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Chapter 5 ♦ Developing a Global Vision 1

CHAPTER 5 Developing a Global Vision

This chapter begins with the learning outcome summaries, followed by a set of lesson plans for you to use
to deliver the content in Chapter 5.
Lecture (for large sections) on page 3
Company Clips (video) on page 4
Group Work (for smaller sections) on page 6
Review and Assignments begin on page 7
 Review questions
 Application questions
 Application exercise
 Ethics exercise
 Video Assignment
 Case Assignment – P&G, Unilever, Panasonic
Great Ideas for Teaching Marketing from faculty around the country begin on page 18

We’ve also created integrated cases that cover the topics in Chapters 1 through 5.
• Nestle on page 23
• Telekom Austria on page 27

Chapter 5 ♦ Developing a Global Vision 2

LEARNING OUTCOMES

5-1 Discuss the importance of global marketing

Businesspeople who adopt a global vision are better able to identify global marketing opportunities, understand the
nature of global networks, create effective global marketing strategies, and compete against foreign competition in
domestic markets. Large corporations have traditionally been the major global competitors, but more and more small
businesses are entering the global marketplace. Despite fears of job losses to other countries with cheaper labor, there
are many benefits to globalization, including the reduction of poverty and increased standards of living.

5-2 Discuss the impact of multinational firms on the world economy

Multinational corporations are international traders that regularly operate across national borders. Because of their
vast size and financial, technological, and material resources, multinational corporations have great influence on the
world economy. They have the ability to overcome trade problems, save on labor costs, and tap new technology.
There are critics and supporters of multinational corporations, and the critics question the actual benefits of bringing
capital-intensive technology to impoverished nations. Many countries block foreign investment in factories, land,
and companies to protect their economies. Some companies presume that markets throughout the world are more
and more similar, so some global products can be standardized across global markets.
5-3 Describe the external environment facing global marketers
Global marketers face the same environmental factors as they do domestically: culture, economic and technological
development, the global economy, political structure and actions, demography, and natural resources. Cultural
considerations include societal values, attitudes and beliefs, language, and customary business practices. A country’s
economic and technological status depends on its stage of industrial development, which, in turn, affects average
family incomes. A global marketer today must be fully aware of the intertwined nature of the global economy. The
political structure is shaped by political ideology and such policies as tariffs, quotas, boycotts, exchange controls,
trade agreements, and market groupings. Demographic variables include the size of a population and its age and
geographic distribution. A shortage of natural resources also affects the external environment by dictating what is
available and at what price.
5-4 Identify the various ways of entering the global marketplace
Firms use the following strategies to enter global markets, in descending order of risk and profit: direct investment,
joint venture, contract manufacturing, licensing and franchising, and exporting.
5-5 List the basic elements involved in developing a global marketing mix
A firm’s major consideration is how much it will adjust the four Ps—product, promotion, place (distribution), and
price—within each country. One strategy is to use one product and one promotion message worldwide. A second
strategy is to create new products for global markets. A third strategy is to keep the product basically the same but
alter the promotional message. A fourth strategy is to alter the product slightly to meet local conditions.
5-6 Discover how the Internet is affecting global marketing
Simply opening an e-commerce site can open the door for international sales. International carriers, such as UPS, can
help solve logistics problems. Language translation software can help an e-commerce business become multilingual.
Yet cultural differences and old-line rules, regulations, and taxes hinder rapid development of e-commerce in many
countries. Global marketers use social media not only for understanding consumers but also to build their brands as
they expand internationally.

Chapter 5 ♦ Developing a Global Vision 3

TERMS
buyer for export exporting joint venture
capital intensive floating exchange rates licensing
General Agreement on Tariffs and
contract manufacturing Mercosur
Trade (GATT)
countertrade global marketing standardization multidomestic strategy
direct foreign investment global marketing multinational corporation
Dominican Republic-Central
North American Free Trade
America Free Trade Agreement global vision
Agreement (NAFTA)
(CAFTA-DR)
dumping gross domestic product (GDP) outsourcing
European Union (EU) Group of Twenty (G-20) Uruguay Round
exchange rate inshoring World Bank
World Trade Organization
export agent International Monetary Fund (IMF)
(WTO)
export broker

LESSON PLAN FOR LECTURE

Brief Outline and Suggested PowerPoint Slides:

Learning Outcomes and Topics PowerPoint Slides

LO1 Discuss the importance of global marketing 1: Developing a Global Vision
2: Learning Outcomes
5-1 Rewards of Global Marketing 3: Learning Outcomes
4: Rewards of Global Marketing and the Shifting
Global Business Landscape
5: Rewards of Global Marketing
6: Importance of Global Marketing to the U.S.
7: Job Outsourcing and Inshoring
8: Benefits of Globalization

LO2 Discuss the impact of multinational firms on the 9: Multinational Firms

world economy 10: Stages of Global Business Development
11: Are Multinationals Beneficial?
5-2 Multinational Firms 12: Global Marketing Standardization

Chapter 5 ♦ Developing a Global Vision 4

LO3 Describe the external environment facing global 13: External Environment Facing Global Marketers
marketers 14: External Environment Facing Global Marketers
15: Culture
5-3 External Environment Facing Global 16: Culture
Marketers 17: Economic Development
18: The Global Economy
19: Economic Development
20: Political Structure and Actions
21: Legal Considerations
22: Political and Legal Considerations
23: Doha Round
24: Political and Legal Considerations
25: Exhibit 5.1: Members of G-20
26: Demographic Makeup
27: Natural Resources

LO4 Identify the various ways of entering the global 28: Global Marketing by the Individual Firm
marketplace 29: Why “Go Global”?
30: Exhibit 5.2: Risk Levels for Five Methods of
5-4 Global Marketing by the Individual Firm Entering the Global Marketplace
31: Entering the Global Marketplace
32: Export Intermediaries

LO5 List the basic elements involved in developing a 33: The Global Marketing Mix
global marketing mix 34: The Global Marketing Mix
35: Product and Promotion
5-5 The Global Marketing Mix 36: Place (Distribution)
37: Pricing
38: Exchange Rates
39: Dumping
40: Dumping
41: Countertrade

LO6 Discover how the Internet is affecting global 42: The Impact of the Internet
marketing 43: The Impact of the Internet
44: Social Media
6.1 The Impact of the Internet 45: Chapter 5 Video
46: Part 1 Video

Suggested Homework:
• The end of this chapter contains an assignment on the Nederlander Organization video and the Nissan case.
• This chapter’s online study tools include flashcards, visual summaries, practice quizzes, and other resources that
can be assigned or used as the basis for longer investigations into marketing.

LESSON PLAN FOR VIDEO

Company Clips
Segment Summary: The Nederlander Organization
The Nederlander Organization is a theatre management company that manages a global network of Broadway style
theatres. In this video clip, top management discusses how the Nederlander Organization grew from a small mid-west
theatre management company into a global brand that helps successful producers move from Broadway to a global
tour circuit.

Chapter 5 ♦ Developing a Global Vision 5

Another document from Scribd.com that is
random and unrelated content:
 prédécesseur vous a accordé par grâce les trois arpens de
terrain qu’il occupe, je puis les reprendre et vous envoyer
porter vos autels et votre fanatisme ailleurs. Ce lieu-ci est la
maison du Père commun des hommes, bons ou méchans, et je
veux entrer quand il me plaira. Je ne m’accuse point à vous;
quand je daignerois vous consulter, vous n’en savez pas assez
pour me conseiller sur ma conduite, et de quel front vous
immiscez-veus d’en juger?’ Mais le plat empereur ne parla
pas ainsi, et l’évêque savoit bien à qui il avoit à faire. Le
statuaire nous l’a montré dans le moment de son insolent
apostrophe.’
In Diderot’s criticisms on Art, which are often quoted even now, there
is in general a far better taste than prevailed in his time, and much good
sense; but a low tone of sentiment when he had to deal with imaginative
or religious Art, and an intolerable coarseness—‘most mischievous foul
sin in chiding sin.’

S .A .

St. Austin. Lat. Sanctus Augustinus. Ital. Sant’ Agostino.

Fr. St. Augustin. (Aug. 28, . . 430.)
St. Augustine, the third of the Doctors of the Church, was born at
Tagaste, in Numidia, in 354. His father was a heathen; his mother,
Monica, a Christian. Endowed with splendid talents, a vivid imagination,
and strong passions, Augustine passed his restless youth in dissipated
pleasures, in desultory studies, changing from one faith to another,
dissatisfied with himself and unsettled in mind. His mother, Monica,
wept and prayed for him, and, in the extremity of her anguish, repaired to
the bishop of Carthage. After listening to her sorrows, he dismissed her
with these words: ‘Go in peace; the son of so many tears will not perish!’
Augustine soon afterwards went to Rome, where he gained fame and
riches by his eloquence at the bar; but he was still unhappy and restless,
nowhere finding peace either in labour or in pleasure. From Rome he
went to Milan; there, after listening for some time to the preaching of
Ambrose, he was, after many struggles, converted to the faith, and was
baptized by the bishop of Milan, in presence of his mother, Monica. On
this occasion was composed the hymn called the ‘Te Deum,’ still in use
in our Church; St. Ambrose and St. Augustine reciting the verses
alternately as they advanced to the altar. Augustine, after some time
spent in study, was ordained priest, and then bishop of Hippo, a small
town and territory not far from Carthage. Once installed in his bishopric,
he ever afterwards refused to leave the flock intrusted to his care, or to
accept of any higher dignity. His life was passed in the practice of every
virtue: all that he possessed was spent in hospitality and charity, and his
time was devoted to the instruction of his flock, either by preaching or
writing. In 430, after he had presided over his diocese for thirty-five
years, the city of Hippo was besieged by the Vandals; in the midst of the
horrors that ensued, Augustine refused to leave his people, and died
during the siege, being then in his seventy-sixth year. It is said that his
remains were afterwards removed from Africa to Pavia, by Luitprand,
king of the Lombards. His writings in defence of Christianity are
numerous and celebrated; and he is regarded as the patron saint of
theologians and learned men.
Of his glorious tomb, in the Cathedral of Pavia, I can only say that its
beauty as a work of art astonished me. I had not been prepared for
anything so rich, so elegant in taste, and so elaborate in invention. It is of
the finest florid Gothic, worked in white marble, scarcely discoloured by
time. Augustine lies upon a bier, and angels of exquisite grace are
folding his shroud around him. The basso-relievos represent the events
of his life; the statues of the evangelists, apostles, and other saints
connected with the history of the Church, are full of dignity and
character. It comprises in all 290 figures. This magnificent shrine is
attributed by Cicognara to the Jacobelli of Venice, and by Vasari to the
two brothers Agostino and Agnolo of Siena; but he does not speak with
certainty, and the date 1362 seems to justify the supposition of
Cicognara, the Sienese brothers being then eighty or ninety years old.
Single figures of St. Augustine are not common; and when grouped
with others in devotional pictures, it is not easy to distinguish him from
other bishops; for his proper attribute, the heart flaming or transpierced,
to express the ardour of his piety or the poignancy of his repentance, is
very seldom introduced: but when a bishop is standing with a book in his
hand, or a pen, accompanied by St. Jerome, and with no particular
attribute, we may suppose it to be St. Augustine; and when the title of
one of his famous writings is inscribed on the book, it of course fixes the
identity beyond a doubt.
1. B. Vivarini. St. Augustine seated on a throne, as patron saint, mitred
and robed; alone, stern, and majestic.[272]
 2. Dosso Dossi. St. Augustine throned as patron, attended by two
angels; he looks like a jovial patriarch.[273]
3. F. Filippo Lippi. St. Augustine writing in his chamber; no emblem,
no mitre; yet the personalité so marked, that one could not mistake him
either for Ambrose or Jerome.[274]
4. Andrea del Sarto. St. Augustine as doctor; before him stand St.
Dominic and St. Peter Martyr; beside him St. Laurence, listening; in
front kneel St. Sebastian and Mary Magdalen.[275]
5. V. Carpaccio. St. Augustine standing; a fine, stern, majestic figure;
he holds his book and scourge.[276]
6. Paris Bordone. The Virgin and Child enthroned; the Virgin places
on the head of St. Augustine, who kneels before her, the jewelled mitre.
[277]

7. Florigerio. St. Augustine, as bishop, and St. Monica, veiled, stand

on each side of the Madonna.[278]

As a series of subjects, the history of St. Augustine is not commonly

met with; yet certain events in his life are of very frequent occurrence.
I shall begin with the earliest.
1. Monica brings her son to school; the master receives him; the
scholars are sitting in a row conning their hornbooks. The names of
Monica and Augustine are inscribed in the glories round their heads.
This is a very curious little oval picture of the early part of the fourteenth
century.[279]
Benozzo Gozzoli has painted the same subject in a large fresco in the
church of San Geminiano at Volterra ( . . 1460). Monica presents her
son to the schoolmaster, who caresses him; in the background a little boy
is being whipped, precisely in the same attitude in which correction is
administered to this day in some of our schools.
2. St. Augustine under the fig-tree meditating, with the inscription,
‘Dolores animæ salutem parturientes;’ and the same subject varied, with
the inscription, Tolle, lege. He tells us in his Confessions, that while still
unconverted and in deep communion with his friend Alypius on the
subject of the Scriptures, the contest within his mind was such that he
rushed from the presence of his friend and threw himself down beneath a
fig-tree, pouring forth torrents of repentant tears; and he heard a voice, as
it were the voice of a child, repeating several times, ‘Tolle, lege,’ ‘Take
and read;’ and returning to the place where he had left his friend, and
taking up the sacred volume, he opened it at the verse of St. Paul’s
Epistle to the Romans, ‘Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in
chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying; but put ye on the
Lord Jesus Christ, and make not provision for the flesh.’ Considering
that this was the voice of God, he took up the religious profession, to the
great joy of his mother and his friend.
3. C. Procaccino. The Baptism of St. Augustine in the presence of St.
Monica. This is a common subject in chapels dedicated to St. Augustine
or St. Monica.[280]
4. As the supposed founder of one of the four great religious
communities, St. Augustine is sometimes represented as giving the rules
to his Order: or in the act of writing them, while his monks stand around,
as in a picture by Carletto Cagliari:[281] both are common subjects in the
houses of the Augustine friars. The habit is black.[282]
5. St. Augustine dispensing alms, generally in a black habit, and with a
bishop’s mitre on his head.
6. St. Augustine, washing the feet of the pilgrims, sees Christ descend
from above to have his feet washed with the rest; a large picture in the
Bologna Academy by Desubleo, a painter whose works, with this one
exception, are unknown to me. The saint wears the black habit of an
Augustine friar, and is attended by a monk with a napkin in his hand. I
found the same subject in the Louvre, in a Spanish picture of the
seventeenth century; above is seen a church (like the Pantheon) in a
glory, and Christ is supposed to utter the words, ‘Tibi commendo
Ecclesiam meam.’[283]
7. St. Augustine, borne aloft by angels in an ecstatic vision, beholds
Christ in the opening heavens above, St. Monica kneeling below. This
fine picture, by Vandyck, is or was in the gallery of Lord Methuen at
Corsham: and at Madrid there is another example, by Murillo: St.
Augustine kneeling in an ecstasy sees a celestial vision; on one hand the
Saviour crucified, on the other the Virgin and angels.
 [89] The Vision of St. Augustine (Murillo)

This, however, is not the famous subject called, in general, 8. ‘The

Vision of St. Augustine,’ which represents a dream or vision related by
himself. He tells us that while busied in writing his Discourse on the
Trinity, he wandered along the sea-shore lost in meditation. Suddenly he
beheld a child, who, having dug a hole in the sand, appeared to be
bringing water from the sea to fill it. Augustine inquired what was the
object of his task? He replied, that he intended to empty into this cavity
all the waters of the great deep. ‘Impossible!’ exclaimed Augustine. ‘Not
more impossible,’ replied the child, ‘than for thee, O Augustine! to
explain the mystery on which thou art now meditating.’
No subject from the history of St. Augustine has been so often treated,
yet I do not remember any very early example. It was adopted as a
favourite theme when Art became rather theological than religious, and
more intent on illustrating the dogmas of churchmen than the teaching of
Christ. During the 16th and 17th centuries we find it everywhere, and
treated in every variety of style; but the motif does not vary, and the same
fault prevails too generally, of giving us a material fact, rather than a
spiritual vision or revelation. Augustine, arrayed in his black habit or his
episcopal robes, stands on the sea-shore, gazing with an astonished air on
the Infant Christ, who pauses, and looks up from his task, holding a
bowl, a cup, a ladle, or a shell in his hand. Thus we have it in Murillo’s
picture—the most beautiful example I have seen: the child is heavenly,
but not visionary, ‘palpable to feeling as to sense.’
In Garofalo’s picture of this subject, now in our National Gallery,
Augustine is seated on a rock by the margin of the sea, habited in his
episcopal robes, and with his books and writing implements near him;
and while he gazes on the mysterious child, the Virgin appears amid a
choir of angels above: behind Augustine stands St. Catherine, the patron
saint of theologians and scholars: the little red figure in the background
represents St. Stephen, whose life and actions are eloquently set forth in
the homilies of St. Augustine: the introduction of St. Catherine, St.
Stephen, and the whole court of heaven, gives the picture a visionary
character. Rubens has painted this subject with all his powerful reality:
here Augustine wears the black habit of his Order. Vandyck in his large
grand picture has introduced St. Monica kneeling, thus giving at once the
devotional or visionary character.[284] Albert Dürer has designed and
engraved the same subject. The most singular treatment is the classical
composition of Raphael, in one of the small chiaro-scuro pictures placed
significantly under the ‘Dispute of the Sacrament.’ St. Augustine is in a
Roman dress, bare-beaded, and on horseback; his horse starts and rears
at the sight of the miraculous child.
There is something at once picturesque and mystical in this subject,
which has rendered it a favourite with artists and theologians; yet there is
always, at least in every instance I can recollect, something prosaic and
literal in the treatment which spoils the poetry of the conception.
9. ‘St. Augustine and St. Stephen bury ‘Count Orgaz’—the
masterpiece of Domenico el Greco, once in the Cathedral of Toledo, now
in the Madrid Gallery. This Conde de Orgaz, as Mr. Ford tells us in his
Handbook, lived in 1312, and had repaired a church in his lifetime, and
therefore St. Stephen and St. Augustine came down from heaven to lay
him in his tomb, in presence of Christ, the Virgin, and all the court of
heaven. ‘The black and gold armour of the dead Count is equal to Titian;
the red brocades and copes of the saints are admirable; less good are the
Virgin and celestial groups. I have before mentioned the reason why St.
Augustine and St. Stephen are often represented in companionship.
St. Monica is often introduced into pictures of her son, where she has,
of course, the secondary place; her dress is usually a black robe, and a
veil or coif, white or grey, resembling that of a nun or a widow. I have
met with but one picture where she is supreme; it is in the Carmine at
Florence. St. Monica is seated on a throne and attended by twelve holy
women or female saints, six on each side. The very dark situation of this
picture prevented me from distinguishing individually the saints around
her, but Monica herself as well as the other figures have that grandiose
air which belongs to the painter—Filippo Lippi.
I saw in the atelier of the painter Ary Scheffer, in 1845, an admirable
picture of St. Augustine and his mother Monica. The two figures, not
quite full length, are seated; she holds his hand in both hers, looking up
to heaven with an expression of enthusiastic undoubting faith;— ‘the son
of so many tears cannot be cast away!’ He also is looking up with an
ardent, eager, but anxious, doubtful expression, which seems to say,
‘Help thou my unbelief!’ For profound and truthful feeling and
significance, I know few things in the compass of modern Art that can be
compared to this picture.[285]

S .G .

Lat. Sanctus Gregorius Magnus. Ital. San Gregorio Magno

or Papa. Fr. St. Grégoire. Ger. Der Heilige Gregor. (March 12,
. . 604.)
The fourth Doctor of the Latin Church, St. Gregory, styled, and not
without reason, Gregory the Great, was one of those extraordinary men
whose influence is not only felt in their own time, but through long
succeeding ages. The events of his troubled and splendid pontificate
belong to history; and I shall merely throw together here such particulars
of his life and character as may serve to render the multiplied
representations of him both intelligible and interesting. He was born at
Rome in the year 540. His father, Gordian, was of senatorial rank: his
mother, Sylvia, who, in the history of St. Gregory, is almost as important
as St. Monica in the story of St. Augustine, was a woman of rare
endowments, and, during his childish years, the watchful instructress of
her son. It is recorded that when he was still an infant she was favoured
by a vision of St. Antony, in which he promised to her son the supreme
dignity of the tiara. Gregory, however, commenced his career in life as a
lawyer, and exercised during twelve years the office of prætor or chief
magistrate of his native city; yet, while apparently engrossed by secular
affairs, he became deeply imbued with the religious enthusiasm which
was characteristic of his time and hereditary in his family. Immediately
on the death of his father he devoted all the wealth he had inherited to
pious and charitable purposes, converted his paternal home on the Celian
Hill into a monastery and hospital for the poor, which he dedicated to St.
Andrew: then, retiring to a little cell within it, he took the habit of the
Benedictine Order, and gave up all his time to study and preparation for
the duties to which he had devoted himself. On the occasion of a terrific
plague which almost depopulated Rome, he fearlessly undertook the care
of the poor and sick. Pope Pelagius having died at this time, the people
with one voice called upon Gregory to succeed him: but he shrank from
the high office, and wrote to the Emperor Maurice, entreating him not to
ratify the choice of the people. The emperor sent an edict confirming his
election, and thereupon Gregory fled from Rome, and bid himself in a
cave. Those who went in search of him were directed to the place of his
concealment by a celestial light, and the fugitive was discovered and
brought back to Rome.
No sooner had he assumed the tiara, thus forced upon him against his
will, than he showed himself in all respects worthy of his elevation.
While he asserted the dignity of his station, he was distinguished by his
personal humility: he was the first pope who took the title of ‘Servant of
the Servants of God;’ he abolished slavery throughout Christendom on
religious grounds; though enthusiastic in making converts, he set himself
against persecution; and when the Jews of Sardinia appealed to him, he
commanded that the synagogues which had been taken from them, and
converted into churches, should be restored. He was the first who sent
missionaries to preach the Gospel in England, roused to pity by the sight
of some British captives exposed for sale in the market at Rome.
Shocked at the idea of an eternity of vengeance and torment, if he did not
originate the belief in purgatory, he was at least the first who preached it
publicly, and made it an article of faith. In his hatred of war, of
persecution, of slavery, he stepped not only in advance of his own time,
but of ours. He instituted the celibacy of the clergy, one of the boldest
strokes of ecclesiastical power; he reformed the services of the Church;
defined the model of the Roman liturgy, such as it has ever since
remained—the offices of the priests, the variety and change of the
sacerdotal garments; he arranged the music of the chants, and he himself
trained the choristers. ‘Experience,’ says Gibbon, ‘had shown him the
efficacy of these solemn and pompous rites to soothe the distress, to
confirm the faith, to mitigate the fierceness, and to dispel the dark
enthusiasm of the vulgar; and he readily forgave their tendency to
promote the reign of priesthood and superstition.’ If, at a period when
credulity and ignorance were universal, he showed himself in some
instances credulous and ignorant, it seems hardly a reproach to one in
other respects so good and so great.
His charity was boundless, and his vigilance indefatigable: he
considered himself responsible for every sheep of the flock intrusted to
him; and when a beggar died of hunger in the streets of Rome, he laid
himself under a sentence of penance and excommunication, and
interdicted himself for several days from the exercise of his sacerdotal
functions.
Such was St. Gregory the Great, the last pope who was canonised:
celestial honours and worldly titles have often been worse—seldom so
well—bestowed.

During the last two years of his life, his health, early impaired by fasts
and vigils, failed entirely, and he was unable to rise from his couch. He
died in 604, in the fourteenth year of his pontificate. They still preserve,
in the church of the Lateran at Rome, his bed, and the little scourge with
which he was wont to keep the choristers in order.
The monastery of St. Andrew, which he founded on the Celian Hill, is
now the church of San Gregorio. To stand on the summit of the majestic
flight of steps which leads to the portal, and look across to the ruined
palace of the Cæsars, makes the mind giddy with the rush of thoughts.
There, before us, the Palatine Hill—pagan Rome in dust: here, the little
cell, a few feet square, where slept in sackcloth the man who gave the
last blow to the power of the Cæsars, and first set his foot as sovereign
on the cradle and capital of their greatness.
St. Gregory was in person tall and corpulent, and of a dark
complexion, with black hair, and very little beard. He speaks in one of
his epistles of his large size, contrasted with his weakness and painful
infirmities. He presented to the monastery of St. Andrew his own
portrait, and those of his father, and his mother St. Sylvia: they were still
in existence 300 years after his death, and the portrait of Gregory
probably furnished that particular type of physiognomy which we trace
in all the best representations of him, in which he appears of a tall, large,
and dignified person, with a broad full face, black hair and eyebrows,
and little or no beard.
As he was, next to St. Jerome, the most popular of the Four Doctors,
single figures of him abound. They are variously treated: in general, he
bears the tiara as pope, and the crosier with the double cross, in common
with other papal saints; but his peculiar attribute is the dove, which in the
old pictures is always close to his ear. He is often seated on a throne in
the pontifical robes, wearing the tiara: one hand raised in benediction; in
the other a book, which represents his homilies, and other famous works
attributed to him: the dove either rests on his shoulder, or is hovering
over his head. He is thus represented in the fine statue, designed, as it is
said, by M. Angelo, and executed by Cordieri, in the chapel of St.
Barbara, in San Gregorio, Rome; and in the picture over the altar-piece
of his chapel, to the right of the high altar. In the Salviati Chapel, on the
left, is the ‘St. Gregory in prayer,’ by Annibal Caracci. He is seen in
front bareheaded, but arrayed in the pontifical habit, kneeling on a
cushion, his hands outspread and uplifted; the dove descends from on
high; the tiara is at his feet, and eight angels hover around:—a grand,
finely-coloured, but, in sentiment, rather cold and mannered picture.[286]
By Guercino, St. Gregory seated on a throne, looking upwards, his
hand on an open book, in act to turn the leaves; the dove hovers at his
shoulder: to the left stands St. Francis Xavier; on the right, and more in
front, St. Ignatius Loyola. Behind St. Gregory is an angel playing on the
viol, in allusion to his love and patronage of sacred music; in front an
infant angel holds the tiara. The type usually adopted in figures of St.
Gregory is here exaggerated into coarseness, and the picture altogether
appears to me more remarkable for Guercino’s faults than for his
beauties.[287]

Several of the legends connected with the history of St. Gregory are of
singular interest and beauty, and have afforded a number of picturesque
themes for Art: they appear to have arisen out of his exceeding
popularity. They are all expressive of the veneration in which he was
held by the people; of the deep impression left on their minds by his
eloquence, his sanctity, his charity; and of the authority imputed to his
numerous writings, which commonly said to have been dictated by the
Holy Spirit.

1. John the deacon, his secretary, who has left a full account of his life,
declares that he beheld the Holy Ghost in the form of a dove perched
upon his shoulder while he was writing or dictating his famous homilies.
This vision, or rather figure of speech, has been interpreted as a fact by
the early painters. Thus, in a quaint old picture in the Bologna Gallery,
we have St. Gregory seated on a throne writing, the celestial dove at his
ear. A little behind is seen John the deacon, drawing aside a curtain, and
looking into the room at his patron with an expression of the most naïve
astonishment.
2. The Archangel Michael, on the cessation of the pestilence, sheathes
his sword on the summit of the Mole of Hadrian. I have never seen even
a tolerable picture of this magnificent subject. There is a picture in the
Vatican, in which Gregory and a procession of priests are singing
litanies, and in the distance a little Mola di Adriano, with a little angel on
the summit;—curious, but without merit of any kind.
3. The Supper of St. Gregory. It is related that when Gregory was only
a monk, in the Monastery of St. Andrew, a beggar presented himself at
the gate, and requested alms: being relieved, he came again and again,
and at length nothing was left for the charitable saint to bestow, but the
silver porringer in which his mother, Sylvia, had sent him a potage; and
he commanded that this should be given to the mendicant. It was his
custom, when he became pope, to entertain every evening at his own
table twelve poor men, in remembrance of the number of our Lord’s
apostles. One night, as he sat at supper with his guests, he saw, to his
surprise, not twelve, but thirteen seated at his table. And he called to his
steward, and said to him, ‘Did I not command thee to invite twelve? and
behold, there are thirteen!’ And the steward told them over, and replied,
‘Holy Father, there are surely twelve only!’ and Gregory held his peace;
and after the meal, he called forth the unbidden guest, and asked him,
‘Who art thou?’ And he replied, ‘I am the poor man whom thou didst
formerly relieve; but my name is the Wonderful, and through me thou
shalt obtain whatever thou shalt ask of God.’ Then Gregory knew that he
had entertained an angel (or, according to another version of the story,
our Lord himself). This legend has been a frequent subject in painting,
under the title of ‘The Supper of St. Gregory.’ In the fresco in his church
at Rome, it is a winged angel who appears at the supper-table. In the
fresco of Paul Veronese, one of his famous banquet-scenes, the stranger
seated at the table is the Saviour habited as a pilgrim.[288] In the picture
painted by Vasari, his masterpiece, now in the Bologna Gallery, he has
introduced a great number of figures and portraits of distinguished
personages of his own time, St. Gregory being represented under the
likeness of Clement VII. The unbidden guest, or angel, bears the features
of the Saviour.
This is one of many beautiful mythic legends, founded on the words of
St. Paul in which he so strongly recommends hospitality as one of the
virtues: ‘Be not forgetful to entertain strangers: for thereby some have
entertained angels unawares.’ (Heb. xiii. 2.) Or, as Massinger has
rendered the apostolic precept,—
Learn all,
By this example, to look on the poor
With gentle eyes, for in such habits often
Angels desire an alms.

4. The Mass of St. Gregory. On a certain occasion, when St. Gregory

was officiating at the mass, one who was near him doubted the real
presence; thereupon, at the prayer of the saint, a vision is suddenly
revealed of the crucified Saviour himself, who descends upon the altar,
surrounded by the instruments of his passion. This legend has been a
popular subject of painting from the beginning of the fifteenth century,
and is called ‘The Mass of St. Gregory.’ I have met with it in every
variety of treatment and grouping; but, however treated, it is not a
pleasing subject. St. Gregory is seen officiating at the altar, surrounded
by his attendant clergy. Sometimes several saints are introduced in a
poetical manner, as witnesses of the miracle: as in an old picture I saw in
the gallery of Lord Northwick;—the crucified Saviour descends from the
cross, and stands on the altar, or is upborne in the air by angels; while all
the incidental circumstances and instruments of the Passion,—not merely
the crown of thorns, the spear, the nails, but the kiss of Judas, the
soldiers’ dice, the cock that crew to Peter,—are seen floating in the air.
As a specimen of the utmost naïveté in this representation may be
mentioned Albert Dürer’s woodcut.
 The least offensive and most elegant in treatment is the marble bas-
relief in front of the altar in the Chapel of St. Gregory at Rome.

5. The miracle of the Brandeum. The Empress Constantia sent to St.

Gregory requesting some of the relics of St. Peter and St. Paul. He
excused himself, saying that he dared not disturb their sacred remains for
such a purpose, but he sent her part of a consecrated cloth (Brandeum)
which had enfolded the body of St. John the Evangelist. The empress
rejected this gift with contempt: whereupon Gregory, to show that such
things are hallowed not so much in themselves as by the faith of
believers, laid the Brandeum on the altar, and after praying he took up a
knife and pierced it, and blood flowed as from a living body. This
incident, called the ‘miracle dei Brandei,’ has also been painted. Andrea
Sacchi has represented it in a grand picture now in the Vatican; the
mosaic copy is over the altar of St. Gregory in St. Peter’s. Gregory holds
up to view the bleeding cloth, and the expression of astonishment and
conviction in the countenances of the assistants is very fine.
6. St. Gregory releases the soul of the Emperor Trajan. In a little
picture in the Bologna Academy, he is seen praying before a tomb, on
which is inscribed T I ; beneath are two angels raising
the soul of Trajan out of the flames. Such is the usual treatment of this
curious and poetical legend, which is thus related in the Legenda Aurea:
—‘It happened on a time, as Trajan was hastening to battle at the head of
his legions, that a poor widow flung herself in his path, and cried aloud
for justice, and the emperor stayed to listen to her; and she demanded
vengeance for the innocent blood of her son, killed by the son of the
emperor. Trajan promised to do her justice when he returned from his
expedition. “But, Sire,” answered the widow, “should you be killed in
battle, who then will do me justice?” “My successor,” replied Trajan.
And she said, “What will it signify to you, great emperor, that any other
than yourself should do me justice? Is it not better that you should do this
good action yourself than leave another to do it?” And Trajan alighted,
and having examined into the affair, he gave up his own son to her in
place of him she had lost, and bestowed on her likewise a rich dowry.
Now, it came to pass that as Gregory was one day meditating in his daily
walk, this action of the Emperor Trajan came into his mind, and he wept
bitterly to think that a man so just should be condemned as a heathen to
eternal punishment. And entering into a church he prayed most fervently
that the soul of the good emperor might be released from torment. And a
voice said to him, “I have granted thy prayer, and I have spared the soul
of Trajan for thy sake; but because thou hast supplicated for one whom
the justice of God had already condemned, thou shalt choose one of two
things: either thou shalt endure for two days the fires of purgatory, or
thou shalt be sick and infirm for the remainder of thy life.” Gregory
chose the latter, which sufficiently accounts for the grievous pains and
infirmities to which this great and good man was subjected, even to the
day of his death.’
This story of Trajan was extremely popular in the middle ages: it is
illustrative of the character of Gregory, and the feeling which gave rise to
his doctrine of purgatory. Dante twice alludes to it; he describes it as one
of the subjects sculptured on the walls of Purgatory, and takes occasion
to relate the whole story:—
... There was storied on the rock
Th’ exalted glory of the Roman prince,
Whose mighty worth moved Gregory to earn
His mighty conquest—Trajan the Emperor.
A widow at his bridle stood attired
In tears and mourning. Round about them troop’d
Full throng of knights: and overhead in gold
The eagles floated, struggling with the wind.
The wretch appear’d amid all these to say:
‘Grant vengeance, Sire! for, woe beshrew this heart,
My son is murder’d!’ He, replying, seem’d:
‘Wait now till I return.’ And she, as one
Made hasty by her grief: ‘O Sire, if thou
Dost not return?’—‘Where I am, who then is,
May right thee.’—‘What to thee is others’ good,
If thou neglect thy own?’—‘Now comfort thee,’
At length he answers. ‘It beseemeth well
My duty be perform’d, ere I move hence.
So justice wills; and pity bids me stay.’
Cary’s D , Purg. x.

It was through the efficacy of St. Gregory’s intercession that Dante

afterwards finds Trajan in Paradise, seated between King David and
King Hezekiah. (Par. xx.)
As a subject of painting, the story of Trajan was sometimes selected as
an appropriate ornament for a hall of justice. We find it sculptured on
one of the capitals of the pillars of the Ducal Palace at Venice: there is
the figure of the widow kneeling, somewhat stiff, but very simple and
expressive, and over it in rude ancient letters—‘Trajano Imperador, che
die justizia a la Vedova.’ In the Town Hall of Ceneda, near Belluna, are
the three Judgments (i tre Giudizi), painted by Pompeo Amalteo: the
Judgment of Solomon, the Judgment of Daniel, and the Judgment of
Trajan. It is painted in the Town Hall of Brescia by Giulio Campi, one of
a series of eight righteous judgments.
I found the same subject in the church of St. Thomas of Canterbury at
Verona. ‘The son of the Emperor Trajan trampling over the son of the
widow’ is a most curious composition by Hans Schaufelein.[289]

7. There was a monk, who, in defiance of his vow of poverty, secreted

in his cell three pieces of gold. Gregory, on learning this,
excommunicated him, and shortly afterwards the monk died. When
Gregory heard that the monk had perished in his sin, without receiving
absolution, he was filled with grief and horror; and he wrote upon a
parchment a prayer and a form of absolution, and gave it to one of his
deacons, desiring him to go to the grave of the deceased and read it
there: on the following night the monk appeared in a vision, and revealed
to him his release from torment.
This story is represented in the beautiful bas-relief in white marble in
front of the altar of his chapel; it is the last compartment on the right.
The obvious intention of this wild legend is to give effect to the doctrine
of purgatory, and the efficacy of prayers for the dead.
St. Gregory’s merciful doctrine of purgatory also suggested those
pictures so often found in chapels dedicated to the service of the dead, in
which he is represented in the attitude of supplication, while on one side,
or in the background, angels are raising the tormented souls out of the
flames.
In ecclesiastical decoration I have seen the two popes, St. Gelasius,
who reformed the calendar in 494, and St. Celestinus, who arranged the
discipline of the monastic orders, added to the series of beatified Doctors
of the Church.

II. THE FOUR GREEK FATHERS.

 The Four Greek Fathers are St. John Chrysostom, St. Basil the Great,
St. Athanasius, and St. Gregory Nazianzen. To these, in Greek pictures, a
fifth is generally added, St. Cyril of Alexandria.
From the time of the schism between the Eastern and Western
Churches, these venerable personages, who once exercised such an
influence over all Christendom, who preceded the Latin Fathers, and
were in fact their teachers, have been almost banished from the religious
representations of the west of Europe. When they are introduced
collectively as a part of the decoration of an ecclesiastical edifice, we
may conclude in general, that the work is Byzantine and executed under
the influence of Greek artists.
A signal example is the central dome of the baptistery of St. Mark’s at
Venice, executed by Greek artists of the 12th and 13th centuries. In the
four spandrils of the vault are the Greek Fathers seated, writing (if I well
remember), and in the purest Byzantine style of art. They occupy the
same places here that we find usually occupied by the Latin Doctors in
church decoration: each has his name inscribed in Greek characters. We
have exactly the same representation in the Cathedral of Monreale at
Palermo. The Greek Fathers have no attributes to distinguish them, and
the general custom in Byzantine Art of inscribing the names over each
figure renders this unnecessary: in general, each holds a book, or, in
some instances, a scroll, which represents his writings; while the right
hand is raised in benediction, in the Greek manner, the first and second
finger extended, and the thumb and third finger forming a cross.
According to the formula published by M. Didron, each of the Greek
Fathers bears on a scroll the first words of some remarkable passage
from his works: thus, St. John Chrysostom has ‘God, our God, who hath
given us for food the bread of life,’ &c.: St. Basil, ‘None of those who
are in the bondage of fleshly desires are worthy,’ &c.: St. Athanasius,
‘Often, and anew, do we flee to thee, O God,’ &c.: St. Gregory
Nazianzen, ‘God, the holy among the holies, the thrice holy,’ &c.: and
St. Cyril, ‘Above all, a Virgin without sin or blemish,’ &c.
 The five Greek Fathers.

The Greek bishops do not wear mitres; consequently, when in the

Italian or German pictures St. Basil or any of his companions wear the
mitre, it is a mistake arising from the ignorance of the artist.
The Fathers of the Greek Church have been represented by
Domenichino at Grotta Ferrata, placed over the cornice and under the
evangelists, their proper place: they are majestic figures, with fine heads,
and correctly draped according to the Greek ecclesiastical costume. They
are placed here with peculiar propriety, because the convent originally
belonged to the Greek order of St. Basil, and the founder, St. Nilus, was
a Greek.[290]
The etched outline, from a beautiful ancient Greek miniature, will give
an accurate idea of the characteristic figures and habits of the Greek
Fathers.

As separate devotional and historical representations of these Fathers

do sometimes, though rarely, occur, I shall say a few words of them
individually.
 S .J C .

Lat. Sanctus Johannes Chrysostom. Ital. San Giovanni

Crisostomo, San Giovanni Bocca d’ Oro. Fr. St. Jean
Chrysostome. Died Sept. 14, . . 407. His festival is
celebrated by the Greeks on the 13th of November, and by the
Latin Church on the 27th of January.
St. John, called C , or G M , because of
his extraordinary eloquence, was born at Antioch in 344. His parents
were illustrious, and the career opened to him was of arts and arms; but
from his infancy the bent of his mind was peculiar. He lost his father
when young; his mother Arthusia, still in the prime of her life, remained
a widow for his sake, and superintended his education with care and
intelligence. The remark of Sir James Mackintosh that ‘all distinguished
men have had able mothers,’ appears especially true of the great
churchmen and poets. The mother of St. John Chrysostom ranks with the
Monicas and Sylvias, already described.
John, at the age of twenty, was already a renowned pleader at the bar.
At the age of twenty-six, the disposition to self-abnegation and the
passion for solitude, which had distinguished him from boyhood, became
so strong, that he wished to retire altogether from the world; his legal
studies, his legal honours, had become hateful to him: he would turn
hermit. For a time his mother’s tears and prayers restrained him. He has
himself recorded the pathetic remonstrance in which she reminded him
of all she had done and suffered in her state of widowhood for his sake,
and besought him not to leave her. For the present he yielded: but two
years later he fled from society, and passed five or six years in the
wilderness near Antioch, devoting himself solely to the study of the
Scriptures, to penance and prayer; feeding on the wild vegetables, and
leading a life of such rigorous abstinence that his health sank under it,
and he was obliged to return to Antioch.
All this time he was not even an ordained priest; but shortly after he
had emerged from the desert, Flavian, bishop of Antioch, ordained him,
and appointed him preacher. At the moment of his consecration,
according to the tradition, a white dove descended on his head, which
was regarded as the sign of immediate inspiration. He then entered on his
true vocation as a Christian orator, the greatest next to Paul. On one
occasion, when the people of Antioch had offended the Emperor
Theodosius, and were threatened with a punishment like that which had
fallen on Thessalonica, the eloquence of St. John Chrysostom saved
them: he was so adored by the people, that when he was appointed
patriarch of Constantinople, it was necessary to kidnap him, and carry
him off from Antioch by a force of armed soldiers, before the citizens
had time to interfere.
From the moment he entered on his high office at Constantinople, he
became the model of a Christian bishop. Humble, self-denying, sleeping
on a bare plank, content with a little bread and pulse, he entertained with
hospitality the poor and strangers: indefatigable as a preacher, he used
his great gift of eloquence to convert his hearers to what he believed to
be the truth: he united the enthusiasm and the imagination of the poet,
the elegant taste of the scholar, the logic of the pleader, with the inspired
earnestness of one who had authority from above. He was, like St.
Jerome, remarkable for his influence over women; and his
correspondence with one of his female converts and friends, Olympias, is
considered one of the finest of his works remaining to us: but, inexorable
in his denunciations of vice, without regard to sex or station, he
thundered against the irregularities of the monks, the luxury and
profligacy of the Empress Eudosia, and the servility of her flatterers, and
brought down upon himself the vengeance of that haughty woman, with
whom the rest of his life was one long contest. He was banished: the
voice of the people obliged the emperor to recall him. Persisting in the
resolute defence of his church privileges, and his animadversions on the
court and the clergy, he was again banished; and, on his way to his
distant place of exile, sank under fatigue and the cruel treatment of his
guards, who exposed him, bareheaded and bare-footed, to the burning
sun of noon: and thus he perished, in the tenth year of his bishopric, and
the sixty-third of his age. Gibbon adds, that, at the pious solicitation of
the clergy and people of Constantinople, his relics, thirty years after his
death, were transported from their obscure sepulchre to the royal city.
The Emperor Theodosius advanced to receive them as far as Chalcedon,
and, falling prostrate on the coffin, implored, in the name of his guilty
parents, Arcadius and Eudosia, the forgiveness of the injured saint.‘

It is owing, I suppose, to the intercourse of Venice with the East, that

one of her beautiful churches is dedicated to San Gian Grisostomo, as
they call him there, in accents as soft and sonorous as his own Greek.
Over the high altar is the grandest devotional picture in which I have
seen this saint figure as a chief personage. It is the masterpiece of
Sebastian del Piombo,[291] and represents St. John Chrysostom throned
and in the act of writing in a great book; behind him, St. Paul. In front, to
the right, stands St. John the Baptist, and behind him St. George as
patron of Venice; to the left Mary Magdalene, with a beautiful Venetian
face; behind her, St. Catherine, patroness of Venice: close to St. J.
Chrysostom stands St. Lucia holding her lamp; she is here the type of
celestial light or wisdom.[292] This picture was for a long time attributed
to Giorgione. There was also a very fine majestic figure of this saint by
Rubens, in the collection of M. Schamp: he is in the habit of a Greek
bishop; in one hand he holds the sacramental cup, and the left hand rests
on the Gospel: the celestial dove hovers near him, and two angels are in
attendance.

I cannot quit the history of St. John Chrysostom without alluding to a

subject well known to collectors and amateurs, and popularly called ‘La
Pénitence de St. Jean Chrysostome.’ It represents a woman undraped,
seated in a cave, or wilderness, with an infant in her arms; or lying on the
ground with a new-born infant beside her; in the distance is seen a man
with a glory round his head, meagre, naked, bearded, crawling on his
hands and knees in the most abject attitude; beneath, or at the top, is
inscribed S. J C .
For a long time this subject perplexed me exceedingly, as I was quite
unable to trace it in any of the biographies of Chrysostom, ancient or
modern: the kindness of a friend, learned in all the byways as well as the
highways of Italian literature, at length assisted me to an explanation.
 90 The Penance of St. Chrysostom (Albert Dürer)

The bitter enmity excited against St. John Chrysostom in his lifetime,
and the furious vituperations of his adversary, Theophilus of Alexandria,
who denounced him as one stained by every vice, ‘hostem humanitatis,
sacrilegorum principem, immundum dæmonem,’ as a wretch who had
absolutely delivered up his soul to Satan, were apparently disseminated
by the monks. Jerome translated the abusive attack of Theophilus into
Latin; and long after the slanders against Chrysostom had been silenced
in the East, they survived in the West. To this may be added the slaughter
of the Egyptian monks by the friends of Chrysostom in the streets of
Constantinople; which, I suppose, was also retained in the traditions, and
mixed up with the monkish fictions. It seems to have been forgotten who
John Chrysostom really was; his name only survived in the popular
ballads and legends as an epitome of every horrible crime; and to
account for his being, notwithstanding all this, a saint, was a difficulty
which in the old legend is surmounted after a very original, and, I must
needs add, a very audacious fashion. ‘I have,’ writes my friend, ‘three
editions of this legend in Italian, with the title La Historia di San
Giovanni Boccadoro. It is in ottava rima, thirty-six stanzas in all,
occupying two leaves of letter-press. It was originally composed in the
fifteenth century, and reprinted again and again, like the ballads and tales
hawked by itinerant ballad-mongers, from that day to this, and as well
known to the lower orders as “Jack the Giant-killer” here. I will give you
the story as succinctly and as properly as I can. A gentleman of the high
roads, named Schitano, confesses his robberies and murders to a certain
Frate, who absolves him, upon a solemn promise not to do three things—
Che tu non facci falso sacramento,
Nè homicidio, nè adulterare.

Schitano thereupon takes possession of a cave, and turns Romito

(Hermit) in the wilderness. A neighbouring king takes his daughter out
hunting with him; a white deer starts across their path; the king dashes
away in pursuit ten miles or more, forgetting his daughter; night comes
on; the princess, left alone in the forest, wanders till she sees a light, and
knocks for admittance at the cave of Schitano. He fancies at first that it
must be the “Demonio,” but at length he admits her after long hesitation,
and turns her horse out to graze. Her beauty tempts him to break one of
his vows; the fear of discovery induces him to violate another by
murdering her, and throwing her body into a cistern. The horse, however,
is seen by one of the cavaliers of the court, who knocks and inquires if he
has seen a certain “donzella” that way? The hermit swears that he has not
beheld a Christian face for three years, thus breaking his third vow; but,
reflecting on this three-fold sin with horror, he imposes on himself a
most severe penance (“un’ aspra penitenza”), to wit—
Di stare sette anni nell’ aspro diserto.
Pane non mangerò nè berò vino,
Nè mai risguarderò il ciel scoperto,
Non parlerò Hebraico nè Latino,
 Per fin che quel ch’ io dico non è certo,
Che un fantin di sei di porga favella,
“Perdonato t’ ha Dio; va alla tua cella.”

That is, he swears that for seven years he will neither eat bread nor
drink wine, nor look up in the face of heaven, nor speak either Hebrew or
Latin, until it shall come to pass that an infant of seven days old shall
open its mouth and say, “Heaven hath pardoned thee—go in peace.” So,
stripping off his clothes, he crawls on hands and knees like the beasts of
the field, eating grass and drinking water.
‘Nor did his resolution fail him—he persists in this “aspra penitenza”
for seven years—
Sette anni e sette giorni nel diserto;
Come le bestie andava lui carpone,
E mai non risguardò il ciel scoperto,
Peloso egli era a modo d’ un montone;
Spine e fango il suo letto era per certo,
Del suo peccato havea contrizione;
E ogni cosa facea con gran fervore,
Per purgar il suo fallo e grand’ errore.

In the meantime it came into the king’s head to draw the covers where
the hermit was leading this life. The dogs of course found, but neither
they nor the king could make anything of this new species of animal,
“che pareva un orso.” So they took him home in a chain and deposited
him in their zoological collection, where he refused meat and bread, and
persisted in grazing. On new year’s day the queen gives birth to a son,
who, on the seventh day after he is born, says distinctly to the hermit,—
Torna alla tua cella,
Che Dio t’ ha perdonato il tuo peccato,
Levati su, Romito! ova favella!

But the hermit does not speak as commanded; he makes signs that he
will write. The king orders the inkstand to be brought, but there is no ink
in it: so Schitano at once earns his surname of Boccadoro (Chrysostom)
by a simple expedient: he puts the pen to his mouth, wets it with his
saliva, and writes in letters of gold—
Onde la penna in bocca si metteva,
E a scrivere cominciò senza dimoro,
Col sputo, lettere che parevan d’ oro!
 ‘After seven years and seven days, he opens his golden mouth in
speech, and confesses his foul crimes to the king; cavaliers are
despatched in search of the body of the princess; as they approach the
cavern they hear celestial music, and in the end they bring the donzella
out of the cistern alive and well, and very sorry to leave the blessed
Virgin and the angels, with whom she had been passing her time most
agreeably: she is restored to her parents with universal festa e allegrezza,
and she announces to the hermit that he is pardoned and may return to
his cell, which he does forthwith, and ends in leading the life of a saint,
and being beatified. The “discreti auditori” are invited to take example—
Da questo Santo pien di leggiadria
Che Iddio sempre perdona a’ peccatori,

and are finally informed that they may purchase this edifying history
on easy terms, to wit, a halfpenny—
Due quattrini dia senza far più parole.

The price, however, rose; for in the next century the line is altered
thus:—
Pero ciascun che comperarne vuole,
Tre quattrini mi dia senza più parole.’

The woodcuts prefixed to the ballad represent this saintly

Nebuchadnezzar on all fours, surprised by the king with his huntsmen
and dogs; but no female figure, as in the German prints, in which the
German version of the legend has evidently been in the mind of the
artists. It differs in some respects from the Italian ballad. I shall therefore
give as much of it here as will explain the artistic treatment of the story.
‘When John Chrysostom was baptized, the Pope[293] stood
godfather. At seven years old he went to school, but he was so
dull and backward, that he became the laughing-stock of his
schoolfellows. Unable to endure their mockery, he took
refuge in a neighbouring church, and prayed to the Virgin;
and a voice whispered, “Kiss me on the mouth, and thou shalt
be endowed with all learning.” He did so, and, returning to
the school, he surpassed all his companions, so that they
remained in astonishment: as they looked, they saw a golden
ring or streak round his mouth, and asked him how it came
there? and when he told them, they wondered yet more.
Thence he obtained the name of Chrysostom. John was much
beloved by his godfather the Pope, who ordained him priest at
a very early age; but the first time he offered the sacrifice of
the mass, he was struck to the heart by his unworthiness, and
resolved to seek his salvation in solitude; therefore, throwing
off his priestly garments, he fled from the city, and made his
dwelling in a cavern of the rock, and lived there a long while
in prayer and meditation.
‘Now not far from the wilderness in which Chrysostom
dwelt, was the capital of a great king; and it happened that
one day, as the princess his daughter, who was young and
very fair, was walking with her companions, there came a
sudden and violent gust of wind, which lifted her up and
carried her away, and set her down in the forest, far off; and
she wandered about till she came to the cave of Chrysostom,
and knocked at the door. He, fearing some temptation of the
devil, would not let her in; but she entreated, and said, “I am
no demon, but a Christian woman; and if thou leavest me
here, the wild beasts will devour me!” So he yielded perforce,
and arose and let her in. And he drew a line down the middle
of his cell, and said, “That is your part, this is mine; and
neither shall pass this line.” But this precaution was in vain,
for passion and temptation overpowered his virtue; he over-
stepped the line, and sinned. Both repented sorely; and
Chrysostom, thinking that if the damsel remained longer in
his cave it would only occasion further sin, carried her to a
neighbouring precipice, and flung her down. When he had
done this deed, he was seized with horror and remorse; and he
departed and went to Rome to his godfather the Pope, and
confessed all, and entreated absolution. But his godfather
knew him not; and, being seized with horror, he drove him
forth, and refused to absolve him. So the unhappy sinner fled
to the wilderness, and made a solemn vow that he would
never rise from the earth nor look up, but crawl on his hands
and knees, until he had expiated his great sin and was
absolved by Heaven.
‘When he had thus crawled on the earth for fifteen years,
the queen brought forth a son; and when the Pope came to
 baptize the child, the infant opened its mouth and said, “I will
not be baptized by thee, but by St. John;” and he repeated this
three times: and none could understand this miracle; but the
Pope was afraid to proceed. In the meantime, the king’s
huntsmen had gone to the forest to bring home game for the
christening feast: there, as they rode, they beheld a strange
beast creeping on the ground; and not knowing what it might
be, they threw a mantle over it and bound it in a chain and
brought it to the palace. Many came to look on this strange
beast, and with them came the nurse with the king’s son in her
arms; and immediately the child opened its mouth and spake,
“John, come thou and baptize me!” He answered, “If it be
God’s will, speak again!” And the child spoke the same words
a second and a third time. Then John stood up; and the hair
and the moss fell from his body, and they brought him
garments; and he took the child, and baptized him with great
devotion.
‘When the king heard his confession, he thought, “Perhaps
this was my daughter, who was lost and never found;” and he
sent messengers into the forest to seek for the remains of his
daughter, that her bones at least might rest in consecrated
ground. When they came to the foot of the precipice, there
they found a beautiful woman seated, naked, and holding a
child in her arms; and John said to her, “Why sittest thou here
alone in the wilderness?” And she said, “Dost thou not know
me? I am the woman who came to thy cave by night, and
whom thou didst hurl down this rock!” Then they brought her
home with great joy to her parents.‘[294]
This extravagant legend becomes interesting for two reasons: it shows
the existence of the popular feeling and belief with regard to
Chrysostom, long subsequent to those events which aroused the hatred of
the early monks; and it has been, from its popular notoriety, embodied in
some rare and valuable works of art, which all go under the name of ‘the
Penance or Penitence of Johannes Chrysostom or Crisostomos.’
1. A rare print by Lucas Cranach, composed and engraved by himself.
In the centre is an undraped woman reclining on the ground against a
rock, and contemplating her sleeping infant, which is lying on her lap; a
stag, a hind crouching, a pheasant feeding near her, express the solitude
of her life; in the background is ‘the savage man’ on all fours, and
browsing: here, he has no glory round his head. The whole composition
is exceedingly picturesque.
2. A rare and beautiful print by B. Beham, and repeated by Hans
Sebald Beham, represents a woman lying on the ground with her back
turned to the spectator; a child is near her; Chrysostom is seen crawling
in the background, with the glory round his head.
3. A small print by Albert Dürer, also exquisitely engraved (from
which I give a sketch). Here the woman is sitting at the entrance of a
rocky cave, feeding her child from her bosom: in the background the
‘savage man’ crawling on all fours, and a glory round his head. This
subject has been called St. Geneviève of Brabant; but it is evidently the
same as in the two last-named compositions.
All these prints, being nearly contemporaneous, show that the legend
must have been particularly popular about this time (1509-1520). There
is also an old French version of the story which I have not seen.

S .B G .

Lat. St. Basilius Magnus. Ital. San Basilio Magno. Fr. St.
Basile. (June 14, . . 380.)
St. Basil, called the Great, was born at Cesarea in Cappadocia, in the
year 328. He was one of a family of saints. His father St. Basil, his
mother St. Emmelie, his two brothers St. Gregory of Nyssa and St. Peter
of Sebaste, and his sister St. Macrina, were all distinguished for their
sanctity, and renowned in the Greek calendar. The St. Basil who takes
rank as the second luminary of the Eastern Church, and whose
dogmatical and theological works influenced the faith of his own age,
and consequently of ours, was the greatest of all. But, notwithstanding
his importance in the Greek Church, he figures so seldom in the
productions of Western Art, that I shall content myself with relating just
so much of his life and actions as may render the few representations of
him interesting and intelligible.
He owed his first education to his grandmother St. Macrina the elder, a
woman of singular capacity and attainments, to whom he has in various
parts of his works acknowledged his obligations. For several years he
pursued his studies in profane learning, philosophy, law, and eloquence,
at Constantinople, and afterwards at Athens, where he had two
companions and fellow-students of very opposite character: Gregory of
Nazianzen, afterwards the Saint; and Julian, afterwards the Apostate.
The success of the youthful Basil in all his studies, and the reputation
he had obtained as an eloquent pleader, for a time swelled his heart with
vanity, and would have endangered his salvation but for the influence of
his sister, St. Macrina, who in this emergency preserved him from
himself, and elevated his mind to far higher aims than those of mere
worldly science and worldly distinction. From that period, and he was
then not more than twenty-eight, Basil turned his thoughts solely to the
edification of the Christian Church; but first he spent some years in
retreat among the hermits of the desert, as was the fashion of that day,
living, as they did, in abstinence, poverty, and abstracted study;
acknowledging neither country, family, home, nor friends, nor fortune,
nor worldly interests of any kind, but with his thoughts fixed solely on
eternal life in another world. In these austerities he, as was also usual,
consumed and ruined his bodily health; and remained to the end of his
life a feeble wretched invalid,—a circumstance which was supposed to
contribute greatly to his sanctity. He was ordained priest in 362, and
bishop of Cesarea in 370; his ordination on the 14th of June being kept
as one of the great feasts of the Eastern Church.
On the episcopal throne he led the same life of abstinence and
humility as in a cavern of the desert; and contended for the doctrine of
the Trinity against the Arians, but with less of vehemence, and more of
charity, than the other Doctors engaged in the same controversy. The
principal event of his life was his opposition to the Emperor Valens, who
professed Arianism, and required that, in the Church of Cesarea, Basil
should perform the rites according to the custom of the Arians. The
bishop refused: he was threatened with exile, confiscation, death: he
persisted. The emperor, fearing a tumult, resolved to appear in the church
on the day of the Epiphany, but not to communicate. He came, hoping to
overawe the impracticable bishop, surrounded by all his state, his
courtiers, his guards. He found Basil so intent on his sacred office as to
take not the slightest notice of him; those of the clergy around him
continued to chant the service, keeping their eyes fixed in the
profoundest awe and respect on the countenance of their bishop. Valens,
in a situation new to him, became agitated: he had brought his oblation;
he advanced with it; but the ministers at the altar, not knowing whether
Basil would accept it, dared not take it from his hands. Valens stood
there for a moment in sight of all the people, rejected before the altar,—
he lost his presence of mind, trembled, swooned, and would have fallen
to the earth, if one of the attendants had not received him in his arms. A
conference afterwards took place between Basil and the emperor; but the
latter remained unconverted, and some concessions to the Catholics was
all that the bishop obtained.
St. Basil died in 379, worn out by disease, and leaving behind him
many theological writings. His epistles, above all, are celebrated, not
only as models of orthodoxy, but of style.
Of St. Basil, as of St. Gregory and St. John Chrysostom, we have the
story of the Holy Ghost, in visible form as a dove of wonderful
whiteness, perched on his shoulder, and inspiring his words when he
preached. St. Basil is also celebrated as the founder of Monachism in the
East. He was the first who enjoined the vows of poverty, chastity, and
obedience; and his Rule became the model of all other monastic Orders.
There is, in fact, no other Order in the Greek Church, and when either
monks or nuns appear in a Greek or a Russian picture they must be
Basilicans, and no other: the habit is a plain black tunic with a cowl, the
tunic fastened round the waist with a girdle of cord or leather. Such is the
dress of the Greek caloyer, and it never varies.

The devotional figures of St. Basil represent him, or ought to represent

him, in the Greek pontificals, bareheaded, and with a thin worn
countenance, as he appears in the etching of the Greek Fathers.

‘The Emperor Valens in the church at Cesarea,’ an admirably

picturesque subject, has received as little justice as the scene between
Ambrose and Theodosius. When the French painter Subleyras was at
Rome in 1745, he raised himself to name and fame by his portrait of
Benedict XIV.,[295] and received, through the interest of his friend
Cardinal Valenti, the commission to paint a picture for one of the
mosaics in St. Peter’s. The subject selected was the Emperor Valens
fainting in presence of St. Basil. We have all the pomp of the scene:—the
altar, the incense, the richly attired priests on one side; on the other, the
Imperial court. It is not easy to find fault, for the picture is well drawn,
well composed, in the mannered taste of that time; well coloured, rather
tenderly than forcibly; and Lanzi is enthusiastic in his praise of the
draperies; yet, as a whole, it leaves the mind unimpressed. As usual, the
original sketch for this picture far excels the large composition.[296]
The prayers of St. Basil were supposed by the Armenian Christians,
partly from his sanctity, and partly from his intellectual endowments, to
have a peculiar, almost resistless, power; so that he not only redeemed
souls from purgatory, but even lost angels from the abyss of hell. ‘On the
sixth day of the creation, when the rebellious angels fell from heaven
through that opening in the firmament which the Armenians call Arocea,
and we the Galaxy, one unlucky angel, who had no participation in their
sin, but seems to have been entangled in the crowd, fell with them.’ (A
moral, I presume, on the consequences of keeping bad company.) ‘And
this unfortunate angel was not restored till he had obtained, it is not said
how, the prayers of St. Basil. His condition meantime, from the sixth day
of the creation to the fourth century of the Christian era, must have been
even more uncomfortable than that of Klopstock’s repentant demon in
“The Messiah.”’

There are many other beautiful legendary stories of St. Basil, but, as I
have never met with them in any form of Art, I pass them over here. One
of the most striking has been versified by Southey in his ballad-poem,
‘All for Love.’ It would afford a great variety of picturesque subjects.

S .A .

Lat. S. Athanasius, Pater Orthodoxiæ. Ital. Sant’ Atanasio.

Fr. St. Athanase. (May 2, . . 373.)
St. Athanasius, whose famous Creed remains a stumbling-block in
Christendom, was born at Alexandria, about the year 298; he was
consequently the eldest of the Greek Fathers, though he does not in that
Church take the first rank. He, like the others, began his career by the
study of profane literature, science, and eloquence; but, seized by the
religious spirit of the age, he, too, fled to the desert, and became, for a
time, the pupil of St. Anthony. He returned to Alexandria, and was
ordained deacon. His first appearance as a public character was at the