignment

Module 3:
Coordinated
Functions of Nervous
System

Subtopic: Maintaining
Homeostasis
 Homeostasis

Cells, tissues, and organs may perform very different functions, all the
cells in the body are similar in their metabolic needs.
Maintaining a constant internal environment by providing the cells
with what they need to survive (oxygen, nutrients, and removal of
waste) is necessary for the well-being of individual cells and of the
entire body.
The many processes by which the body controls its internal
environment are collectively called homeostasis.
 Homeostasis

To maintain homeostasis, messages must be generated, delivered,

interpreted, and acted upon by your body.
The nervous system and the endocrine system are the
communication networks that allow you to respond to changes in
your environment countless times each day.
 Homeostasis

To achieve homeostasis, the nervous system and the endocrine

system maintain a normal range of the following variables:

a. Body temperature,
b. Amount of water in the body,
c. Amount of metabolic waste in the cell,
d. Blood calcium levels, Hormones in the blood
 Feedback Regulation Loop
Most body systems maintain homeostasis by using feedback
mechanism.
The endocrine system plays an important role in homeostasis
because hormones regulate the activity of body cells. The release of
hormones into the blood is controlled by a stimulus.

Feedback regulation occurs when the response to a stimulus has an

effect of some kind on the original stimulus. The type of response
determines what the feedback is called.
 Negative Feedback

Type of Feedback

Positive Feedback
 Negative feedback

occurs when the response to a stimulus reduces the

original stimulus In negative feedback, the response will
reverse or cause the opposite effect of the original
stimulus.

Negative feedback is the most common feedback loop in

biological systems. The system acts to reverse the direction
of change. Since this tends to keep things constant, it allows
the maintenance of homeostatic balance.
 Negative feedback

occurs when the response to a stimulus reduces the

original stimulus
 Negative feedback example

For example, Thermoregulation. When body temperature rises,

receptors in the skin and the hypothalamus sense the temperature
change. The temperature change (stimulus) triggers a command
from the brain. This command causes a response (the skin makes
sweat and blood vessels near the skin surface dilate), which helps
decrease body temperature.
Negative feedback examples
 Positive feedback
occurs when the response to a stimulus increases the original
stimulus. It amplifies changes rather than reversing them.

Positive feedback is less common in biological systems. Positive

feedback acts to speed up the direction of change. An example of
positive feedback is lactation (milk production). As the baby suckles,
nerve messages from the mammary glands cause the hormone
prolactin, to be secreted by the pituitary gland. The more the baby
suckles, the more prolactin is released, which stimulates further milk
production.
 Positive feedback examples
•Clotting factors are released to seal a wound
•At the time of baby birth, there is a dilation of the walls of
the uterus that causes a contraction that encourages further
stretching (this continues until birth)
•In fruit ripening, there is the release of ethylene, which will
continue the ripening process of fruits
Positive feedback
Human Disorders related
to Nervous and Endocrine
System
 1. Neurodegenerative Disorders

Disorders are both neurodegenerative disorders

characterized by loss of nervous system functioning
Neurodegenerative
Disorders
Alzheimer’s disease

Parkinson’s disease
 1. Neurodegenerative Disorders

a. Alzheimer’s disease is an irreversible, progressive brain disorder

that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills and, eventually,
the ability to carry out the simplest tasks.
b. Parkinson’s disease is a brain disorder that leads to shaking,
stiffness, and difficulty with walking, balance and coordination.
 2. Neurodevelopmental Disorder

are neurodevelopmental disorders that arise when

nervous system development is disrupted.
Neurodegenerative
Disorders
Autism or autism
spectrum disorder (ASD)

Parkinson’s disease
Attention-
deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD)
 2. Neurodevelopmental Disorder

a. Autism or autism spectrum disorder (ASD) refers to a broad range

of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills,
repetitive behaviors, speech, and nonverbal communication.
b. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the
most common neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood. It is
usually first diagnosed in childhood and often lasts into adulthood.
Children with ADHD may have trouble paying attention,
controlling impulsive behaviors (may act without thinking about
what the result will be), or be overly active
 3. Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Mental Illnesses

a. Schizophrenia is a psychiatric diagnosis denoting a persistent,

often chronic, mental illness variously affecting behavior,
thinking, and emotion.
b. Depression is caused by a decrease in norepinephrine and
serotonin neurotransmission
 4. Other Neurological Disorders
a. Epilepsy a medical condition in which the sufferer experiences
seizures (or convulsions) and blackouts

a. Stroke the loss of brain function arising when the blood supply to
the brain
 5. Gigantism

is a serious condition that is nearly always caused

by an adenoma, a tumor of the pituitary gland.
Gigantism occurs in patients who had excessive
growth hormone in childhood. The pituitary
tumor cells secrete too much growth hormone
(GH), leading to many changes in the body
 6. Growth hormone deficiency

Growth hormone deficiency (GHD), also

known as dwarfism or pituitary dwarfism, is
a condition caused by insufficient amounts
of growth hormone in the body.
 EVALUATION

Identify if it is Negative or Positive Feedback. Write NF if the

statement shows Negative feedback and PF if the statement
describes Positive Feedback.

1.Thermoregulation NF
2.Lactation PF
3.Control of blood glucose level NF
4.Ethylene in fruit ripening PF
5. Releasing of Oxytocin to stimulate uterine contractions in
childbirth PF
EVALUATION

For 6-10 Identify the type of human disorder. Choices are

Neurodegenerative, Neurodevelopmental, and Mental Illness

6. Parkinson’s disease Neurodegenerative

7. Depression Mental Illness
8. ADHD Neurodevelopmental
9. Schizophrenia Mental Illness
10. Autism Neurodevelopmental
 Module 4:
protein
Synthesis
Topic: Str ucture
a n d F uL A Rn ction of
A N A C O M PA N Y
DNA and RNA
 Nucleic acid
One of the Biomolecules is Nucleic Acid
which is essential in their role of
transmission, storage, and expression
of genetic information.
The monomer of Nucleic Acid is a
nucleotide and nucleotides are made
up of Nitrogenous base, sugar, and
Phosphate
Nucleic acid
Nucleic acid

Monomer

Nitrogenous
Sugar Phosphate
base
types of Nucleic acid

01 DNA

02 RNA
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is a
double-stranded helix molecule.
The double helix consists of two
complementary chains twisted
together around common axis.
RNA
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is a single
stranded molecule that is responsible
in converting the information stored
in DNA to proteins.
 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Composition • Deoxyribose- five carbon • Ribose-five carbon sugar

sugar • Phosphate Group
• Phosphate Group • Nitrogenous base pair
• Nitrogenous base pair held Held together by Hydrogen
together by Hydrogen bonds Bond
Purine Bases Purine Bases
-Guanine (G) -Guanine (G)
-Adenine (A) -Adenine (A)
Pyrimidine bases Pyrimidine bases
-Cytosine (C) -Cytosine (C)
- Thymine (T) -Uracil (U)
Function Stores genetic Convert information
information stored in the DNA to
form protein
Location in the cell DNA is found in RNA forms in the
Nucleus while small nucleolus, and then
amount of DNA is also moves to specialized
present in the regions of the
Mitochondria cytoplasm
depending on the
type of RNA formed.
Base Pairing Adenine (A) T=A
Thymine (T) Adenine (A)
A=T Uracil (U)
Cytosine (C) A=U
Guanine (G) Cytosine (C)
C=G Guanine (G)
C=G

DNA RNA
Base Pairing Adenine (A) Thymine T=A
(T) Adenine (A)
A=T Uracil (U)
Cytosine (C) Guanine A=U
(G) Cytosine (C) Guanine
C=G (G)
DNA C=G RNA
DNA RNA
Example translate it to DNA
AAT CCG GCG
DNA TTA AGC RNA
TTA GGC CGC AAT T CG
 Practice Exercises
Translate this base on the complimentary DNA
1. CGT AAG TAC 1. GCA TTC ATG
2. AAG TTA GGC 2. TTC AAT CCG
3. GCG TAT GTC 3. CGC ATA CAG
Translate these with the complimentary pair of RNA
4. AAT CGC GGC 4. UUA GCG CCG
5. TTA GCG CCG 5. AAU CGC GGC
6. TTA CCG AAT 6. AAU GGC UUA
The function of DNA is primarily for the
storage of genetic information while RNA
converts information stored in the DNA to
form protein.
evaluation
DNA RNA

2. Contains 1.Single
deoxyribose stranded
3. Important
sugar 6. Uses genetic
for protein
4. Stores information for
genetic
synthesis protein
information 9. Cytosine synthesis
5. Adenine pairs pairs with 7. Contains
with Thymine Guanine Uracil
8. Can be found 10.Contains
in mitochondria ribose sugar
Module 4:
Protein
Synthesis
L A R A N A C O M PA N Y
 Proteins

Proteins are large complex molecules that are

essential for normal functioning in the cell.
Proteins are made up of smaller amino acids,
which are building blocks of proteins.
Hundreds of amino acids are linked together by
peptide bonds forming a long chain of proteins
 Proteins
There are 20 amino acids which are classified
based on their polarities and charge.
Each amino acid is also coded by DNA in a
trinucleotide sequence or in groups of three
bases which refers as codon.
The process of making proteins is known as Protein
Synthesis which involves transcription and
translation. These two processes are summed up by
central dogma of molecular biology:

Insert Central Dogma picture

 Steps in Protein Synthesis
1. Transcription This process involves the transfer of
genetic information in DNA to mRNA (messenger RNA)
which happens inside the nucleus. This takes place in
three steps: initiation, elongation and termination.
Transcription
a. Initiation is the beginning of transcription
whereas the enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a
region of a gene called promoter. After this, the
DNA unwinds so that the enzyme can read the
bases of the DNA strand.
Transcription

b. Elongation refers to the addition of

nucleotides to the mRNA.
Zips back up as it goes keeping 10-20 base
exposed at a time
 Transcription
c. Termination is the ending of transcription and the
mRNA detaches to the DNA.
 Processing of mRNA

After the termination stage, the new mRNA

is not yet ready for translation, it must
undergo more processes before it leaves the
nucleus. These processes are the following:
 Processing of mRNA

Splicing – refers to the removal of introns in

the mRNA. Introns are the noncoding
regions while the coding regions are cal
Processing of mRNA

Editing – modification or change

some of the nucleotides in mRNA
 Processing of mRNA

Polyadenylation - adds a tail to the mRNA. The

tail consists of a string of adenine bases. It
signals the end of mRNA. It is also involved in
exporting mRNA from the nucleus, and it
protects mRNA from enzymes that might break
it down
Steps in Protein Synthesis
2. Translation is the process in which the genetic code in mRNA is
read to make a protein. After mRNA leaves the nucleus, it moves to
a ribosome, which consists of rRNA and proteins. The ribosome
reads the sequence of codons in mRNA, and molecules of tRNA
bring amino acids to the ribosome in the correct sequence. In
order to start the translation process, the following molecules are
required: mRNA template, ribosomes, tRNA, and various enzymatic
factors.
 Translation
Initiation – transitional complex forms and tRNA
brings the first amino acid (Methionine) in
polypeptide chain to bind to start codon on mRNA.
Translation

Elongation – tRNAs bring amino acids

one by one to add to polypeptide chain.
Translation
Termination – this happens when a
stop codon in the mRNA (UAA, UAG, or
UGA) enters the A site
Translation: Inside the
Ribosome
A site- entry site for new tRNA
P site- occupied by peptidyl tRNA – the tRNA carries the
growing peptide
E site- exit site for tRNA.
Practice Exersises

DNA: TTC AAT GGT CTA GGG

mRNA AAG UUA CCA GAU CCC
tRNA UUC AAU GGU CUA GGG

Amino Phenylalanine Asparagine Glycine Leucine Glycine

 Module 4.2:
Explain How Mutations
may cause Changes in
Structure and Function
L A R A N A C O M PA N Y

of Protein
 CHROMOSOME
Inside each nucleus are chromosomes, which consist of
DNA, the genetic material that instructs cells how to divide
and grow.
Chromosomes have a cross or butterfly-like shape, with four
arms —most human cells contain 23 PAIRS of them. One set
comes from each of a person’s biological parents.

One of these 23 pairs is a set of sex chromosomes,

which influences someone’s biological sex.
GENE
Genes are specific segments of DNA coiled
around a chromosome. It is necessary to
understand what DNA is in more detail to
understand them.
GENE VS CHROMOSOME

Chromosomes are thread-like structures

comprising DNA that are present inside the
nucleus of every cell in the body.

Specific segments of DNA are known

as genes.
 CHROMOSOMES GENES
LOCATION Inside Cell On Chromosomes
nucleus
NUMBER 23 PAIRS in most 20,000-25,000
cells
SHAPE Cross- shaped Chains of DNA
with four arms bases that vary in
length
 Mutation

Mutation is a change in the base sequence of

DNA. Mutations may affect only
one gene, or they may affect whole
chromosomes.
Mutation

Mutations can occur in two different types

of cells: gamete/reproductive cells and
body/somatic cells.
Only mutations in sex cells pass on to
offspring.
 2 types of mutation in
gamete cells
• Gene mutation is a permanent change in the DNA
sequence that makes up a gene.
• Chromosomal mutation occurs at the chromosome
level resulting in gene deletion, duplication or
rearrangement that may occur during the cell cycle
and meiosis. It may be caused by parts of
chromosomes breaking off or rejoining incorrectly.
Mutation
Mutation may be induced by factors called
mutagens. Mutagens are common in the form of
toxic chemicals, and harmful radiation. Sometimes,
mistakes occur in DNA replication, mitosis, and
meiosis. All of these can alter the DNA sequence and
length.
 Mutation example
A recessive gene causes sickle-cell anemia, where most
of the red blood cells stiffen and become sickle shape in
affected people. These diseased cells carry less oxygen
than normal cells.
The effects of structural changes depend on their size and
location, and whether any genetic material is gained or lost.
The gain or loss of chromosome material can lead to a
variety of genetic disorders.
Human genetic disorders
a) “Cri du chat” is caused by the deletion of part of
the short arm of chromosome 5.

“Cri du chat” is French, and the condition is so named

because affected babies make high-pitched cries that
sound like a cat. Affected individuals have wide-set
eyes, a small head, and jaw, are moderate to severely
mentally retarded, and are very short.
Human genetic disorders
a) “Cri du chat”
Human genetic disorders

b) Down’s syndrome is usually caused by an extra

copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21).
Characteristics include decreased muscle tone,
stockier build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and
mild to moderate mental retardation.
Human genetic disorders
c) Edwards syndrome is the second most common trisomy after
Down’s syndrome. It is a trisomy of chromosome 18.
Symptoms include mental and
motor retardation and numerous congenital anomalies causing
serious health problems. They have A characteristic hand
appearance with clenched hands and overlapping fingers.
 Human genetic disorders

c) Edwards syndrome
Human genetic disorders
d) Klinefelter’s syndrome (XXY) is described when men
are usually sterile and tend to have longer arms and
legs and to be taller than their peers. They are often
shy and quiet and have a higher incidence of speech
delay.
Human genetic disorders
e.) Turner’s syndrome a condition that affects only
females, results when one of the X chromosomes (sex
chromosomes) is missing or partially missing. It is described
when female sexual characteristics are present but
underdeveloped. They often have a short stature, low hairline,
abnormal eye features and bone development and
a “caved-in” appearance to the chest
Identification: Read the statement/question carefully. Write
your answers in your activity notebook.
Gene mutation is a permanent change in the DNA
1. _____________
sequence that makes up a gene.
Chromosome
2. _____________ in humans, we have 23 pairs of what?
Chromosomal
3. _____________ it occurs at the chromosome level resulting
mutation
in gene deletion, duplication or rearrangement that may
occur during the cell cycle and meiosis.
Mutagens
4. ___________ are the factors that cause mutation.
Somatic
5. ___________ What is the other term for body cell?
 CRI DU CHAT
______________6. RIC DU THAC is caused by the deletion of part of
the short arm chromosome 5.
EDWARD SYNDROME DRAWED SYNRODME is caused by an extra copy
______________7.
of chromosome 18 (trisomy 18).
TURNER SYNDROME
______________8. RENTUR SYNRODME is a condition that affects
only females, results when one of the X (sex chromosomes) is
missing or partially missing.
______________
KLINEFELTER SYNDROME 9. RETLEFENIKL NYSRODME is a genetic
condition in which male is born with an extra X chromosome.
Instead of the typical XY chromosome in men they have XXY.
DOWN SYNDROME
______________10. WOND MERODSYN is usually caused by an
extra copy of chromosome 21.
Types of Mutations

• All mutations fall into two basic categories:

• Those that produce changes in a single gene are
known as gene mutations.

• Those that produce changes in whole

chromosomes are known as chromosomal
mutations.
Gene Mutations
• Mutations that involve changes in one or a few
nucleotides are known as point mutations
because they occur at a single point in the DNA
sequence. They generally occur during
replication.
• If a gene in one cell is altered, the alteration can
be passed on to every cell that develops from the
original one.
Gene Mutations

• Point mutations include substitutions,

insertions, and deletions.
Substitutions

• In a substitution, one base is changed to a

different base.

• Substitutions usually affect no more than a

single amino acid, and sometimes they have no
effect at all.
Substitutions
• In this example, the base cytosine is replaced
by the base thymine, resulting in a change in
the mRNA codon from CGU (arginine) to CAU
(histidine).

• However, a change in the last base of the

codon, from CGU to CGA for example, would
still specify the amino acid arginine.
Substitutions
Deletions and Insertion

• Deletions and Insertion are point mutations in

which one base removed then inserted from the
DNA sequence.

• If a nucleotide is added or deleted, the bases

are still read in groups of three, but now those
groupings shift in every codon that follows the
mutation.
Deletions and Insertion
Deletion and Insertion
• Deletions and Insertion are also called
frameshift mutations because they shift the
“reading frame” of the genetic message.

• Frameshift mutations can change every amino

acid that follows the point of the mutation and
can alter a protein so much that it is unable to
perform its normal functions.
Chromosomal Mutations

• Chromosomal mutations involve changes in the

number or structure of chromosomes.

• These mutations can change the location of genes

on chromosomes and can even change the number
of copies of some genes.

• There are four types of chromosomal mutations:

deletion, duplication, inversion, and translocation.
Chromosomal Mutations
Chromosomal Mutations

• Deletion involves the loss of all or part of a

chromosome. (ex. Cri du chat)
Chromosomal Mutations

• Duplication produces an extra copy of all or part of a

chromosome. (ex. Pallister Killian Syndrome)
Chromosomal Mutations

• Duplication produces an extra copy of all or part of a

chromosome. (ex. Pallister Killian Syndrome)
Chromosomal Mutations

• Inversion reverses the direction of parts of a

chromosome.
 Chromosomal Mutations

• Translocation occurs when part of one chromosome

breaks off and attaches to another.
 Harmful and Helpful Mutations
•
• Mutations are often thought of as negative because they disrupt the
normal function of genes.

• However, without mutations, organisms cannot evolve, because

mutations are the source of genetic variability in a species.
Harmful Effects
• Some of the most harmful mutations are those that
dramatically change protein structure or gene activity.

• The defective proteins produced by these mutations

can disrupt normal biological activities, and result in
genetic disorders.

• Some cancers, for example, are the product of

mutations that cause the uncontrolled growth of cells.
 Harmful Effects
• Sickle cell disease is a disorder associated with changes in the
shape of red blood cells. Normal red blood cells are round.
Sickle cells appear long and pointed.
• Sickle cell disease is caused by a point mutation in one of the
polypeptides found in hemoglobin, the blood’s principal oxygen-
carrying protein.
• Among the symptoms of the disease are anemia, severe pain,
frequent infections, and stunted growth.
 Beneficial Effects
• Some of the variations produced by mutations can be highly
advantageous to an organism or species.
• Mutations often produce proteins with new or altered functions
that can be useful to organisms in different or changing
environments.
• For example, mutations have helped many insects resist
chemical pesticides.
• Some mutations have enabled microorganisms to adapt to new
chemicals in the environment.
Beneficial Effects
• Plant and animal breeders often make use of “good”
mutations.

• For example, when a complete set of chromosomes

fails to separate during meiosis, the gametes that result
may produce triploid (3N) or tetraploid (4N) organisms.

• The condition in which an organism has extra sets of

chromosomes is called polyploidy.

•
Beneficial Effects
•
• Polyploid plants are often larger and stronger
than diploid plants.

• Important crop plants—including bananas and

limes—have been produced this way.
 Activity
Read and Analyze the question/statement. Choose the answer inside
the parenthesis. Write your answer in your activity notebook.
Deletion
1. ________________ (Deletion, Point Mutation, Mutation,
Inversion) is a genetic mutation in which one base is omitted or
left out; A change to a chromosome in which a fragment of the
chromosome is removed.
2. Mutations that involve changes in one or a few nucleotides are
Point Mutation (Mutation, Deletion, Translocation,
known as __________
Point Mutation) because they occur at a single point in the DNA
sequence.
3. In a ___________
Substitution (Deletion, Inversion, Substitution, Mutation), one
base is changed to a different base. Frameshift
Mutation
4. Insertions and deletions are also called ____________ ( Gene
Mutation, Chromosomal Mutation, Frameshift Mutation) because they
shift the “reading frame” of the genetic message.
Chromosomal
5. ____________ (Mutation, Gene Mutation, Chromosomal Mutation)
mutation

involve changes in the number or structure of chromosomes.

6. (True or False) Because of Mutation genes can vary. True
For 7- 10, Choose between (deletion, duplication, inversion, and
translocation)
7. _______________
Deletion involves the loss of all or part of a
chromosome.
Duplicate
8. ____________ produces an extra copy of all or part of a
chromosome.
9. Translocation
____________occurs when part of one chromosome breaks off
and attaches to another.
Inversion
10. ___________reverses the direction of parts of a chromosome.
HUMAN KARYOTYPING
A Karyotype

Definition
1 2 3 4 5
A karyotype is an image
of the full set of
chromosomes of an 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

individual that displays

the normal number, 13 14 15 16 17 18

size, and shape.

19 20 21 22 X Y
 A Karyotype

Definition
1 2 3 4 5
•A photographic
arrangement of a
complete set of 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

chromosomes of a 13 14 15 16 17 18
cell or organism
19 20 21 22 X Y
Karyotypes may reveal the gender of a fetus
or test for certain defects through
examination of cells from uterine fluid – a
procedure called amniocentesis – or
through sampling of placental membranes
 Obtaining a Karyotype
•Chromosomes are stained for easy
visualization
•Light microscope used to view
chromosomes in metaphase of mitosis
•Chromosomes arranged into homologous
pairs based on size and banding patterns
Importance of Karyotypes
Karyotypes show the chromosomal makeup
of an individual. Knowing the number of
chromosomes is essential for identifying
chromosomal variations that cause genetic
disorders.
Genetic Engineering
 What is genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering is the direct modification of
an organism’s genome, which is the list of
specific traits (genes) stored in the DNA.
Changing the genome enables engineers to give
desirable properties to different organisms.
Organisms created by genetic engineering
are called genetically modified organisms
(GMOs).
 GMO methods

• Inserting new genetic material randomly or in

targeted locations
• Direct replacement of genes (recombination)
• Removal of genes
• Mutation of existing genes
 GMO Bacteria
Bacteria are the most common GMOs because their simple
structure permits easy manipulation of their DNA.
One of the most interesting uses for genetically modified
bacteria is the production of hydrocarbons (plastics and
fuels) usually only found in fossil fuels.
 GMO Bacteria
• Cyanobacteria have been modified to
produce plastic (polyethylene) and fuel
(butanol) as byproducts of photosynthesis
• E. Coli bacteria have been modified to
produce diesel fuel
 Engineering Plants
How might genetic engineering modify
plants to solve everyday problems?

(Consider world hunger, weather problems,

insecticide pollution…)
 Genetically Modified Crops

GMO crop production in the US (2010):

• 93% of soybeans
• 93% of cotton
• 86% of corn
• 95% of sugar beets
 Genetically Modified Crops

Example:
• One common modified crop is Bt-corn.
• A gene from the Bt bacteria is added so the
corn produces a protein that is poisonous to
certain insects but not humans.
 Banana Vaccines
Modified virus
injected in sapling tree
causes the bananas to
contain virus proteins

Venomous Cabbage
Scorpion genes added
to the cabbage
prevent insects from
eating it
Other Reasons to Genetically Modify
Crops
• Insect resistant
• Herbicide resistant
• Drought/freeze resistant
• Disease resistant
• Higher yield
• Faster growth
• Improved nutrition
• Longer shelf life
Engineering Animals
 Bioluminescent Animals

Uses:
• Protein tracking
• Disease detection using
bioluminescent imaging (BLI) to
identify different types of cells
• Novelty pets (Glofish are available now)
 Fast-Growing
Salmon
Genes from two other
fish cause this salmon to
continually produce
growth hormones

Less Smelly Cows

Modifying bacteria
responsible for methane
production in cattle results
in 25% less-flatulent cows
 GMO Concerns
What are some concerns regarding
genetically modified foods and animals?
• Risk to human health; unsafe to eat
• Harm to the environment and wildlife
• Creation of herbicide-resistant super weeds
 GMO Concerns
Nearly 50 countries around the world, including
Australia, Japan and all of the countries in the European
Union, have enacted significant restrictions or full bans
on the production and sale of genetically modified
organism food products, and 64 countries now have
GMO labeling requirements.
 MO DULE 5:
B I O DI VE RSITY
AND E VO LU TION
Sources of Evidence for
Evolution

1. Data from the fossils records

2. Biochemistry
3. Anatomy and morphology
4. Embryonic development
 1. Evidence from Fossil Record

Paleontology – study of fossils

◼ Fossil – are traces of organisms that lived in the past
and were preserved by natural processes or
catastrophic events
Remains of organisms include bones,
shells, teeth and also feces embedded
in rocks, peat, resin, and ice.
 1. Evidence from Fossil Record

Most fossils are found in layered

sedimentary rock.
They were from the hard parts of the
organism like woody stem, bones or
teeth.
1. Evidence from Fossil Record

◼ Oldest fossils are on the lowest layer

 Ano th e r ty pe
o f fo ssil

Imprint or impression Compression

 Ano th e r ty pe
o f fo ssil

Imprints are shallow external

Imprint or impression molds left by animal or plant
tissues with little or no
organic materials present.
Impression fossils
are a type of trace
fossil. Impression
fossils form when a
leaf, shell, skin, or
foot. leaves an
imprint in soft
earth. When the
imprint hardens, it
forms a fossil in the
shape of the
original object.
 Ano th e r ty pe
o f fo ssil

Compression is the other side

Compression
with more organic material
Compression fossils are a type of
fossil. They are formed due to the
burial of plants or plant parts in
sediments. These buried fragments
are flattened as a result of
compression or due to overlying
pressure coming from the
sediments.
 2 – BIOCHEMISTRY
◼ Thesimilarity of triplet DNA
codes making-up amino acids
(codon) shows :
🞾 A probable
common
ancestor for
all life on
Earth
comparative
anatomy
Comparative
Anatomy
the comparative study of the
body structures of different
species of animals in order to
understand the adaptive
changes they have
undergone in the course of
evolution from common
ancestors.
 Homologous
Structure
Structures from different species which have
similar internal framework, position, and
embryonic development are considered to be
homologous. Homologous structures may
perform different functions in the species living
in a different environment, or it may have the
same origin but different functions.
 Homologous
Structure
Here are some examples of
homologous structures:
forelimbs of dogs, birds,
lizards, and whales, which are
structurally the same, but
functionally different
Comparative embryology is the
comparison of embryo
development across species.
Embryos of different species can have
similarities that are not visible when the
organisms are fully formed. Many of
these similarities are homologous
features. These features provide
evidence that the species are related
through evolution.
For example, all vertebrae embryos have
homologous structures called pharyngeal arches,
or gill arches. In fish, these arches develop into
parts of the gills. In mammals, these arches
develop into parts of the ears and jaw.
In general, embryos of related species have more
features in common at earlier stages of
development than they do at later stages.
 Analogo
us
Structures of unrelated species may evolve to
look alike, because the structure is adapted to
similar function. Analogous structures have
similar functions but different origin.
 Analogo
us
Examples are wings of birds, bats, and insects
that have the same function but different in
origin.
 Additional
Activity
Modified True or False: Write true if the statement
is true and if it is false change the underlined word
into the appropriate word to make the statement
true
True
_______1. Homologous perform different
functions in the species living in a different
environment.
Homologous
_______2. The examples of Analogous structure
are forelimbs of dogs, birds,
lizards, and whales.
 Additional
Activity
Analogous
_______3. The wings of the bat and the bird is and
example of Homologous.
True
_______4. Comparative Anatomy is the comparative
study of the body structures of different species of
animals in order to understand the adaptive changes
they have undergone.
Embryo
_______5. An early stage of development in organisms is
what we called fetus.
 MO DULE 6:
O ccurrenc e o f
Evolutio n
 Theory

A theory is an idea about how something

in nature works that have gone through
rigorous testing through observations and
experiments designed to prove the idea
right or wrong.
 Theory of Evolution

• In the eighteenth-century English doctor

named Erasmus Darwin, proposed different
aspects of what later would become an
evolutionary theory.
 Theory of Evolution
• Charles Darwin, published his
famous book On the Origin of
Species. Darwin and a scientific
contemporary of his, Alfred
Russel Wallace, proposed that
evolution occurs because of a
phenomenon called natural
selection.
 People involved in
Evolution
• Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was the first
evolutionist to believe that organisms change
over time. Using fossil records as a guide,
Lamarck was able to develop three theories;
 L a m a r c k ’s 3 t h e o r i e s i n
evolution
The Theory of Need which states that
organisms change in response to their
environment. Their ability to survive
helped them develop characteristics
necessary for them to adapt in a given
environment.
 L a m a r c k ’s 3 t h e o r i e s i n
evolution

The Theory of Use and Disuse; which

according to Lamarck, organs not in
use will disappear while organs in use
will develop.
Theory of Use
and Disuse
Theory of Use
and Disuse
Another example Lamarck used
was the toes of water birds. He
proposed that from years of
straining their toes to swim through
water, these birds gained
elongated, webbed toes to better
their swimming.
 L a m a r c k ’s 3 t h e o r i e s i n
evolution
The Theory of Acquired Characteristics
states that if an organism changes during
life in order to adapt to its environment,
those changes are passed on to its
offspring.
 Additional Activities
Identification: Read and Analyze the
question or statement carefully.
1. Based from our discussion today, who are the people
involved in Evolution?
Erasmus Darwin, Charles Darwin and
Jean Lamarck
Evolution
____________ 2. Is a change in a kind of organism over
time; process by which modern organisms have descended
from ancient organisms (decent with modification)
 Additional Activities
theory
of need
____________3. states that organisms change in response to their
environment.
Theory of acquired characteristics states that if an organism
____________________________4.
changes during life in order to adapt to its environment, those
changes are passed on to its offspring.
Theory of Use and Disuse organs not in use will disappear while
____________________5.
organs in use will develop.
 People involved in
Evolution

Fifty years after Lamarck’s Theory of Use and

Disuse, Charles Darwin suggested the
Theory of Natural Selection.
D a r w i n ’s N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n

Natural selection is the process through

which species adapt to their environments.
It is the engine that drives evolution
• In 1859, he brought the idea of natural
selection to the attention of the world in
his best-selling book, On the Origin of
Species.
 D a r w i n ’s N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n

Individuals with adaptive traits— traits that give

them some advantage—are more likely to
survive and reproduce. These individuals then
pass the adaptive traits on to their offspring.
Through this process of natural selection,
favorable traits are transmitted through
generations.
 D a r w i n ’s N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n

Darwin chose the name natural selection to

contrast with “artificial selection,” or selective
breeding that is controlled by humans
 D a r w i n ’s N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n

Fitness refers to the ability of an

organism to survive and produce
offspring.
 D a r w i n ’s N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n

Different individuals in a population

possess different characteristics and
abilities. This is called variation.
 D a r w i n ’s N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n

Adaptation is the
ability of an organism to adjust and
thrive in a given environment
 Additional Activities
Choose the letter of the best answer

1. Charles Darwin was best known in the 19th century

for:
a. creating the idea of evolution
b. creating the idea of uniformitarianism
c. making the idea of evolution acceptable for
scientists and general public
d. all of the above
 Additional Activities
Choose the letter of the best answer

2. Which of the following statements DOES NOT

describe evolution?
a. Evolution is continuous.
b. Evolution refers to change.
c. The world is stable and unchanging.
 Additional Activities
3. Which of the following statements is true about Charles
Darwin?
a. He supported Lamarck's explanation of how evolution
occurred.
b. He believed that evolution was due to the inheritance of
acquired characteristics.
c. He understood that the variation that exists in natural
populations of plants or animals is the result of repeated
mutations.
d. None of the above
 Additional Activities

4. Which of the following statements about Darwin is true?

a. He thought that the biggest and strongest animals are always
at an advantage in natural selection.
b. He failed to convince the majority of biologists and other
educated people in the late 19th century that life evolves.
c. The Origin of Species, his book that did not sell well and did
not take much notice from biologists in his time
d. None of the above
 Additional Activities

5. The organisms that survive in this

world of competition are described as
a. the fittest b. best looking
c. best adapted d. the strongest
Biodiversity and
Stability
Module 7.1
 Biodiversity

Biodiversity is used describes

how diverse organisms in an
area. It is a measure how
many different species live in
an area.
High Biodiversity
An ecosystem with
high biodiversity has
many different species
of organisms.
LOW Biodiversity
An ecosystem with low
biodiversity does not have
many different species of
organisms.
Stability

Stability of an ecosystem can be

described as the resilience to
resist changes that will occur in
the environment.
The value of species can be
divided into various categories:

• Direct Economic Value

Abiotic

• Indirect Economic Value

• Aesthetic Value
Decomposer
 Direct
Economic
Value
Species are sources of the basic
needs of humans such as, food,
clothing, shelter, medicine and
energy.
 Direct
Economic
Value
 Indirect
Economic
Value
Species if there are
benefits produced by the
organism without using
them.
Indirect
Economic
Value
Indirect
Economic
Value
 Aesthetic
Value
Lot of species provides visual or artistic
enjoyment, like forested landscape and the
calming beauty of a natural park; or they may be
used for spiritual meditation like the Prayer
Mountains.
 Additional Activities

Classify the following into low or high biodiversity.

High___________1. Rainforest
Low Diversity
Diversity
___________2. Rice Field
Low___________3.
Diversity Cattle Farm
Low___________4.
Diversity Corn Field
High___________5. Ocean
Diversity
 Evaluation
Classify the value of the given organism by putting a
check mark on the space provided. Write your answers in
your activity notebook.

✓
✓
Give an example of Direct Economic value that you
always use in
✓
✓
✓
 Relationship Between
Population Growth and
Carrying Capacity

Module 7.2
 Population

A population is a group of living things within a

certain area that are all of the same species.
 Population
Density

Population density is defined as the

number of organisms per unit area.
 Birth Rate Vs.
Death Rate
Birth rate is the number of individuals born in a
population in a given amount of time.

Death rate is a measure of the number of deaths (in

general, or due to a specific cause) in a particular
population, scaled to the size of that population,
per unit of time.
If the birth rate is greater than the death rate, a
population will increase. If the birth rate is slower
than the death rate, the population will decrease.
 Limiting Factors

Limiting factors limit the size of a

s
population. These factors prevent
the growing population of any
organism in an area, which will be
limited, or stopped at some point.
 Limiting Factors

Limiting factors are categorized into two:

s
1. density-independent limiting factors and
2. density-dependent limiting factors.
 Density-independent
limiting factors

Population density does not

s
directly
influence changes in population growth.
Examples are Natural Disasters, Natural
Phenomena.
 Density-dependent
limiting factors
A factor that regulates a population’s growth and is
influenced by population density
s is called density-
dependent limiting factors.
Density-dependent limiting factors come into play
when a population reaches a certain number of
organisms.
 Density-dependent
limiting factors

For example, when a population

s
reaches a
certain size, there will not be enough
resources (food, shelter, water)
 Density-dependent
limiting factors

Other factors include

s
1. Diseases and parasites
 Density-dependent
limiting factors

Other factors include

s
2. Competition
 Density-dependent
limiting factors

Other factors include

s
3. Predation
 Density-dependent
limiting factors

Other factors include

s
4. Emigration
 Carrying capacity
Population stops growing when it reaches the
maximum number of organisms that can be
supported or “carried”, by the
s environment. This
number is known as the population’s carrying capacity
in a particular environment.
 exponential
population growth
When a population experiences a
s
period of rapid growth
 exponential
population growth
During this period, there are plenty of
resources available for all organisms,
s so
more births are recorded than deaths of
organisms.
exponential
population growth

s
 Logistic growth

When resources are limited,

s

populations exhibit logistic growth.

 Logistic growth
In logistic growth, population expansion
decreases as resources become scarce, and it
levels off when the carryings capacity of the
environment is reached
Logistic growth

s
 Practice Exercises
Identify if the picture depicts or shows density-independent
limiting factors or density-dependent limiting factors.
_________1. Typhoon density-independent
s

_________2. Predation Density dependent

_________3. Emigration Density dependent
_________4. Global Warming density-independent
_________5. El Ñino density-independent