PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY

What is Stratigraphy?
Stratigraphy is the study of rock layers or strata, particularly their composition, origin, age,
classification and relationships to other rock strata with the objective of reconstructing the
history of the earth.
All rock classes (sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic) fall within the general scope of
Stratigraphy and stratigraphic principles.

Why study Stratigraphy

 Stratigraphy provides clues about the earth’s past that helps in understanding geologic
processes.
 It offers a structure for the systematic study and classification of rocks.
 It helps in the compilation of geological maps.
 Mineral deposits are normally located within or between rock layers.
 Stratigraphy also allows geologists to predict what types of rocks lie below the ground as
occurrence and pollution of groundwater are closely associated with rock character and
structure.
 Identification of problem areas for environmental scientists so that they can take action
proactively to prevent possible disasters.
 Realizing the earth’s age makes habitat preservation and other environmental issues
particularly relevant. Resource depletion and environmental degradation occurs on a
human time scale, but generally requires a geologic time scale for repair.

Principles/Laws of stratigraphy
Over time, geologists have developed a few basic principles for the study of stratified (and other)
rocks which allow determination of the sequence of events recorded by them. Thus, events are
placed in relative order from oldest at the bottom to youngest at the top without knowing the
exact duration of the events in years i.e. relative dating.

1. Principle of uniformitarianism

It was first developed by James Hutton (1785). The law assumes that the geologic processes (e.g.
erosion, deposition, volcanic eruptions, faulting, glaciation etc.) observed in operation that
modify the earth’s crust at present have worked in much the same way over geologic time (in the
past). It is summarized as “the present is the key to the past.” In Hutton's words: "the past history
of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now” (Hutton, 1788). All
rocks are products of continuing earth processes rather than products of a single supernatural
creation. It assumes a uniformity of modern and ancient processes.

Using this concept, geologists study present igneous and sedimentary conditions to infer the
condition of the Earth billions of years ago. For example, it is now known that the majority of
organic and inorganic production of calcium carbonate (the essential component of limestone)
takes place in the shallow, tropical marine environment. Knowing this, any location that has an
abundance of limestone most likely had been a shallow, tropical marine environment when the
sediments were produced.

2. Principle of superposition

This principle was first developed by Nicholas Steno in the 17th century (1600s) and states that a
sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it
and older than the one above it.

3. Principle of original horizontality

This principle was also developed by Nicholas Steno. Steno noted that all sedimentary rocks are
originally deposited in relatively horizontal layers. Where layers rocks are found tilted at a large
angle to the horizontal, some force must have acted on them after they were deposited.

4. Principle of lateral continuity

It was also developed by Steno. It states that layers of sediment initially form continuous sheets
over a region; in other words, they are laterally continuous in all directions. As a result, rocks
that are otherwise similar, but are now separated by a valley or other erosional feature, can be
assumed to be originally continuous.

5. Principle of cross-cutting relations

This principle was first described by James Hutton in the late 18th century, and is applied to
geological structures (such as faults) or igneous intrusions and the age of the sequences through
which they cut. When an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of sedimentary metamorphic
rock, it can be determined that the igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock. There
are a number of different types of intrusions, including stocks, laccoliths, batholiths, sills and
dykes.
In the case of geological structures, faults are younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a
fault is found that penetrates some formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that
were cut are older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than the fault,

6. Principle of inclusions

Another Hutton principle, this states that fragments of one rock included within another must be
older than the rock that contains it. For example, in sedimentary rocks, a clast in a conglomerate
must be older than the conglomerate. A similar situation with igneous rocks occurs when
xenoliths are found.

These foreign bodies are picked up as magma or lava flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in
the matrix. As a result, xenoliths are older than the rock which contains them.

In the diagrams above, which are the gravel clasts and which are the xenoliths?
In each diagram, determine the origin of the inclusions and whether they are older or younger
than the rocks that contain them.
 7. Principle of baked contacts

A plutonic intrusion creates a metamorphic layer (“bakes”) around it in the surrounding rock
(country rock). Therefore, the pluton must be younger, and the baked country rocks older than
the pluton.

8. Principle of fossil succession.

This law was developed by William Smith (around the year 1800). He observed that fossil
species changed in a systematic fashion in sequences of sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist at
the same time period throughout the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence may be used
to provide a relative age of the formations in which they are found. Thus oldest fossils will occur
at the bottom of an undisturbed sequence and younger fossils in top layers.

UNCONFORMITIES

Changes of a radical or striking nature in successive beds are indicative of major lapses
(intervals) of deposition. Many such lapses represent very long periods, even millions of years,
during which material ceased to accumulate and during which erosion, extensive earth
movements, or other important events took place. We may think of these major interruptions in
the record as representing ancient surfaces cut into older rocks and buried by younger ones.

An unconformity is a buried erosion surface separating two rock masses or strata of different
ages, indicating that sediment deposition was not continuous. In general, the older layer was
exposed to erosion for an interval of time before deposition of the younger layer. However, the
term is also used to describe any break in the sedimentary geologic record.

The rocks above an unconformity are younger than the rocks beneath (unless the sequence has
been overturned). An unconformity represents time during which no sediments were preserved in
a region. The local record for that time interval is missing and geologists must use other clues to
discover that part of the geologic history of that area. The interval of geologic time or time gap
between the deposition of the youngest rock below an unconformity and the oldest rock above is
called a hiatus. A time gap may be due to a time of "non-deposition", meaning that no sediments
were deposited for an interval of time. More likely, unconformities indicate a time when uplift
and erosion have occurred such that layers deposited at an earlier time have been stripped away.
Typically, unconformities involve:

 Major sea level changes

 Major tectonic events
Types of unconformities

Disconformity

It is an unconformity between parallel layers of sedimentary rocks which represents a period of

erosion or non-deposition. There is little apparent erosion and the unconformity surface
resembles a simple bedding plane.

First strata are laid down, then a period of erosion happens (or a hiatus), then more strata are laid
down. The result is a disconformity or parallel unconformity. All the strata line up, but there is
still a clear discontinuity in the sequence—maybe a soil layer developed on top of the older
rocks, or a rugged surface where they were eroded.

If the discontinuity is not visible, it is called a paraconformity. These are harder to detect. Fossils
may be used to detect the unconformity e.g sandstone in which trilobite fossils suddenly give
way to oyster fossils would be a clear example.

Nonconformity

Nonconformity exists between sedimentary rocks and metamorphic or igneous rocks when the
sedimentary rock lies above and was deposited on the pre-existing and eroded metamorphic or
igneous rock. Namely, if the rock below the break is igneous or has lost its bedding by
metamorphism, the plane of juncture is nonconformity.

In a step-by-step process, sediment accumulates and becomes rock. Then plate collisions deform
these layers and change them into metamorphic rocks. Associated with this mountain-building,
molten rock often squeezes upward into the metamorphic rock fractured by the deformities and
solidifies, forming igneous rock (usually granite). In phase three, the mountains erode to a
peneplain (a "peneplain" is a broad land surface flattened by erosion). Then, finally, new layers
collect over the flattened metamorphic and igneous rocks.

Angular unconformity

The most famous and obvious kind of unconformity is the angular unconformity. Rocks below
the unconformity are dipping (tilted), folded or sheared off, and rocks above it are horizontal.
The angular unconformity tells a clear story:

1. First a set of rocks was laid down.

2. Then these rocks were tilted followed by erosion for millions of years until the edges
of the tilted layers become a flattened plane (Peneplain)
3. Finally, sea level rises or land sinks. Sediments wash down, forming new horizontal
layers that cover the submerged, tilted layers.

A fourth type of unconformity is the paraconformity. It is characterized by a surface of

nondeposition separating two parallel units of sedimentary rock, which is virtually
indistinguishable from a sharp conformable contact. There is no obvious evidence of erosion. An
examination of the fossils shows that there is a considerable time gap represented by the surface.

Summary on Unconformities

There are three main branches of stratigraphy:

(i) Lithostratigraphy
(ii) Chronostratigraphy
(iii) Biostratigraphy

Stratigraphic unit
It is a stratum of rock or a body of rock strata forming a discrete and definable unit. The
classification into units is on the basis of character, property, or attribute. Stratigraphic units are
determined on the basis of their lithology (lithostratigraphic units), or their fossil content
(biostratigraphic units), or their time span (chronostratigraphic units). It is unlikely that any
rock succession will form a unit that accords with all three categories of classification. Thus,
stratigraphic units are based on one property. All stratigraphic units are defined by a type section
of locality (a specific geographic locality in which the strata exposed are considered to be
representative of a particular stratigraphic unit or boundary. It can also be the locality where
the rock type was first identified)
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
Branch of stratigraphy concerned with the classification of rock units in terms of their
lithological features including composition, grain size and certain sedimentological information
such as types of sedimentary structures. Petrography is the first tool in defining a rock bed. Its
use can be extended in the classification of layers into larger stratigraphic units and also in
correlating layers of separated regions. Sometimes it is possible to define some rock layers with
characteristic petrography that can be used in correlating stratigraphic units. These are called
marker horizons.

Lithostratigraphic unit
A lithostratigraphic unit is defined as a body of sedimentary, extrusive igneous,
metasedimentary, or metavolcanic strata which is distinguished on the basis of lithologic
characteristics and stratigraphic position (position in the rock sequence).
Lithostratigraphic units are the basic units of geologic mapping and are an essential element of
the Stratigraphy of the area. In lithostratigraphy, rock units are classified into a hierarchical
system of RANKS.

Bed A distinct sedimentary layer within a rock sequence

Member A group of beds having similar characteristics.

Generally too thin to be mapped on a regional scale

Formation Two or more members showing common features

Extensive enough to be plotted on a regional map
(mappable)
Group Comprises of two or more formations

Supergroup Comprises two or more groups

The rank of a lithostratigraphic unit can be changed as the level of information improves. For
example, the Cornwallis Group started as the Cornwallis Formation and was raised to group rank
when it was realised that it contained three mappable units of formation rank.

Bed
The least subdivision of a formation is the bed which is recognized by visual changes in color,
grain size, or composition. Formations vary in thickness from a few meters to a few thousand
meters. Beds vary from a few millimeters to a few meters in thickness and are separated from
one another by more or less well-defined bedding surfaces. The designation of a bed or a unit of
beds is generally limited to certain distinctive beds whose recognition is particularly useful. Only
marker or key beds (a thin bed of distinctive rock that is widely distributed) are formally named.

Member
Formations can be subdivided into members which are a set of recognizable strata within a
formation that are found in only a portion of the areal extent of the formation. It is recognized as
a named entity within a formation because it possesses characteristics distinguishing it from
adjacent parts of the formation. It is also a mappable unit; however it has lesser vertical thickness
and lateral extent. Some formations may be divided completely into members, others may have
only certain parts designed as members; still others may have no members. A member may
extend may extend laterally from one formation to another.

Formation
It is the fundamental unit of lithostratigraphic classification used to map, describe and interpret
the geology of a region. By definition formations are

1. Lithologically homogeneous (all beds are the same rock type or a distinctive set of
interbedded rock types).
2. Distinct and different from adjacent rock units above and below.
3. Traceable from exposure to exposure, and of sufficient thickness to be mappable
(formations are commonly hundreds of feet thick, but may be thinner or thicker).
4. Formations must have names. Formations are usually named for some geographic locality
where they are particularly well exposed. (This locality is referred to as the type section.)
If the beds are dominated by a single rock type, this may appear in the name. (Also, to be
valid, the name of a formation must be published in the geological literature.)

Formations are the only lithostratigraphic units into which the stratigraphic column everywhere
should be divided completely on the basis of lithology. A formation may consist almost entirely
of one rock type, for example limestone, or may be composed of multiple rock types, for
example limestone, shale, and sandstone, that all formed in one related environment, such as a
coastal environment with rising and falling sea level. Successive formations are separated from
one another by a change in lithology which may be gradual (transitional) or sudden (sharp). This
is a geologic contact.

Virtually all lithostratigraphic units are ‘time transgressive’ or diachronous (they or their
contacts, cut across time lines)

Group
It is a lithostratigraphic unit next higher in rank to formation. It is an assemblage of two or more
successive formations with significant unifying lithologic features in common. Formations need
not be aggregated into groups, but a group must be wholly divided into formations. The
formations making up a group may vary between different locations. A group is assigned a name
after its type area where all the subdivisions or most of the subdivisions are well exposed.

Supergroup
It is an assemblage of related or superposed groups and formations.

Complex
This is used for an association of groups or formations for which it is not easy to assign any rank
of stratigraphic classification. It includes a number of groups or formations without any
associational relationship characterized by highly complicated structural relations to the extent
that the original sequence of the component rocks may be obscured, and the individual rocks
cannot be readily mapped.

Weakness of lithostratigraphic classification

The tendency of most sedimentary rock units to be laterally impersistent introduces uncertainties
in lithostratigraphic classification since a sandstone may be deposited at the same time as a
mudstone such that the sandstone laterally passes into the mudstone.

CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY

The branch of stratigraphy that studies the age of rock strata in relation to time is called
chronostratigraphy. Study which deals with the correlation and chronology of geologic events.
The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to arrange the sequence of deposition and the time of
deposition of all rocks within a geological region, and eventually, the entire geologic record of
the Earth i.e to relate all local and global events to one standard scale.

Tools of chronostratigraphy
(i) biostratigraphy
(ii) radiometric dating
(iii) magnetic reversal stratigraphy

The standard stratigraphic nomenclature is a chronostratigraphic system based on

palaeontological intervals of time defined by recognised fossil assemblages (biostratigraphy).
The aim of chronostratigraphy is to give a meaningful age date to these fossil assemblage
intervals and interfaces.

Chronostratigraphy relies heavily upon isotope geology and geochronology to derive hard dating
of known and well defined rock units which contain the specific fossil assemblages defined by
the stratigraphic system. However it is practically very difficult to isotopically date most fossils
and sedimentary rocks directly, and thus inferences must be made in order to arrive at an age
date which reflects the beginning of the interval.

The methodology used is derived from the law of superposition and the principles of cross-
cutting relationships.

Because igneous rocks occur at specific intervals in time and are essentially instantaneous on a
geologic time scale, and because they contain mineral assemblage which may be dated more
accurately and precisely by isotopic methods, the construction of a chronostratigraphic column
will rely heavily on intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.

However, this process requires a considerable degree of effort and checking of field relationships
and age dates. For instance, there may be many millions of years between a bed being laid down
and an intrusive rock cutting it; the estimate of age must necessarily be between the oldest cross-
cutting intrusive rock in the fossil assemblage and the youngest rock upon which the fossil
assemblage rests

Chronostratigraphic units

Chronostratigraphic unit ( time-stratigraphic unit , time-rock unit ) The sequence of rocks

formed during a discrete and specified interval of geologic time.

Ranks of chronostratigraphic units

Chronostratigraphic units are ranked, according to the length of time they record, in order of
decreasing rank, into eonotherm (the longest), erathems, systems , series , stages (the shortest).
Each unit comprises a number of units of lower rank, e.g. a system would consist of a number of
series, and, similarly, a number of stages would constitute a series.

Geochronology

It is the science of determining the absolute age of rocks, fossils, and sediments, within a certain
degree of uncertainty inherent within the method used. A variety of dating methods are used by
geologists to achieve this, including isotope dating.

The science of geochronology is the prime tool used in the discipline of chronostratigraphy,
which attempts to derive absolute age dates for all fossil assemblages and determine the geologic
history of the Earth.

Differences between chronostratigraphy and geochronology

It is important not to confuse geochronologic and chronostratigraphic units. Geochronological

units are periods of time. Chronostratigraphic units are geological material e.g. in South Africa;
rocks of the Namibian Erathem were deposited during the Neo-Proterozoic era.

Chronozone
A chronozone is the lowest ranking chronostratigraphic unit. A chronozone is a body of rock
enclosed between two markers that may approximate isochronous surfaces. The markers may be
biostratigraphic, magnetostratigraphic or physical such as beds.

Stage
A stage is essentially a convenient grouping of biozones. Stage boundaries are often associated
with the top or base of a particularly well or widely developed biozone or prominent faunal
change or at a certain lithostratigraphic unit (marker horizon).

Chronostratigraphy refers to the study of rock strata according to when they were deposited.
Geochronometry refers to geological time

CHRONOSTRATGRAPHIC UNIT GEOCHRONOLOGICAL UNIT

Chronozone Chron
Stage Age
Series Epoch
System Period
Erathem Era
Eonotherm Eon

ERAS
Named to indicate the relative stages of development of life-forms

Cenozoic: kainos meaning recent and zoe meaning life. ( Era of recent life).

Mesozoic: meso meaning middle and zoe meaning life. (Era of Middle life).

Palaeozoic: palaeos meaning ancient, plus zoe meaning life (Era of ancient life).

Proterozoic: time of earliest life

Archaezoic or Archaean: time of initial life

PERIODS
A period is a specific time interval. A system refers to rocks formed during this period.

EPOCH
Pleistocene Epoch: pleistos (most) and kainos (recent). 90-100% of mollusc fossils represent
modern species.

Pliocene Epoch: pleoin (more). 50 – 90% modern species of mollusc.

Miocene Epoch: meion (less). 20 – 40% of modern species.

Oligocene Epoch: Oligos (little) 10 –15% of modern species.

Eocene Epoch: Eos (dawn). 1- 5% of modern species.

Paleocene Epoch: paleo (ancient) 0% modern species.

FAUNA AND FLORA SUCCESSION
Fauna – a natural assemblage of animals living together. May constitute a single species or
diversified.

Flora – a natural assemblage of plants growing together.

Biota – a natural assemblage of both animals and plants living together (Fauna and flora
together.

Fossil – remains or evidences (e.g. imprints) of ancient organisms that have been preserved by
natural means in the earth's crust.

Origin of fossils
As a rule, dead things mostly disintegrate and disappear. A fossil is the remainder of a dead
organism whose disintegration has been halted. Two common conditions of fossilization are:

(i) The possession of hard parts

(ii) Immediate burial in anoxic conditions.

An organism with a hard shell such as an oyster is much more likely to be fossilized than a
jellyfish.

An animal that drowns in water-saturated mud will be fossilized much more readily than a
creature that dies on a grassy plain or forest floor where scavengers and bacterial action may
destroy it before it is covered.

Principle of faunal succession

William Smith (1769-1839) viewed fresh canal excavations being constructed across England
and collected fossils from them. He always found chalk layers above coal layers. He also found a
pattern: layers that were close to the surface contained different kinds of fossils from those that
were lower.

From the above observations, the principle of faunal succession was formulated which states that
where there are many layers of rock, certain associated groups of fossils (assemblages) are found
in rocks that are closer to the surface(younger) and other assemblages are found in rocks that are
below these layers.

Central to the principle of faunal succession is the principle of biological evolution. Biological
evolution is irreversible (primitive life forms evolved into more complex life forms in an
irreversible process). More primitive fossil types are found in the older/lower beds and fossils of
more complex life forms are found in the younger/higher beds.

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
Biostratigraphy is the method of classification or relative arrangement of rock sequences on the
basis of fossil content.

Biostratigraphy is closely linked to the principles of faunal succession and the law of
superposition. Fossil content varies through a stratigraphic succession for two main reasons:

(i) Evolutionary changes

(ii) Ecological differences such as changes in climate or depositional environment.

Biostratigraphy should only be based on evolutionary changes but it always difficult to

distinguish between these from changes that take place in a biostratigraphic assemblage as a
result of ecological modifications.

Fossil groups are characteristically associated with geological time-units. Some groups may have
existed during longer periods than others. Some fossil groups have externally restricted time-
period of occurrence. Such fossils, if found to occur fairly common in rocks are known as index
fossils as they indicate the age of rock formations much more accurately than others.

Biozones
The basic biostratigraphic unit is the biozone, which can be defined as the body of strata
containing a fauna or flora element.

- Range zone: All rock layers that contain the fossil remains of a particular species
constitute the range zone of the species.
- Concurrent range zone: Maximum accuracy in fossil correlation is obtained by utilizing
the simultaneous occurrence of two or more species, rather than the occurrence of one
species alone. Such co-occurrences represent only the portion of range zones that
overlap. Generally this is a smaller stratigraphic interval than the range zone of any of the
constituent species. Zones based on overlapping ranges are called concurrent range
zones.

Problems with biostratigraphic classification

- Many types of fossils were confined to particular environments were they had adapted to
particular conditions. Thus they lack universal occurrence and any correlation of beds
containing such fossils is a correlation of environments rather than time.
- Some fossils evolved very slowly such that they can only be used in very broad
classifications (broad vertical range).
- Some good zone fossils are very delicate and require quiet environments to be preserved.
For a fossil to be useful for stratigraphic purposes, it would have to meet the following criteria:
- wide distribution, especially intercontinental
- a short vertical range
- enough morphological characteristics for easy identification.
- Strong hard shells to enable widespread preservation.

Biostratigraphy

It deals with the physical zonation of biota, both in time and space, in order to establish the
relative stratigraphic position (i.e. older, younger, same age) of sedimentary rocks between
different geographic localities.

A biostratigraphic unit is a body of rock defined or characterised by its fossil content. The
biozone is the fundamental biostratigraphic unit. The thickness range of a zone varies from a few
to hundreds of metres, and its extant range from local to worldwide. Fossils are very important
for doing long distance correlation, even global. Index fossils (also known as guide or zone
fossils) are used for correlation and they should be:

 Independent of their environment

 Geographically widespread, so that they can occur in many different places
 Rapidly evolving, so that the period of time during which they could be incorporated in
the sediment is relatively narrow. The longer lived the species, the poorer the
stratigraphic precision,
 Abundant (easy to find in the rock record)
 Easy to preserve (Easier in low-energy, non-oxidized environment)
 Easy to identify

FACIES AND FACIES CHANGES

Facies are different rock bodies of differing characteristics that have replace each other laterally
within the but are co existent in the same stratigraphic interval. Any examination of modern
depositional environments shows that most do not extend for great distances laterally but
eventually change into other depositional environments. Many sedimentary rocks are being
deposited simultaneously in different areas. Rock types are diagnostic of local environments
of deposition, not of ages. Therefore, facies implies that the different rock types are of the same
age.
Facies: a body of rock with specified characteristics. Features which are used to distinguish
facies are:
(i) Grain-size
(ii) Texture
(iii) Sedimentary structures
(iv) Fossil content
(v) Colour
Lithofacies: Facies defined on the basis of consistent lithologic character within a formation
(e.g., shale lithofacies or evaporite lithofacies).

Biofacies: Facies defined on the basis of the fossil content. Different organisms can occur in
different environments during the same time period. In this sense, a biofacies is also an
ecological association.

CORRELATION
There is no place on earth where the entire record is represented by a single section. Even in the
classic stratigraphic column of England and Wales, there are important intervals which are
missing. In most areas, the stratigraphic record must be patched up from many short local
sections.
Geologists try to determine the relative age of widely separated strata. They are especially
interested in determining layers in separate strata that are exactly the same age. This is called
correlation. Correlation demonstrates the equivalency of rock units across an area trying to fit
together sedimentary strata found in different places. The process of demonstrating the
equivalence or correspondence of geographically separated parts of a geologic unit i.e. that a
particular horizon in one geological section represents the same period of time as another horizon
at some other section is called correlation.

Basically, a correlation is a hypothesis that units in two widely separated sequences are
equivalent. If the two sections share more unique characteristics, the greater the probability that
the correlation is correct. The sections being correlated are commonly kilometers apart. This task
is complicated as distance increases and sedimentary environments change.
During correlation data from established local sections is synthesized into a composite time-
scheme applicable to the whole region.

If two units belonging to different local sections are judged to be time equivalents of each other
then they are correlative.

There are two criteria of correlation namely

(i) Physical criteria for correlation and
(ii) Biological criteria of correlation.

PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF CORRELATION

The physical criteria of correlation is based on
(i) physical continuity
(ii) lithologic similarity
(iii) geophysics
(iv) order of superposition
(v) Radiometric age dating
 1. Physical continuity
This involves establishing continuity between rock exposures in the field (walking it out). The
problem with this method is that outcrops rarely enable us to trace beds continuously.

2. Lithologic similarity or Litho correlation

Matching rock types
Some rock units have distinctive diagnostic features that make them easy to recognize in
different outcrops
Geologists can draw stratigraphic sections for several outcrops (or cores) in an area, and then
trace beds from one section to another. They are especially interested in determining layers in
separate strata that are exactly the same age. This is called lithologic correlation. It links units
of similar lithology and stratigraphic position. . If there is a strong lithologic similarity between
two discontinuous exposures that lie in the same position in the sequence, they can be correlated.

Stratigraphic section
Geologists study sequences of sedimentary rocks on a bed-by-bed basis. They measure the
thickness of each bed, record the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the rock,
and note the nature of the contacts (or bedding planes) between beds. Using these data, the
geologist draws up a stratigraphic section for a particular sequence of rock. A stratigraphic
section is a graphical or pictorial representation of the sequence of rock units. Standard symbols
(called lithologic symbols) are used to refer to each rock type.
Illustration of lithologic correlation

Correlation may be performed in several ways. Distinctive beds (called key beds or marker
beds) and unconformities may be traced between sections.

Key beds or marker beds tend to have some unusual, distinguishing feature which allows them to
be readily identified, such as a bed of volcanic ash in a sedimentary sequence, or a bed of
conglomerate in a sandstone sequence, or a bed of limestone in a shale sequence. Key beds or
marker beds should also be laterally extensive, to aid in correlation over a large area.

Sometimes, one or more rock units are missing from the middle of a sequence. Close
examination of the outcrop shows a sharp or irregular contact (unconformity) where the missing
rocks should be. Unconformity is a surface which represents a gap in the geologic record,
because of either erosion or non-deposition. Unconformities can be traced between stratigraphic
sequences kilometers apart. Although unconformities may truncate rocks of many different ages,
the sediments directly overlying the unconformity are roughly the same age.

Illustration of an unconformity causing beds to be missing from a sequence

 3. Geophysics
Every rock layer has a characteristic geophysical signature. This is because they have different
values for physical properties such as electrical resistivity, density, radioactive emission,
seismics, reflectivity, magnetism etc. These values can be captured across a sequence by
lowering geophysical probes down the boreholes in an area. The geophysical logs obtained from
the probe are then used in classifying layers and correlating them with logs from other areas.

4. Order of superposition
In undeformed regions, the order of superposition determines the relative ages of the succession
of layers.

5. Radiometric age-dating
Finding out the age of formation of a rock using radioactive isotopes:
 Carbon-14
 Uranium and Thorium,
 Potassium-Argon etc.

BIOLOGICAL CRITERIA OF CORRELATION

Biological evolution is irreversible such that biostratigraphy which uses the nature of fossil
record in rock layers is applied to correlate rock strata by using the fossil assemblages contained
within them. The fossils are useful because same lithology sediments of the same age can look
completely different because of local variations in the sedimentary environment. For example,
one section might have been made up of clays and marls (a calcium carbonate or lime-rich mud
or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and aragonite) while another has more
chalky limestone, but if the fossil species recorded are similar, the two sediments are likely to
have been laid down at the same time.
Table summarizing stratigraphic terms

classification
name description
_system
Supergroup lithostratigraphic A lithostratigraphic unit, ranking above group that
unit identifies a group of contiguous formations and
groups having some unifying characteristic.
Group lithostratigraphic The lithostratigraphic rank above formation,
unit comprising a sequence of contiguous associated
formations with significant unifying lithologic
features.
Formation lithostratigraphic The primary formal unit of lithostratigraphic
unit classification. It is intermediate in rank and is
informally defined as a mappable rock body
characterized by a distinctive lithology.
Member lithostratigraphic Member is the lithostratigraphic rank below
unit formation, characterized by a distinctive lithology
within a formation.
Bed lithostratigraphic The lowest ranking unit of lithostratigraphic
unit classification, a bed is a lithologically distinctive
rock body within a member or formation.
Eonothem chronostratigraphic The highest ranking unit of chronostratigraphic
unit classification. Eonothem is comprised of the strata
deposited during a geochronologic eon.
Erathem chronostratigraphic The second highest ranking unit of classification of
unit chronostratigraphic systems. Erathem corresponds to
the strata deposited during a geochronologic era.
System chronostratigraphic The third highest ranking unit of chronostratigraphic
unit classification. A system corresponds to the strata
deposited during a geochronologic period.
series chronostratigraphic A minor ranking unit of chronostratigraphic
unit classification; a series corresponds to the strata
deposited during a geochronologic epoch.
stage chronostratigraphic A minor ranking unit of chronostratigraphic
unit classification; a series corresponds to the strata
deposited during a geochronologic age