A General Outline of Arabic Language (Chapter - Two)
A General Outline of Arabic Language (Chapter - Two)
A General Outline of Arabic Language (Chapter - Two)
SATTAR IZWAINI
Introduction
Arabic is the official language of 22 countries in the Middle East and North
Africa, with a combined population of more than 300 million. Arabic is also
recognized either as a second official language or is studied in school
curriculum in many Muslim-majority countries. It is spoken by minorities
in countries such as Cyprus, Iran, Turkey and several central African
countries, as well as some areas in the former Soviet Union. 1 Arabic is the
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some exceptional poems. The Holy Qur’an and poetry are our main sources
of the kind of Arabic spoken at that time. Arabic had different geographical
dialects in the Arabian Peninsula that had distinct phonetic and
morphological features. One dialect used shƯn ε especially for the feminine
pronoun (what is called kashkashah), for example ζΑ ϼϫ ahlan bish
(welcome to you FEM 3) in contrast to ˶Ϛ˶Α biki. Another dialect used ‘am as
a definite article instead of al, e.g. ήϔδϣ imsafar (the-travelling) in contrast
to ήϔδϟ al-safar. The Hijazi dialect of Qureish, for example, did not in
general use the hamza as illustrated in the table below.
Islam played a significant role in creating a unified form of Arabic
(ϰΤμϔϟ fuۊ܈Ɨ). The Qur’an basically standardized Arabic as it uses a
combination of different dialects, mainly those of Quraysh and 7DPƯm.
3 Feminine ΚϧΆϣ
4 Al-Antaki, 1969: 90-91.
5 Masculine ήϛ˷ άϣ˵
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A General Outline of the Arabic Language 31
With the spread of Islam and non-Arab nations embracing it, the
linguistic contact influenced the right pronunciation and correct use in those
regions far away from Arabia. To take care of the right pronunciation,
especially when the Qur’an was recited, scholars started to refer to the Arabs
of the desert as the authority of the language, and recorded their linguistic
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usage to adopt it in their teaching, books and dictionaries. With the different
varieties of Classical Arabic (CA) and the expansion of the Islamic rule,
dialects of different tribes continued to be used in the new countries,
contributing to different geographical spoken varieties of Arabic in later
eras.
After the invasion of Baghdad by Hulagu in the thirteenth century and
the fall of Arab rule of Andalusia in the fifteenth century, Arabic
experienced a long period of stagnation when its teaching was limited to the
Qur’an, and its use in governmental administrations switched to other
languages such as Spanish, Persian and Turkish. Moreover, while Arabic
was the language of culture, civilization and scientific scholarship during
the long centuries of prosperous Islamic rule prior to this period, books and
scientific articles now were written on a very limited scale and mostly
within religious studies, leading to the stagnation of Arabic. By the
nineteenth century, when the establishment of Arab independent rule began,
national education systems were set up with Arabic as the language of
teaching, which was in some cases abandoned for foreign languages such
English and French in response to the policy of the foreign rule.
With that period of stagnation, very limited education, the use of Arabic
by Muslims who were non-native speakers, and contact with other
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32 Chapter Two
Varieties of Arabic
Arabic is usually categorised as Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern
Standard Arabic (MSA). The former refers to the Arabic whose earliest texts
goes back to the third century. Its sources are mainly the Holy Qur’an and
pre-Islamic poetry. It remained as the official and literary language until
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some time after the capture of Baghdad by Hulagu in the thirteenth century.
CA is the language of the Qur’an, classical literary and non-literary works.
It is characterised by its rich vocabulary and very elaborate grammar. It
developed and flourished when the Islamic civilization prospered and
experienced a movement of research and high education, including the
large-scale institutionalized translation of different works of sciences and
humanities.
Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), on the other hand, is used to refer to
the modern written Arabic that functions as a formal medium of
communication in the Arab world. MSA is a preserved CA that evolved
under the influence of a long period of stagnation, translation activity, and
modern style. It is mainly a written variety (see Table 2 below). There are
also different labels used to refer to modern Arabic such as literary Arabic
and contemporary Arabic. 6
Arabic is also looked at as having at least two varieties: the eloquent
variety (IXۊ܈Ɨ) where the line between CA and MSA is blurred, and the
vernacular or colloquial (ΔϴϣΎόϟ ҵƗmmiya or ΔΟέΪϟ dƗrija), which is mainly
6 See Bakalla, 1984: 85; Holes, 1995: 4; and Abd Al-$]Ư]1998: 143-163.
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A General Outline of the Arabic Language 33
Standard Colloquial
Formal Informal
Pan-Arab Geographical dialects
Spoken: official meetings, speeches, Spoken: everyday interaction.
sermons, rituals, ceremonies, media
(news bulletins, TV & radio
broadcasting), advertisements &
announcements.
Written: books, literary works, Written as if spoken: dialogues
essays, research papers, the printed (in literary works, films, drama,
press (newspapers and magazines), and plays), folk poetry, song
advertisements & announcements, lyrics, advertisements, TV &
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The variety number 4 is probably better called ϦϴϤϠόΘϤϟ ΔϴϣΎϋ ҵƗmmiyat al-
mutaҵlimƯn to refer to the kind of language spoken by those who have
attained some level of education.
It is worth noting here that features of standard Arabic can be widely
found in the spoken varieties of different Arabic dialects on different levels.
Apart from words, this includes particles, nunation (tanwƯn, see
Definiteness below), verb forms, and accusatives. For example, qad Ϊϗ
(pronounced gad) and the response expression labayk ϚϴΒϟ as well as
nunation are all used in some Gulf dialects. The use of kashkashah (using
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the shƯn ε for the feminine pronoun as discussed above), for example,
ζΑ ϼϫ ahlan bish (welcome to you FEM) in contrast to ˶Ϛ˶Α biki is still a
feature of some regional dialects in Arabia. In the Iraqi dialect, the absolute
object (ϖϠτϤϟ ϝϮόϔϤϟ) and the ‘double biconsonatal’ verbs (and their
corresponding nouns) are both used to indicate the intensity of action and,
e.g. yܒagܒig ϖτϘτϳ (to click repeatedly) and ykasrah takseer ήϴδϜΗ ϩήδϜϳ (to
break it into many pieces).
The term dialect is basically geographical in nature and is usually
associated with a certain country, though many dialects can be found in
different regions, cities, towns and even villages in that particular country.
Furthermore, a dialect of a certain country is usually linked to the one of the
capital that people from other countries are familiar with, for example, the
Cairo dialect is the one referred to as Egyptian dialect, the Iraqi dialect is
that of Baghdad, and the Syrian dialect is that of Damascus. Hence, one can
talk about macro-dialects and micro-dialects where the former is that of the
country-capital, and the latter of other cities or regions of the same country.
Arabic has also been subject to the influence of foreign languages
throughout its history. Initially it borrowed mainly from Greek and Persian.
In modern times, it has borrowed from European languages, English and
French in particular. Spoken Arabic of different dialects has also borrowed
from English, French, Italian, Persian and Turkish. The two varieties of
Arabic (standard and colloquial) led some writers, Arab and non-Arab, in
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to call for abandoning the standard
language and use the colloquial. Some of them even called for replacing the
Arabic script with the Latin script to copy the Turkish model. Their
argument was that in order to modernize the Arab world, the language
needed to be modernized first.
There have been calls to change the way Arabic is used and written.
Some writers called for using the spoken dialects as standard official
languages in countries such as Egypt and Lebanon. These include William
Willcocks, Karl Vollers, and Wilhelm Spitta in late nineteenth century, and
Selden Willmore and SalƗma MnjsƗ in the early twentieth century, and
$তPDG /X৬fƯ al-Sayyid in the mid-twentieth century who called for using
the Egyptian dialect instead of standard Arabic in Egypt, arguing that Arabic
was complicated and unable to deal with science and modern technology.
There was also a trend of using Latin letters in writing Arabic as a way of
modernization. This was advocated by Spitta, Abdel Azeez Fahmi, Anis
Fraiha and Saeed Aql, arguing that Arabic would be easier to handle and to
follow the modern world. A counter-trend launched a magazine in Egypt
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example, the pronunciation of the name Ϊϴό˸γ (sޏƯd) in Emirati dialect where
the first two consonants are adjacent in an initial position, i.e. there is no
vowel after the first consonant.
Vowels are those sounds that are produced with no obstruction of the air
flow is involved. Arabic has three long vowels Ɨ, nj, Ư (represented by the
letters ϒϟ, ϭϭ, and ˯Ύϳ respectively) which are the long versions of the short
vowels that are represented by the ۊarakƗt (diacritics), fatۊa (a), ڲamma (u),
and kasra (i) respectively (see Table 3 below). The letters ϭ (waw) and ϱ
(yƗ )ގare also used to represent two consonants that are semi-vowels since
they sound like vowels, which makes these two letters serve a double role
as vowels and as consonants. Arabic semi-vowels usually occur initially as
in Ϊϟϭ walad (boy) and έΎδϳ yasƗr (left) (see Table 4 below). These are
phonologically different form the long vowels nj ϭϭ as in έϮϧ nnjr (light) and
Ư ˯Ύϴϟ like ϢϳΪϗ qadƯm (old).
One aspect of the Arabic writing system is the diacritic forms (ۊarakƗt
or tashkƯl) of its three short vowels, which are not usually written since word
pronunciation can be easily recognized by native speakers (see Table 3
above). However, short vowels are fully represented in the Qur’an and
children’s books to ensure correct pronunciation, and elsewhere to clarify
the difference in meaning, for example, ή˰ ˶ϤόΘδϣ˵ mustaҵmir (colonizer) and
ή˰Ϥ˴ όΘδϣ˵ mustaҵmar (colonized). While not having actual characters to
represent the short vowels can be problematic in getting the right meaning
of words, especially in natural language processing and machine translation,
Arabic writing is thus economical in that words are much shorter than a
written form with the vowels represented as actual letters. Being represented
by diacritics, short vowels are inaccurately looked at as secondary to the
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A General Outline of the Arabic Language 37
other sounds (consonants and long vowels) since the latter are written as
letters. Sometimes people are misled by the written form into the thinking
that the alif ϒϟ, wƗw ϭϭ, and yƗҴ ˯Ύϴϟ are the only vowels of Arabic. Arabic
has two diphthongs which are a combination of two vowels. These are ai as
in Ζϴ˴Α bait (home) and aw as in ϡϮ˴ϧ nawm (sleeping).
Gemination in Arabic is having a double consonant sound which is
represented by the diacritic (˰˷˰˰) as in darrasa αέΩ ˷ (to teach). When words
that start with one of a group of 14 consonants (called shamsƯ letters
ΔϴδϤθϟ ϑήΣϷ) are definite (by adding ϒϳήόΘϟ ϝ al at the beginning), the l
sound of the definite article changes into that first consonant of that word
and assimilates with it to produce a double sound. For example, the definite
form of βϤη shams (sun) is ashshams. The 14 consonants are ί έ Ϋ Ω Ι Ε
ϥ ϝ υ ρ ν ι ε α.
The Arabic alphabet is made of 29 letters including the hamza (glottal
stop) which is usually neglected or confused with the alif only because it is
mostly written along with an alif. Arabic writing used to use no signs for
vowels, which were added along with letter dots in the eighth century. Some
letters, especially the alif, are still not written in words such as ϦϜϟ lƗkin (but)
and ϩ˶άϫ hƗdhihi (this FEM). The final tƗ’ (tƗ’ marbnjtah) when at the end of
a word is written as a tƗ’, but pronounced as a hƗ’ (˰ϫ) and thus called
ϒϗϮϟ ˯Ύϫ (roughly the pause hƗ’), for example ΔΒϴϘΣ ۊaqƯba (bag). When it is
in the first word of a construct (compound of two elements), it is usually
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pronounced as tƗ’ /t/, as in ΪϟϮϟ ΔΒϴϘΣ ۊaqƯbat al-walad (the boy’s bag). 10 9F
Morphology
The morphological scale ϲϓήμϟ ϥΰϴϤϟ al-mƯzƗn al-܈arfƯ is the standard
procedure that designates the morphological forms of the Arabic words. If
we take the root k t b (denoting the notion of writing), we will have the
pattern of the verb kataba ΐΘϛ˴ (to write), the agent (doer) is of the pattern
ΐΗΎϛ NƗWLE (writer), ΔΒΘϜϣ matabah (library) and ΐΘϜϣ maktab (desk/office).
Also, an initial hamza makes the verb, among other things, transitive, for
example Ϣ˰˶Ϡ˰ϋ
˴ ޏalima (to know) and ϢϠϋ DҵODPD (to inform). Adding the prefix
ist can make the verb denote request, e.g. istaktaba ΐΘϜΘγ (request to write
down). Other meanings include appointment as in έίϮΘγ istawzara (to
appoint as a minister) and opinion as in ήϜϨΘγ istankara (to find
unacceptable/improper).
The vocabulary of Arabic is based on consonantal roots and derivational
10 The case marker (ΔϴΑήϋϻ ΔϛήΤϟ) is not represented in the transliterated form since
it depends on the sentence structure in which the word is used.
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38 Chapter Two
Inflection
Arabic has a sophisticated inflectional system. Nouns have three cases
(ΔϴΑήϋ ΕϻΎΣ): nominative ϊϓήϟ, accusative ΐμϨϟ/ΔϴϟϮόϔϤϟ, and genitive ήΠϟ
with exceptions that are made according to certain conditions. Nominative
is the case of the subject ϞϋΎϔϟ, topic ΪΘΒϤϟ, or comment ήΒΨϟ as well as the
topic of the group of kƗna (i.e. ϥΎϛ Ϣγ), and the comment of the group of
‘inna (ϥ·
˷ ήΒΧ).
Accusative is the case of objects, vocatives ϯΩΎϨϤϟ, and nouns preceded
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Definiteness
Definiteness is realized by adding the article al (ϒϳήόΘϟ ϝ) at the beginning
of the word. Indefiniteness, on the other hand, is marked by having no
definite article attached; instead, nunation (ϦϳϮϨΗ) occurs, which means
adding an n sound at a final position after the case-ending vowel
(ΔϴΑήϋϻ ΔϛήΤϟ) of a single noun, an adjective, regular feminine plural, and
irregular plural. Nunation is also a characteristic of some adverbs such
adverb of time as in ˱ϼ ϴϟ ΎϧήϓΎγ sƗfarna leilan (we travelled at night), adverb
of manner ϝΎΤϟ as in ˱ Ύπϛέ ˯ΎΟ jƗҴa rƗkiڲan (he came running), absolute
object ϖϠτϤϟ ϝϮόϔϤϟ as in ˱ ΎϤϴψϋ ˱ ΎΣήϓ Ρήϓ fariۊa faraۊan ҵDܲƯPDQ (he felt so
happy), and adverbs of frequency as in ˱ ΎϤΩ dƗҴiman (always) and ˱ έΩΎϧ
nƗdiran (rarely). Nunation can be found in some spoken varieties, such as
the Gulf area dialects, but with the genitive case (έϭήΠϣ) in all positions.
Gender
Nouns and adjectives have two genders: masculine (ήϛάϣ) and feminine
(ΚϧΆϣ), for example, ϞΟέ rajul (man) and Γήϣ· imraҴa (woman). The
masculine is also used as a generic form for mixed and neutral gender. Some
words can be neutral or common for both masculine and feminine such as
κΨη shaܵ( ܈person) and ΔϨϴϫέ rahƯna (hostage). The feminine gender is
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Number
Arabic has a singular form, a dual form for two only ϰϨΜϣ˵ muthanƗ (dual),
and a plural form for more than two. The dual marker is the suffix Ɨni for
the nominative ϊϓήϟ ΔϟΎΣ as in ϥΎ
˶ ϔυϮϣ muwaܲܲafƗni (2 employees MASC) and
˶
ϥΎΘϔυϮϣ muwaܲܲafatƗni (2 employees FEM), and ayni for the accusative
ΐμϨϟ/ΔϴϟϮόϔϤϟ and genitive ήΠϟ as in Ϧϴ˶ ˰˴˰ϔυϮϣ muwaܲܲafayni (2 employees
MASC) and ϦϴΘϔυϮϣ
˶ muwaܲܲafatayni (2 employees FEM). The plural can be
regular or irregular. Regular plural complies with gender in that the
masculine form takes the marker njn for the nominative as in ϥϮϔυϮϣ
muwaܲܲafnjn (employers MASC), and Ưn for the accusative and genitive as
in ϦϴϔυϮϣ muwaܲܲafƯn. The regular feminine plural takes the final marker Ɨt.
The nominative case is Ɨtu, e.g. ˵ΕΎϔυϮϣ muwaܲܲafƗtu (employers FEM), and
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40 Chapter Two
the accusative and genitive cases are Ɨti as in Ε ˶ ΎϔυϮϣ PXZDܲܲafƗti (see
Definiteness above).
Irregular plurals can also have patterns. Such patterns are also analogical
in that nouns and adjectives of a particular form have a common structure
according to which it is constructed. Different plural forms can denote
different meanings, e.g. Ζϴ˴Α bayt (home), ΕϮϴ˵Α buynjt (homes), and ΕΎϴΑ
ҴDE\ƗW(lines of poetry). The plural form is the pattern of analogy if no root
can be traced for the word. This is particularly useful for loan words whose
plural form is the regular feminine (ϢϟΎγ ΚϧΆϣ ϊϤΟ), for example, ΕΎϧϮϳΰϔϠΗ
tilfizynjnƗt (TV sets).
Lexis
Arabic vocabulary is mainly coined by derivation according to the
morphological scale ϲϓήμϟ ϥΰϴϤϟ. Words are derived according to the
analogical patterns that function as lexical templates. Words are generally
produced by root-and-pattern and affixation. Derivatives of roots are usually
linked by the core meaning of the root (see the example of k t b in
Morphology above). Words are derived according to patterns of semantic
significance. Forms of present participle ϞϋΎϔϟ Ϣγ as in ϖΎγ sƗҴiq (driver),
past participle ϝϮόϔϤϟ Ϣγ as in έϮδϜϣ maksnjr (broken), tools and machines
Δϟϵ Ϣγ e.g. ΩήΒ˶ϣ mibrad (file/rasp), ΡΎΘϔϣ miftƗ( ۊkey), comparative and
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superlative ϞϴπϔΘϟ Ϣγ, e.g. ήΒϛ ҴDNEDU (bigger, elder), diminutive ήϴϐμΘϟ e.g.
ΐϴΘ˰˵˰ϛ kutayyib (booklet), ήϴϬ˵ϧ nuhayr (small river), and place as in βϠΠϣ
majlis (sitting/meeting place) are all derived according to those patterns.
Translation has also introduced compounds that reflect the foreign word
formation processes: ΔϴΠδϔϨΒϟ ϕϮϓ fawq al-banafsajiya (ultraviolet),
˯ήϤΤϟ ΖΤΗ taۊt al-ۊDPrƗҴ (infrared) and ϲϜϠγϻ lƗsilkƯ (wireless/radio).
Syntax
Syntax is the way in which sentences and phrases are formed and structured.
Generally speaking, Arabic has two kinds of sentences, a verbal sentence
(ΔϴϠόϓ ΔϠϤΟ) and a nominal sentence (ΔϴϤγ ΔϠϤΟ). The verbal sentence starts
with a verb and can be of the following patterns:
VS (verb + subject)
Ϟ˵ Οήϟ ˯˴ ΎΟ
jƗҴa al-rajulu
(came the-man)
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A General Outline of the Arabic Language 41
ҴDWƗQƗ al-rabƯҵu
(came-us the-spring)
The nominal sentence is a topic and comment (ήΒΧϭ ΪΘΒϣ mubtadaҴ and
khabar). It starts with the subject which is mostly a noun, and can be of the
following patterns:
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42 Chapter Two
SV (subject + verb)
˯ΎΟ ˲Ϊ ϤΤϣ
0Xۊammadun jƗҴ
(Muhammad came)
SC (subject + complement)
ΔόΘϤϣ ΔμϘϟ
al-qi܈atu mumtiҵatun
(the-story entertaining)
SA (subject + adverb)
˱ ΪϏ ϝ
˵ ΎϔΘΣϻ
al-iۊtifƗlu ghadan
(the-celebration tomorrow)
[on the-tree (is a) bird]. In some patterns of a verbal sentence, the verb does
not inflect, i.e. its form does not necessarily change to agree with the
subject’s number and gender. However, in a nominal sentence, it agrees
with the subject’s number and gender (see Inflection above and Tables 6
and 7 below).
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Arabic Heritage in the Post-Abbasid Period, edited by Imed Nsiri, Cambridge Scholars Publisher, 2019. ProQuest Ebook
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Created from aus-ebooks on 2020-09-08 22:03:57.
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Arabic Heritage in the Post-Abbasid Period, edited by Imed Nsiri, Cambridge Scholars Publisher, 2019. ProQuest Ebook
Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aus-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5721574.
Created from aus-ebooks on 2020-09-08 22:03:57.
A General Outline of the Arabic Language 45
and when its word formation mechanisms are exploited. This takes
us to the issue of terminology, which is a long-lasting problem. This
is because of the very large number of terms created in other
languages with no Arabic counterparts, as well as the multiplicity of
Arabic terms for one concept, the slow and problem-laden
coordination of translation and creation of terms.
Bibliography
Copyright © 2019. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved.
Arabic Heritage in the Post-Abbasid Period, edited by Imed Nsiri, Cambridge Scholars Publisher, 2019. ProQuest Ebook
Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aus-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5721574.
Created from aus-ebooks on 2020-09-08 22:03:57.
A General Outline of the Arabic Language 47
Arabic Heritage in the Post-Abbasid Period, edited by Imed Nsiri, Cambridge Scholars Publisher, 2019. ProQuest Ebook
Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aus-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5721574.
Created from aus-ebooks on 2020-09-08 22:03:57.
Copyright © 2019. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved.
Arabic Heritage in the Post-Abbasid Period, edited by Imed Nsiri, Cambridge Scholars Publisher, 2019. ProQuest Ebook
Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aus-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5721574.
Created from aus-ebooks on 2020-09-08 22:03:57.