Journal of Functional andExploration

Environmental Botany
of Homegardens Article DOI:
as Important Lichen Conservation 10.5958/j.2231-1742.2.2.013
Areas
Volume 2, Number 2, November, 2012, 87-95

Research Article

Exploration of Homegardens as Important Lichen Conservation

Areas in Dargakona Village of Southern Assam, Northeast India

Pulak Das1*, Santosh Joshi2, Jayashree Rout3 and DK Upreti4

1
Former PhD Scholar, Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar, Assam–
788011, India, & Independent Environment Researcher, House No.-2, Lane No.-2, 1st Link Road, Silchar-
788006, Cachar, Assam, India
2
Post Doctoral Fellow, Korean Lichen Research Institute, Sunchon National University, Sunchon, Jeonnam
540-742, South Korea
3
Professor, Dept. of Ecology and Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar, Assam–788011, India
4
Senior Principal Scientist, Lichenology Laboratory, Plant Biodiversity and Conservation Biology Division,
CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (UP)–226001, India
*Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Homegardens create a forest like multistorey structure with different vertical and horizontal layers and it
has a characteristic pattern of species diversity. The present paper throws light on the importance of
homegardens as a significant lichen refuge. The study explored a lichen diversity of 44 species with a
representation of 17 genera and 9 families. Graphidaceae is the dominant family followed by Pyrenulaceae
and Arthoniaceae. Graphis and Pyrenula are found to be the dominant genera representing about 40% of
total species richness. It is observed that the homegardens are shelters to about 15% of lichens, which
have restricted distribution (endemic) in the eastern Himalayan region. The traditional wisdom along with
ecological knowledge of the local people in maintaining homegardens in northeastern region seems to be
helping in conserving the genetic heritage of wild lichen species of the eastern Himalayan region. This
becomes more important in the wake of wanton destruction of forests and hence lichens growing there.
Keywords: Conservation, Diversity, Eastern Himalaya, Epiphytic lichens, Homegardens, Southern Assam

1. INTRODUCTION structure. The top storey consists of a canopy of tall trees,

Homegardens are agro-ecosystems located close to the which reduces radiation and mechanical impact of
area that serves as a permanent or temporary residence rainfall and creates a relatively constant micro-climate
and are the options for conserving natural flora other in the lower layers. Besides the vertical structure,
than urban gardens [Smith et al. 2010; Stevenson 2008]. homegardens also have a distinct horizontal structure,
Species diversity in tropical homegardens is reported to which together help in the efficient utilisation of water,
be very high due to species having different life forms, light and space, and support diverse wildlife species [Das
height and canopy structure [Babu et al. 1982; and Das 2005]. Homegardens are important in situ
Soemarwoto and Conway 1991]. Tropical homegardens, conservation sites and in accordance with the convention
which are found throughout the tropics are characterised of biological diversity, inventorisation of such areas can
by vegetation layers (stories), imitating the tropical forest help in the identification and conservation of biodiversity

Journal of Functional and Environmental Botany 87

 Pulak Das, Santosh Joshi, Jayashree Rout and DK Upreti

while assessing the sustainability of the system [Das and characterised by hills, hillocks and plains with an altitude
Das 2005]. Homegardens in a given area may contribute ranging from 29m to 46m. The region experiences a warm
significantly to the conservation and direct use of genetic humid climate with annual rainfall of 2660 mm, most of
diversity. which is received during the southwest monsoon season.
The mean maximum temperature ranges from 25.4° C
The studies related to homegardens almost everywhere
(January) to 32.6° C (August). The mean minimum
revolves around its socioeconomic aspect. Even the
temperature varies from 11° C (January) to 25° C
biodiversity studies concentrate mainly on the higher
(August). The dry season usually occurs between
plants and that also on the plants/crops having its direct
December and February. Lichenologically the region falls
profit to the households. Lichens (along with other
under the Eastern Himalayan region.
cryptogams) currently have a low public profile, being
scarce in the vast majority of the published account of The phorophytes Areca catechu, Artocarpus
either urban garden wildlife [Smith et al. 2010] or heterophyllus, Artocarpus lakoocha, Bombax ceiba,
traditional homegarden inventory. The present study may Cocos nucifera, Dillenia indica, Gmelina arborea,
be one of the few studies considering the lichen Lagerstroemia speciosa, Litchi chinensis, Mangifera
biodiversity of homegardens of Dargakona village in indica, Sterculia foetida, Sterculia villosa, Syzygium
southern Assam, northeast India. cuminii, Tetrameles nudiflora, Terminalia chebula and
Zanthoxylum limonella were observed to host rich lichen
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS growths in the study area (Fig. 2). The lichen samples
Dargakona village (24°41′ N latitude and 92°45′ E were collected using quadrat method from five
longitude) of Barak valley in southern Assam, northeast homegardens. From each homegarden, five trees were
India (Fig. 1) is selected to study lichen diversity in selected and in each tree three quadrats were placed. A
homegardens. The village has an undulating topography total of 75 quadrats (of 15 cm x 15 cm size) were placed
randomly on trees bearing good lichen growths. These
quadrats (transparent papers) are placed within 2 m height
from the ground on tree trunks. The trees having good
lichen growth were selected visually. After placing
quadrats the outlines of all the lichen patches are marked
on the quadrat paper and the representative samples are
removed from the bark with the help of a hammer and a
chisel and were kept in marked packets. The specimens
were studied morphologically, anatomically and
chemically after following the protocols given by Awasthi
[1988, 1991, 2000 and 2007], Walker and James [1980]
and Orange et al. [2001].
The number of species and number of individuals per
species were counted and all the subsequent calculations
were done using outline markings on the quadrat paper.
Among lichens, the physically distinct thalli or any
thallus material, which is genetically uniform with
respect to the fungal symbiont is considered as an
individual [Fahselt 2008]. The important quantitative
analysis such as frequency, abundance and density of
epiphytic lichen species are calculated as follows:
Figure 1: The map showing the study area in Cachar district
of Assam, northeast India

88 Volume 2, Number 2, November, 2012

 Exploration of Homegardens as Important Lichen Conservation Areas

Figure 2: Different homegardens and lichen bearing trees in study area

Number of quadrats in which the species occurred 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Frequency (%) = ————————————————————× 100
Total number of quadrats studied The lichen exploration study based on homegardens
revealed the occurrence of 44 species belonging to 17
Total number of individuals of a species in all quadrats
Abundance = ———————————————————————
genera and 9 families (Fig. 3). The crustose lichens
Total number of quadrats in which the species occurred dominate the homegardens of the Dargakona village.
Graphidaceae is the dominant family (Fig. 3) consisting
Total number of quadrats in which the species occurred of about 36% of all the lichens followed by Pyrenulaceae
Density = ——————————————————————— and Arthoniaceae which together represented about 30%;
Total number of quadrats studied
however, the remaining six families contribute about 34%
to the homegarden lichens in the village. Opegraphaceae
Density of lichens has been converted from number per and Physciaceae families exhibit their scarce
225 cm2 (from 15cm x 15cm) to number per meter square representation with one and two species, respectively.
in the final presentation. The genera Graphis and Pyrenula are the dominant

Journal of Functional and Environmental Botany 89

 Pulak Das, Santosh Joshi, Jayashree Rout and DK Upreti

Figure 3: Species-wise representation of all genera and families in study area

lichens together representing more than 40% of all (Fig. inamoenum, Cryptothecia lunulata (crustose growth
3). The genera Anthracothecium, Cryptothecia, form), Parmotrema tinctorum and Parmotrema
Ochrolechia and Opegrapha are represented by a single saccatilobum (foliose growth form) (Fig. 4 and 5). It is
species only. Graphis scripta is the most frequently observed that some of the lichens which are found in
growing (29.2%) (Table 1) species of lichens together homegardens of Dargakona village exhibit restricted
with Trypethelium eluteriae (20.0%), Parmotrema distribution (endemic), within the eastern Himalayan
tinctorum (16.9%) and Graphis garoana (16.9%). region and Indian region (Table 2). Graphis nakanishiana
Ochrolechia subviridis, Graphis subasahinae, is an endemic lichen restricted to the Indian region while
Parmotrema saccatilobum, Myriotrema albocinctum and there are seven species that are endemic to the Eastern
M. granulosum are the homegarden lichen species Himalayan region, which includes Arthonia,
exhibiting least frequency of 1.5% each. Parmotrema Arthothelium, Sarcographa, Trypethelium (one species
tinctorum, a foliose lichen, is also densely growing each) and Graphis (three species). The study area seems
(19.14/m2) on tree trunks in association with Graphis to be a source of endemic flora as it revealed an
scripta (17.76/m2), Pyrenula mamillana (12.96/m2) and endemicity of over 18%. The endemic taxa of lichens
Dirinaria aegialita (11.59/m2). The lichen species having are of considerable biogeographical interest; they may
sporadic growth (low density) in the area are Graphis either represent the emergence of ‘‘new’’ genera or
subasahinae, Myriotrema albocinctum, M. granulosum species from ancestors over a period of isolation, or
and Opegrapha vulgata with a density of 0.67 lichens reflect an ‘‘old’’ or ‘‘relict’’ distribution of a group
per meter square. Some of the other lichens observed in surviving after widespread extinctions [Galloway 2008].
the tree trunks are Graphis intricata, Sarcographa Rich endemism in any area indicates antiquity of flora,
leprieurii, Pyrenula brunnea, Pyrenula interducta, special conditions of climate in the ecosystem and natural
Arthonia arctata, A. impolitella, Trypethelium or geographical barrier around the area [Singh 1999].

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 Exploration of Homegardens as Important Lichen Conservation Areas

Table 1: Frequency (F), abundance (A), and density (D) of 44 lichens in the study area

Species F(%) Species A Species D

Ochrolechia subviridis 1.5 Graphis subasahinae 1 Graphis subasahinae 0.67
Graphis subasahinae 1.5 Myriotrema anamalaiense 1 Myriotrema albocinctum 0.67
Parmotrema saccatilobum 1.5 Arthonia impolitella 1 Myriotrema granulosum 0.67
Myriotrema albocinctum 1.5 Graphis nigroglauca 1 Opegrapha vulgata 0.67
Myriotrema granulosum 1.5 Pyrenula pinguis 1 Graphis nakanishiana 0.67
Opegrapha vulgata 1.5 Arthonia arctata 1 Myriotrema anamalaiense 0.67
Graphis nakanishiana 1.5 Arthothelium abnorme 1 Ochrolechia subviridis 1.38
Myriotrema anamalaiense 1.5 Pertusaria coccodes 1 Parmotrema saccatilobum 1.38
Pyrenula brunnea 1.5 Pyrenula interducta 1 Phaeographis instrata 1.38
Sarcographa subtricosa 3.1 Sarcographa maculosa 1 Sarcographa subtricosa 1.38
Graphis glauconigra 3.1 Dirinaria consimilis 1 Graphis nigroglauca 1.38
Phaeographis instrata 3.1 Trypethelium inamoenum 1 Graphis glaucescens 2.04
Arthonia impolitella 3.1 Dirinaria aegialita 1 Graphis glauconigra 2.04
Graphis nigroglauca 3.1 Pyrenula mamillana 1 Arthonia impolitella 2.04
Pyrenula cayennensis 4.6 Pyrenula brunnea 1.11 Relicinopsis malaccensis 2.04
Sarcographa leprieurii 4.6 Sarcographa subtricosa 1.14 Pyrenula brunnea 2.04
Arthonia recedens 4.6 Graphis glauconigra 1.23 Pyrenula cayennensis 2.71
Graphis subglauconigra 4.6 Graphis intricata 1.25 Sarcographa leprieurii 2.71
Graphis glaucescens 4.6 Graphis duplicata 1.27 Arthonia recedens 2.71
Pyrenula pinguis 4.6 Graphis subglauconigra 1.29 Arthothelium abnorme 2.71
Relicinopsis malaccensis 4.6 Graphis scripta 1.3 Graphis subglauconigra 3.42
Graphis duplicata 4.6 Ochrolechia subviridis 1.33 Pertusaria amara 3.42
Anthracothecium variolosum 4.6 Parmotrema saccatilobum 1.33 Pyrenula pinguis 3.42
Arthothelium dispersum 6.2 Myriotrema albocinctum 1.33 Graphis duplicata 3.42
Pyrenula anomala 6.2 Opegrapha vulgata 1.37 Arthonia arctata 3.42
Arthonia arctata 6.2 Sarcographina glyphiza 1.43 Anthracothecium variolosum 4.08
Arthothelium abnorme 6.2 Pyrenula cayennensis 1.5 Pyrenula anomala 4.80
Trypethelium tropicum 6.2 Pertusaria amara 1.5 Trypethelium inamoenum 5.46
Pertusaria amara 7.7 Graphis garoana 1.57 Arthothelium dispersum 5.46
Pertusaria coccodes 7.7 Anthracothecium variolosum 1.6 Sarcographina glyphiza 5.46
Pyrenula interducta 7.7 Phaeographis instrata 1.67 Pertusaria coccodes 5.46
Sarcographina glyphiza 10.8 Relicinopsis malaccensis 1.67 Sarcographa maculosa 6.13
Sarcographa maculosa 10.8 Graphis schiffneri 1.67 Trypethelium tropicum 6.17
Graphis schiffneri 10.8 Arthothelium dispersum 1.75 Graphis intricata 6.84
Dirinaria consimilis 10.8 Arthonia recedens 1.9 Graphis schiffneri 6.84
Trypethelium inamoenum 12.3 Myriotrema granulosum 2 Dirinaria consimilis 7.50
Dirinaria aegialita 12.3 Graphis nakanishiana 2 Cryptothecia lunulata 8.88
Graphis intricata 13.9 Graphis glaucescens 2 Graphis garoana 9.55
Pyrenula mamillana 15.4 Cryptothecia lunulata 2 Pyrenula interducta 9.55
Cryptothecia lunulata 15.4 Sarcographa leprieurii 2.13 Trypethelium eluteriae 10.92
Graphis garoana 16.9 Parmotrema tinctorum 2.25 Dirinaria aegialita 11.59
Parmotrema tinctorum 16.9 Pyrenula anomala 2.54 Pyrenula mamillana 12.96
Trypethelium eluteriae 20.0 Trypethelium tropicum 2.8 Graphis scripta 17.76
Graphis scripta 29.2 Trypethelium eluteriae 3 Parmotrema tinctorum 19.14

Journal of Functional and Environmental Botany 91

 Pulak Das, Santosh Joshi, Jayashree Rout and DK Upreti

Figure 4: Trees hosting rich lichens including species of Graphis, and Sarcographa in the study area

Figure 5: Some common lichens observed in the study area

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 Exploration of Homegardens as Important Lichen Conservation Areas

Table 2: Endemicity of lichens in the study area chief competitors, at least at lower trunk levels are
bryophytes and, in tropical areas, epiphytic ferns,
S. Species Endemic to
bromeliads and orchids. Lichenologically the most
No.
intensively studied areas are the temperate and sub boreal
1 Arthonia arctata Eastern Himalayan region forests where taxonomic knowledge has kept pace with
2 Arthothelium abnorme do phytosociological research; lichen communities of
3 Graphis garoana do tropical forests are yet understudied. Upreti and Ranjan
[1988], in a study of the temperate forests of Bhutan
4 G. subasahinae do
(Thimphu) found that the crustose lichens are very
5 G. subglauconigra do infrequent and the foliose and fruticose community
6 Sarcographa maculosa do mainly dominates the study site. Singh [1999] compiled
7 Trypethelium inamoenum do the dominant families in the Eastern Himalayan region.
8 Graphis nakanishiana Indian region According to him, the dominant family in the Eastern
Himalayan region is Parmeliaceae with 115 species
followed by Graphidaceae with 103 species and
Upreti and Chatterjee [1999] in a study in Corbett Physciaceae with 82 species. According to Upreti and
National Park in India situated in the foot hills of Chatterjee [1999], both the bark moisture and the
Himalayas also found dominance of crustose lichens. The externally derived moisture influence the growth of
genus Pyrenula was observed to be dominant in moist epiphytic lichens. Young trees support the lichen
areas. Some of the other common genera found in their communities dominated by crustose forms, followed by
study were Lecanora, Bacidia, Pertusaria and Dirinaria. a few foliose and fruticose forms. Full grown mature-
The Eastern Himalayan foot hills have moist, damp trees sustain the climax communities dominated by
climate suitable for growth of many Graphidaceous and foliose and fruticose lichens.
Pyrenocarpous lichens and a number of foliose and
foliicolous (growing on leaves) lichens too [Upreti 2001]. The average size of the homegardens in the study area
In a study in 12 forest sites of Solan district of Himachal being 0.003 km2 [Das and Das 2005], the rich lichen
Pradesh, Physciaceae with 25 species was the dominant diversity of 44 species in the present study is significant
family, followed by 17 and 15 species of Parmeliaceae with respect to the area being covered for the study (<0.25
and Lecanoraceae, respectively, while the Caloplaca has km2) and is comparable to many studies conducted in
the rich species diversity [Nayaka et al. 2002]. Nayaka other parts of India [Negi and Upreti 2000; Rout et al.
et al. [2003] in a study in Bangalore, India found that 2005; Rout et al. 2010]. As the distribution of different
IISC campus has maximum number of lichens with 24 plant groups in the homegarden creates a forest like
species followed by Lalbagh Garden with 18 species. multistorey structure [Singh 1987] it can be ascribed as
The most common species in the city were Candelaria the next better place for lichen conservation after forests.
concolor, Chrysothrix candelaris, Pyxine cocoes and P. The canopy layer exhibits some gaps due to variation in
petricola. Saipunkaew et al. [2005] revealed in a study the height of trees thereby allowing light to pass through
in Thailand (tropical condition) that species of them to the underlying layers. The shade provided by
Parmeliaceae belonging to genera Bulbothrix, the upper layers supports a large number of shade-loving
Everniastrum, Hypogymnia, Hypotrachyna, plants including lichens. Homegarden systems are man-
Parmelinella, Parmelinopsis, Parmotrema, Relicinopsis made, traditional age old culture in northeastern India
and Rimelia were found only in the upland forests at and enjoy protection through traditional culture and
420 m and above. Parmotrema and Relicinopsis are two ecological knowledge unlike forests. Homegardens in
important lichen genus found in the present study also. northeast India being situated adjacent to the forests are
likely to harbour genetic heritage of wild lichens through
Lichens are often the major components of epiphytic dispersal and migration and may help in evolutionary
(bark-inhabiting) communities in forested areas. Their processes like that for higher plants [Esquivel and

Journal of Functional and Environmental Botany 93

 Pulak Das, Santosh Joshi, Jayashree Rout and DK Upreti

Hammer 1992]. The extensive role of lichens in the practices and a wide variety of atmospheric pollutants
successful reproduction of plants (owing to the link of [Seaward 2008]. The in vitro culture of lichens although
lichens providing shelter and protection through seems to be a good option for its conservation, but it is
camouflage (Fig. 6) to many insects, which may have a still not economical, fast and very much successful in
significant role in pollination) still awaits extensive India. Unlike other plants, success rate of reintroducing
research. In any homegarden, vascular plants certainly cultured lichen thallus into the field is also low [Upreti
provide more resources than cryptogams for garden and Nayaka 2008]. Considering these points the
animals and fungi (e.g., through biomass, diversities of homegardens deserve to be included in the list of lichen
architecture and chemistry), cryptogams nevertheless conservation options along with the measures such as
support specialised animal communities [Gilbert 2000] ‘lichen sanctuaries’ and ‘lichen gardens’ suggested by
like moths and mites. Divakar and Upreti [2006] and Upreti and Nayaka
[2008].
Lichens may influence daily, monthly and seasonal
patterns in mineral cycling involving both the intra- and 4. CONCLUSION
intersystem cycles, in part this is related to their relatively
large surface areas across which nutrient exchange occurs Owing to the recognition of lichens’ role in food and
[Nash 2008]. In some of the ecosystems like tundra zones, shelter strategies, camouflaging, biogeochemical cycling,
cold deserts, dune systems and desert lichens form such forest management and other ecological services (e.g.,
an important component of the complex web of life that bioindicators), requirement for its inventorisation and
their disappearance affects the balance of nature to a conservation cannot be overlooked. Considering the
surprising degree. Even in some urban areas they provide adverse impact of large scale deforestation on lichen
vital links in food chains and are important in community diversity in tropical countries, the role of homegardens
development and succession on rocks and soils [Seaward in providing shelter to lichens becomes very important.
2008]. The deterioration of lichen floras, reduction in Homegardens in northeast Indian region has the potential
biodiversity and the loss of specific lichen taxa due to to harbour lichens in richness, compared to that present
natural disasters are beyond our control, but such losses in wild habitats, both in the eastern Himalayan region as
are exacerbated by human apathy and mismanagement, well as western Himalayan region. The rich traditional
particularly as a result of deforestation, agricultural culture of maintaining homegardens in this part of India
is unknowingly helping in conserving cryptogamic
diversity of tropical humid lichens. It’s high time to
undertake extensive research work in inventorying these
poorly-studied components of homegarden biodiversity
of northeast India. The present study is an initiative in
this regard, providing the detailed list of lichens along
with its ecological parameters and will provide a baseline
for future studies.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank the Head, Department of Ecology and
Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar, India
and the Director, National Botanical Research Institute
(CSIR), Lucknow, India for providing lab facilities. The
first author would like to thank the villagers of Dargakona
village who co-operated with him during field visit.
Figure 6: Lichens role in insect ecology through
camouflaging-found in the study area

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 Exploration of Homegardens as Important Lichen Conservation Areas

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Received: 02.12.11
Accepted: 05.03.12

Journal of Functional and Environmental Botany 95