CHAPTER I

CULTURE AND LANGUAGE

Many people who go abroad encounter features in their host culture that they may find
disturbing. Reaction to these alien aspects of the new culture can dampen the entire
experience in the country, resulting in various kinds of negative reactions. Learning another
culture, developing relationships with people you meet, communicating efficiently, and
adapting to the environment is a complex task of cross-cultural understanding.
Cross-cultural understanding is concerned with understanding people from different cultural
backgrounds/culture of the people so we can construct our attitudes and world view, more
tolerable and generous toward strange ways that may be shown by other citizen of another
country. If a person from an alien culture misinterprets a complex pattern of culture, then cross
cultural misunderstanding arise.

A. Culture
1. Definition of Culture
Culture comes from Latin cultura, means cultivation. British anthropologist Edward Tylor
first gave the definition of culture which is widely quoted: "Culture is that complex whole which
includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom and any other capacities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society". Newmark describes culture as a way of life of a
certain society which is expressed by certain language. Clifford Geertz stated that culture is a
symbolic meaning system. It is semiotic system in which symbols function to communicate
meaning from one mind to another. Cultural symbols encode a connection between a signifying
form and a signaled meaning. Culture might also be defined as ideas, customs, skills, arts, and
tools which characterize a given group of people in a period of time Culture as described by
Larson and Smalley is "blue print". It guides the behavior of people in a community and is
developed in family life and helps us to know what we can do as individuals and what our
responsibilities as a member of a group.

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From the standpoint of contemporary cultural anthropologists, culture is characterized by the
following four basic features:
1) Culture is a kind of social inheritance instead of biological heritage
2)Culture is shared by the whole community, not belonging to any particular individual
3) Culture is a symbolic meaning system in which language is one of the most important ones
4) Culture is a unified system, the integral parts of which are closely related to one another.
In general, culture can be divided into three categories:

 Material culture as the product of human manufacture

 Social culture as the people's form of social organization.
 Ideological culture including people's belief and values.

Culture itself is like an iceberg. The tip of the iceberg isthe smallest part. Most of the iceberg is
submerged.
The same is true for a culture. That which we can easily see, the external part of a culture
including behavior, clothing, food, is the smallest part. Meanwhile the internal part, including
beliefs, values, norms, and attitude, is beneath the water level of awareness. It is inside
people's heads. In every society there is a set of cultural beliefs which in large measure defines
the implicit culture of that society and set if off from another society. The belief system of a
society includes all the cognition namely ideas, knowledge, superstitions, myths, and legend,
shared by most members of society.Cultural norms are rules of standard behavior accepted by
members of society. Norms are divided into folkways and mores. Norms are called folkways
when conformity to them is not considered vital to the welfare of the group and when the
means of enforcing conformity is not very. clearly defined. In American folkways specifies that
on formal occasion, a man should wears a tie. The punishment of this conformity is that he may
be flowned upon, or talked about. Mores are norms which specify behavior of vital importance
to the society and which embody its basic moral values. The example of a more is that a man
must provide for his wife and children.

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When he fails to do so can be a cause for a legal action. The mores are actively enforced by the
members of the society either through legal action or through social sanction. Sanction is a
penalty, or some coercive measure, intended to ensure compliance.Value is a collection of
guiding principles; what one deems to be correct and desirable in life. Cultures have values that
are largely shared by their members, which identify what should be judged as good or evil.
Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior. For example, American values human equality.
(Further discussion about American values will be in the next chapter).
2. Cultural Universal
Cultural universals are elements common to all human cultures, regardless of historical
moment, geography, or cultural origin. There is a tension in cultural anthropology and cultural
sociology between the claim that culture is a universal (the fact that all human societies have
culture), and that it is also particular (culture takes a tremendous variety of forms around the
world).

Koentjoroningrat (1990) categorizes cultural universal into seven, namely:

1. Language
2. Knowledge system
3. Social organizations
4. Life tool system
5. Livelihood system
6. Religion system
7. Art
The idea of cultural universals itself runs contrary to cultural relativism. Cultural relativism is the
idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their cultural context, and should not
be used in the study or description of another culture. The way to deal with our own
assumptions is not to pretend that they don't exist but rather to acknowledge them, and then
use the awareness that we are not neutral to inform our conclusions.

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 Cultural relativism is, in part, a response to Western ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism is the
tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own culture, judging
another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture. Ethnocentrism may
take obvious forms, in which one consciously believes that one people's arts are the most
beautiful, values the most virtuous, and beliefs the most truthful.
3. Types of Culture
The word "culture" doesn't mean just national culture, but the whole range of different types of
culture. These include:
1. Corporate culture (for example, the culture of Apple, Microsoft)
2. Professional culture (for example, the culture of doctors, lawylawyer
3. Gender (different cultures of men and women)
4. Age (the different cultures of young, middle-aged, and old-people)
5. Religious culture (for example, Catholicism, Islam, Budha)
6. ToRegional culture (for example, Western, Eastern)
7. Class culture (for example, working class, middle class,upper class)
4. Cultural Patterns of Behavior
Cultures have widely characteristics, but such patterns for living according to some
anthropologists have universal characteristics. George Peter Murdock in Tomasow (1986)
mentions seven cultural patterns of behavior, namely:
1. They originate in the human mind.
2. They facilitate human and environmental interactions.
3. They satisfy human basic needs.
4. They are cumulative and adjust to changes in external and internal conditions.
5. They tend to form a consistent structure.
6. They are learned and shared by all members of the society.
7. They are transmitted to new generations.
B. Language

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 According to Sapir (1921), "language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions and desire by means of voluntarily produced symbols."
Language is a part of culture and a part of human behavior. It is often held that the function of
language is to express thought and to communicate information. Language also fulfills many
other tasks such as greeting people, conducting religious service, etc. Language and culture are
intertwined because language is an outcome or result of a culture as a whole and also a vehicle
by which the other aspects of culture are shaped and communicate.
Three major functions of language are:
1. Language is the primary vehicle of communication;
2. Language reflects both the personality of the individual and the culture of his histor In
turn,it help shape both personali and culture
3. Language makes possible the growth and transmission of culture, the continuity of
societies, and the effective functioning and control of social group.
C. The Relationship Between Language and Culture
It is obvious that language plays a paramount role in developing, elaborating and transmitting
culture and language, enabling us to store meanings and experience to facilitate
communication.
The function of language is so important in communication that it is even exaggerated by some
scholars. The most famous one is the hypothesis concerning the relationship between language
and culture, which Nida and Taber (1982) regards as misconceptions constituting serious
difficulties for cross-cultural understanding.
Each culture has its own peculiarities and throws special influence on the language system. For
example, referring to the same common domestic animal "dog". A great deal of cross-cultural
misunderstanding occurs when the "meanings" of words in two languages are assumed to be
the same, but actually reflect different cultural patterns. Some are humorous as when a Turkish
visitor to the U.S. refused to
eat a "hot dog" because it was against his beliefs to eat dog meat. We can summarize the
relationship between culture and language as the following:

 Language is a key component of culture. It is the

 primary medium for transmitting much of culture.
 Without language, culture would not be possible.
 Children learning their native language are learning their own culture; learning a second
language also involves learning a second culture to varying degrees.
 Language is influenced and shaped by culture. It reflects culture.
 Cultural differences are the most serious areas causing misunderstanding,
unpleasantness and even conflict in cross-cultural communication

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 CHAPTER II
GENERAL AMERICAN VALUES

To understand the political, economic, social and even personal behavior of any group of
people, we must first know the dominant values of their culture which are passed down from
one generation to another through learning. American culture has been enriched by the values
and belief systems of virtually every part of the world. Consequently, it is impossible to be
comprehensive. Nevertheless, a few selected values are at the core of the American value
system.
A. Freedom
Americans commonly regard their society as the freest and best in the world. Americans'
understanding of freedom is shaped by the Founding Fathers' belief that all people are equal
and that the role of the government is to protect each person's basic "inalienable" rights. The
U.S. Constitution's Bill of Rights assures individual rights, including provisions for freedom of
speech, press and religion. No one single church dominates or controls in the US, there is a
religious diversity.
B. Individualism
Americans notion of freedom focuses on the individual, and individualism has strong
philosophical roots in America. Thomas Jefferson believed that a free individual's identity
should be held sacred and that his or her dignity and integrity should not be violated.
Individualism, understood not only as self-reliance but also as economic self-sufficiency, has
been a central theme in American history. Frontiers heroes who braved the wilderness alone,
farmers whose success depended on their ability to confront the hardships of land and
resourcefulness, the celebration of the small businessman who became a financial success on
his own; individual proprietorship in business is still extolled as the ideal.
C. Punctuality
Punctuality is the characteristic of being able to complete a required task or fulfill an obligation
before or at a previously designated time. "Punctual" is often used synonymously with "on
time." It is a common misconception that punctual can also, when talking about grammar,
mean "to be accurate."
According to each culture, there is often an understanding about what is considered an
acceptable degree of punctuality. Usually, a small amount of lateness is acceptable; this is
commonly about ten or fifteen minutes in Western cultures, but this is not the case in such
instances as doctor's. appointments or school lessons. In some cultures, such as Japanese
society, or in the military there basically is no allowance.

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Some cultures have an unspoken understanding that actual deadlines are different from stated
deadlines; for example, it may be understood in a particular culture that people will turn up an
hour later than advertised. In this case, since everyone understands that a 9 am meeting will
actually start around 10 am, no one is inconvenienced when everyone turns up at 10 am.
In cultures which value punctuality, being late is tantamount to showing disrespect for other's
time and may be considered insulting. In such cases, punctuality may be enforced by social
penalties, for example by excluding low status latecomers from meetings entirely. Such
considerations can lead to considering the value of punctuality in econometrics and to
considering the effects of non-punctuality on others in queueing theory.
D. Volunteerism
Volunteering is generally considered an altruistic activity, and is intended to promote good or
improve human quality of life, which in return produces a feeling of self-worth and respect, but
no financial gain. Volunteering is also famous for skill development, socialization and fun. It is
also intended to make contacts for possible employment or for a variety of other reasons.
Volunteers are highly motivated people, workers who organize themselves and others to solve
a particular community problem or meet an immediate social need, rather then waiting for
someone else - usually the govt- to do it. The willingness to participate in such groups is so
widespread that six out of ten Americans are members of a volunteer organization.
Volunteerism reflects Americans' optimistic pride in their ability to work out practical solutions
themselves. Americans like to form associations of different kind. Many volunteers are
specifically trained in the areas they work, such as medicine, education, or emergency rescue.
Others serve on an as-needed basis, such as in response to a natural disaster.

E. Equality
The Declaration of Independence states that "all men are created equal". In many ways people
believe this; we can see equality in such common practices as "waiting in line". When we go to
the bank, to the post office, or to immigration, we will be asked to take a number and wait.
Regardless of how important or trivial our need is, we will be treated like everyone else; first
come, first served.

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We can also see equality in the classroom. All students are the same in the eyes of professors,
and many professors view students (particularly graduate students) as their equals. Professors
may ask students to call them by their first names.
F. Informality
Although equality is ignored in some parts of life, it is followed closely in others. For example,
people treat one another very informally, even in the presence of great differences in age or
social status. This is not a "lack of respect," this is the custom in the United States.
InformalityInformality is right understood as idealism in practice, or democracy in action, the
right of the individual balanced by his responsibilities, in the basic unit is the family.
The American visiting Indonesia on the other hand might be surprised to see that in Indonesia,
the parent-children relationship is rather formal, where children have to respect their parents,
parents still have the authority, and there is no 'equality' at home.
G.Idealizing what is practical
Many historians believe that most of the beliefs and values which are characteristically
American emerged within the context of the frontier experience. Survival in the wilderness was
best achieved to robust individualists. Survival experiences also explain the American tendency
to idealize whatever is practical. In America what works is what counts. Inventiveness was
necessary for survival. This "can-do" spirit is something Americans are proud of today. They like
to think they are natural-born do-it-yourselfers.
H. Mobility
As a nation of immigrants, Americans have shared from the beginning the assumption that the
practical solution to a problem is to move elsewhere and make a fresh start. Mobility in
America is not a sign of aimlessness but optimism. Moving about from place to place is such a
common and accepted practice that most Americans take it for granted that they may live in
four or fife cities during their lifetime. Americans hate to feel that buying a house might
immobilize them forever.

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I. Progress
It is associated with the idea of freedom is the ideal of progress. The nation's progress has been
measured by the taming of the frontier and industrial expansion. The desire to progress by
making use of opportunities is important to Americans. In this immigrant society, progress is
personally measured as family progress over generations. Many Americans can boast that with
each succeeding generation since their first ancestors arrived, the family's status has

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 CHAPTER III
STEREOTYPE

A stereotype is generalizations of people groups based on past experiences, which are deep-
rooted in the psyche of the people. In another definition, it is said that stereotype is a fixed idea
or image that many people have a particular type of person, thing, or event, but sometimes it is
not true in reality. Cultural stereotypes mean applying both evidence and our existing beliefs
about the members of that cultural group.
Stereotypes are called idiosyncratic, if only an individual uses them, or they are social, or
collective if they are widely shared by a group of people. In everyday use, the concept of the
stereotype is used in various contexts: usually the word stereotype is used to refer to members
of some kind of collective: firemen are courageous, blondes are less intelligent, Italians are
noisy, and so forth.
The term stereotype itself, as allegedly used for the first time by Walter Lippman in 1922, is
used today to mean a readily available image of a given social group, usually based on rough,
often negative generalizations. Although stereotypes can be positive as well as negative, they
are, in everyday usage, most often understood as irrationally based negative attitudes about
certain social groups and their members. The concept of the stereotype' itself was borrowed
from old raised printing technology, where copies of a composed type were made by using
papier mache as molds for new printing plates, identical to the original, and used to produce
the same image over and over again.
In intercultural communication, in particular, it is vital to distinguish between what is part of a
person's cultural background and what is part of their personality.
In Figure 4.1, Hofstede uses the model of the pyramid to illustrate three levels of uniqueness in
human mental programming. Every person is in some way like other people,some, or none.

Personality

Culture

Human nature

No. of people

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 most people

some individuals

some individuals

How attitudes and belief are distributed

When a person makes inferences about a new person or about some social event, they use
their existing knowledge to reduce the uncertainty in the situation. The less one knows about
the object, the more one uses stereotypical generalizations. In an intercultural setting, one of
the goals of the participant is getting to know the attitudes and personality of the
communication partner. Often, stereotypes are understood to be detrimental to intercultural
communication and the elimination of stereotypes was believed to be a prerequisite for any
successful intercultural exchange.
Many people see stereotypes as rigid generalities that members of society impose on others
with whom they are unfamiliar or do not understand. The less we know about the other, the
more we hang on stereotypes. If the stereotype is well grounded and justifiable it may help to
orient oneself in a certain situation, but if it is unjust and loaded with negative emotions, it will
harm. The interaction without question. A number of phenomena make the interpretation of
cultural/national stereotypes enigmatic: cultural stereotypes are at the same time enduring and
changing, Cultural/national stereotypes strong are and insignificant. both descriptive and
prescriptive in nature: they are perceivers' shared beliefs about the characteristics of the target
group and at the same time they also function as social expectations. In initial interactions and
in solitary intercultural contacts people's national or cultural stereotypes may be used as a
source of expectation about the other party, and as a reference applied to the judgement of the
other party's behavior..
Some of the constituents of a stereotype may be very old and remain the same for centuries,
while some of the labels given to a country or cultural group may change within a short period
of time. Also, the salience of the constituents of cultural stereotype may change in time and
context. Some particular features may be enacted with different intensities in different
contexts, yet in another context these features may have no relevance at all.

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A. Kinds of Stereotypes
1. Nationality stereotypes
Generalizations about cultures or nationalities can be a source of pride, anger or simply bad
jokes. Some people say that in all stereotype there is some basis in reality, as they don't
develop in vacuum. Nationality stereotype is a system of culture-specific beliefs connected with
the nationality of a person. This system includes beliefs concerning those properties of human
beings that may vary across nations, such as appearance, language, food, habits, psychological
traits, attitudes, values etc."
Here are some national stereotypes famous in the world:

 American materialistic; arrogant; assertive; open-

minded;ambitious;progressive;efficient;straight-forward; alert; practical; US-centered
world view; egoistic; anxious; fast food eaters.
 Arabs intelligent; modest; insecure; anxious; impulsive; "billionaires, bombers and belly
dancers", men wear beards and are womanizers; have subservient and repressed
women wear burka or headscarf: "play & pray" attitude; love celebrations and
ceremonies; tea and shisha are important.
 Argentinians disagreeable; megalomaniac; warm and friendly people; can be vain &
arrogant; beautiful women; cultured society; lazy.
 Australians nature lovers; surf all day drink all night; open-minded; free spirited; men
are useless dads;uncultured; sports lovers; meat eaters.
 Belgians make good beer; poor personal hygiene;dishonest in money matters; make bad
lovers; distrust of authority; tax evaders; eat only french & fries.
 Brazilians impulsive; incestuous; megalomaniac; most women are super-models, most
men are gay or machos; always late; soccer lover; active; inventive and constructive
people; always trying to outwit government and regulations; impossibly favor oriented;
family- and community-oriented.
 British (UK): lousy food; bad teeth and hygiene; rude; thin; smoke cigar or pipe; heavy
drinkers; swear all day long, artistic; deep thinkers; intelligent and articulate; boastful;
anti-American; ride bikes.
 Chinese stingy and noisy spitters; fast-learners; open-minded ambitious; progressive;
efficient; materialistic; do kung fu and other material arts; great at mathematics; terrible
drivers; arrogant; assertive; wear glasses; cheap labor; drink green tea; business
oriented; money rules the world.
 French good lovers; best cuisine in the world; chaotic; irresponsible; introverted; selfish;
cultured; social "players"; do not like to work-prefer to strike; always surrender in war;
don't speak English; rude to tourists; anti-American; don't use soap; don't respect
religious freedom.

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 Germans mechanical; organized; boring; no sense of humor, drink beer all day; have
never been late for anything in their lives, pedophiliac.
 Greek are big and overdrive planners; cultured, inefficient; have beautiful women,as
long they are young men are mainly homosexual or sexual predators.
 Indians unconventional; adaptive; open-minded; agreeable; manipulative; hardworking,
politically inactive; studious; intelligent; productive; inoffensive; poor personal hygiene;
meditation lover, spiritual, generally poor; snake bureaucrats; huge families. charmers;
legendary
 Indonesians extroverted; warm and friendly people; lazy; religious; family-oriented;
supportive; rarely on time; corrupt; superstitious; slow; inferior; polite; lacking
discipline; use feeling not logic; do not follow. rules; hypocritical; tolerant; low profile;
unwilling to confront or give 'bad news'; silent in meetings.
 Italians Gigolos; live with their Mamas; possessive;passionate; pizza/pasta freaks;
manipulative; dishonest; fashion-addicted; Casanovas; mafia or gang members.
 Israelis arrogant; religious; strong family relations; well-traveled; noisy; rude; ruin things
if not satisfied; argue over the price of anything; party all night, fancy and fashionable
women.
 Jamaicans lazy; grass-smokers; reggae and rasta maniacs; loud; boisterous and
aggressive; strong sense of self and their culture; innovative musician; live in trees; walk
barefoot and live generally very primitive; all Jamaican men are uncircumcised; all they
care are weed, beach, women and rum.
 Japanese disciplined; organized; technology-lover; extroverted; competent; short;
perverted; raw-fish eaters; suicidal. workaholics;
 South Korean: 'kimchi' is the only food; open minded; ambitious; progressive; efficient;
materialistic; arrogant; assertive; plastic surgery lovers; Jae-ju is the most famous place;
serial-drama makers.
 Malaysians manipulative; survive by cronyism and nepotism; introverted; arrogant; have
speed traps everywhere; ultra-religious, but sell porn everywhere; boring; have great
varieties of food; embrace multi culturalism; every long-term visitor is expected to
convert to Islam; have mistresses; women traditional but with modern thinking.
 Mexicans heavy tequila drinkers; impulsive; wear huge sombreros; religious; family-
oriented; great food (enchiladas, tortillas, burritos) and cheap cost-of living; human
traffickers into the US
 Nigerians good in sport; violent; neurotic; open minded; modest; manipulative; corrupt;
love money
 Pakistani hardworking; politically inactive; studious; intelligent; productive; inoffensive;
low paid; do dirty jobs; militaristic; religious; hate Indians. Russians aggressive; rude;
open-minded; organized crime (the Russian Mafia) is everywhere..

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  Singaporeans adaptive; super-efficient; rich; selfish; money-oriented; hard-working
clean; stylish; organized; disciplined; tolerant; introverted; career and certificate-
oriented; multi-cultural; fashionable; against chewing gum and smoking.
2. Racial stereotypes
There are examples of racial stereotypes too. For instance, the Asians are stereotyped to be
good at mathematics; the blacks are stereotyped to be good at athletics and dancing. These
can be regarded as positive stereotypes. Other stereotype like "All Muslims are terrorists" is
a negative stereotype, and many more.
3. Political stereotypes
There are also examples of political stereotypes. These stereotypes have been deep rooted
in the mindset of the general public, because of the general interpretation of the policies of
a political party. Political stereotypes include: All democrats are liberals, All Republicans are
racists, Religion-based party are hypocrite, All Democrats. are Stupid, and All Republicans
are against the "working man".
4. Gender stereotypes
The depiction of men in media strongly suggests that they are strong, adventurous and
active paving way for them to be stereotyped in that manner. On the other hand, the
depiction of women suggests that they are good at performing household chores and taking
care of their appearances and they are eventually stereotyped by these traits. Examples of
gender stereotypes are 'Men are masculine", "Women are good cooks", "Men are strong,
adventurous and brave", "Women are in charge of the house and Men are in charge of
finances" etc.
B.Stereotypes in Media
Many films, advertisements and television programs show men engaged in physically
demanding pursuits such as sport, rock-climbing, and beach surfing or canoeing. They also show
young boys playing with action toys such as trucks, robots and super-hero figures. On the other
hand, the same media shows young girls putting on make-up, brushing their hair and generally
worrying about their overall appearance.
Some other advertisements show mothers serving meals to their families. The depiction of
women in such roles suggests that they are good at performing household chores and aking
care of their appearances and they are eventually stereotyped by these traits.

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In literature and art, stereotypes are clichéd or predictable characters or situations. Related to
this, Violet H. Harada (James, 1996) conducted a research about stereotypes and biases in
recent Asian American fiction for adolescents. Several generalizations emerged from this study.
The prevailing image of Asians American as a member of a model minority appeared in over
half of the fiction. To a lesser extent, Asian American characters were described as Asian in
physical but strived to be American on the inside. Inaccurate or restricted mention of cultural
details also occurred. References to Japanese culture were limited to discussion on Ikebana-the
art of flower arrangement, and Zen. The only aspect of culture shared by the Chinese was
references to eating rice and drinking tea.
Fictions in particular, can be a powerful and natural vehicle providing a thoughtful reflection of
the values and beliefs of a culture. All writers must accept the challenge and responsibility of a
weaving authentic details and accurate cultural information into quality works for the readers.
C. Positive and Negative Side of Stereotype
Stereotypes are useful for the human brain because they operate as a heuristic or a cognitive
mechanism to quickly gather, process, and synthesize information. As social animals, we seek to
gather information about those around us. However, there is too much information to process
in its entirety. Therefore, we have heuristics to make the process more efficient. In applying a
stereotype, one is able to quickly "know" something about an individual. For example, if the
only thing you know about s girl is that she belongs to a band, you are able to guess that she
likes music. People use stereotypes as shortcuts to make sense of their social contexts; this
makes the task of understanding one's world less cognitively demanding.
Other positive sides of stereotypes are:

 People rely on stereotypes everyday to help them function in society.

 To allow people to quickly process new information about an event or person.
 To organize people's past experiences.
 To meaningfully assess differences between individuals and groups.
 To make predictions about other people's behavior.
Given the social and cognitive necessities of heuristics,the problem with stereotyping is not the
existence of the cognitive function. The problem lies in the assumption that all people of a
group a group with which they might not even identify are the same. For example, it is a
common stereotype that people who wear glasses are smart. Certainly, there are some glasses-
wearing, intelligent people. But it is poor logic to think that everyone who sports glasses is
intelligent. Stereotyping can lead to prejudice, or negative. perceived judgements about a
group of people. The application of prejudice to a given individual can cause personal and social
damage.

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Other negative sides of stereotypes are:

 Oversimplified generalization
 Breeding ground for errant generalizations.
 Serve as a major source of disinformation about others
 May easily conceal or feed into prejudice, racism, sexism, and other forms of bigotry.
D. Dealing with Stereotypes
The key to reversing negative stereotypes is to contradict them, in direct interactions between
people, in the media, and through education.
1. Between Individuals.
Once people get to know a person from "the other side," they often will determine that the
is not nearly as bad as they originally had assumed. More often, however, people really are
much more reasonable than their stereotypes would suggest. In that case, getting to know
people personally helps to break down negative images. This is especially true when people
determine that they actually have things in common with people from the other side. Such
things can range from enjoying the same music, hobbies, or sports, to having the same worries
about children or aging parents.
Even when people learn that they share fear or sadness, they can begin to understand each
other more. When they come to understand that the other is afraid of being hurt, or losing a
loved one in war, just as they are, that brings people together. Such shared emotions make
people seem human, while stereotypes typically "dehumanize" people. Likewise, shared
emotions make empathy possible, which opens the door to new forms of interaction and trust
building, at least among the individuals involved.
Depending on the context and other interactions, the image of the group as a whole may
become more positive as well. (At other times, people rationalize that their one new
acquaintance is "not like the others.") But even learning that one person can deviate from the
stereotype is a start. The challenge then is to expand such transformative experiences beyond
the individuals involved to larger groups, communities, and eventually whole societies.
Developing such mutual understanding is the goal of many intervention efforts in war-torn
areas, and in places rocked by social unrest. Dialogue groups and problem solving workshops
are two common ways of doing this. So are joint projects such as war-reconstruction efforts,
children's programs, recreational programs, medical programs any kind of program that brings
individuals from opposing groups together in a cooperative venture. Although they have
additional goals beyond the breaking of stereotypes, working together cooperatively can do
much to break down negative images people hold of the "enemy."

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2. In the Media
The media also plays an important role in both perpetuating and in breaking down stereotypes.
If they characterize particular groups of people in certain ways, their viewers (or readers) are
likely to do the same. So if a movie or the motion picture industry in general -- characterizes a
group of people negatively, they are likely to be perpetuating negative stereotypes and making
conflicts worse. If they emphasize the positive aspects of groups that contradict prevalent
stereotypes, they can have a significant role in building mutual understanding.
3. In Education
Educational institutions and teaching materials also have the opportunity to affect
stereotypes, and hence influence inter-group relations. Efforts to teach about different cultures,
and the history of different racial or ethnic groups can help build inter-group understanding if it
is done in an effective and sympathetic way.
Educational system (teachers, schools, textbooks) needs to also try to paint a fair and
accurate picture of the conflict and the different people involved, being aware that different
sides of a conflict will view what is happening very differently. Through stories, discussions, and
exercises, teachers can help students (of all ages and levels) understand the complexity of the
conflicts that surround them, and develop age and situation appropriate responses to the
current conflicts in their homes, communities, and nations. To the extent that classrooms
contain students from both sides of the conflict, teachers can help students learn to understand
and appreciate each other better, while protecting the safety (physical and emotional) of those
on both sides. If the classroom only contains one group, reaching such intergroup
understandings is harder, but still worth the
effort through books and articles, discussions,tv,movies, and when available, online exercices.
In addition, we can deal with stereotype by:

 Presenting more balanced pictures of minority life in media.

 By reporting forms of human right abuses
 By portraiting all groups fairly
 Keep on talking and communicating fairly with each other (otherwise these problems
are going to get much worse).

17
Generalization and categories are necessary, but when they are too rigid they can be a barrier
to the effective interpretation of a situation. However, eliminating stereotypes is not possible,
or, if it were done, it would be detrimental to human cognition. Stereotypes, as such, are
cognitive schemata, typical of the human cognitive system, which assigns a set of characteristics
to all members of a given social group, and serves as a reference when assigning significance to
observations and experiences in social interactions. They are mental structures, which simplify
the complex stimuli from one's environment and facilitate their comprehension. There is
nothing wrong with stereotypes if they are embedded in reality and promote the
understanding of social and.

18
 CHAPTER IV
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Communication has always been an important need of all societies. Since the time of our cave-
dweller ancestors, people have been communicating in different ways. Neanderthals drew
pictures on cave walls, American Indians communicated using drumbeat and smoke. In wars,
soldiers used doves to communicate top secrets. Letters and the telephone were the next step
in communication. Finally, in the present century most of communication process is done
through the Internet.
Communication can be defined as the exchange of meaning. This involves the sending and
receiving of information. between a sender and a receiver. This happens not only through the
use of words, but also through non verbal factors, such as gestures and facial expression. The
message received can be very different from the message was sent.
1. Source: The source is the person with an idea he or she desires to communicate.
2. Encoding. Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately), humans are not able to share thoughts
directly. Your communication is in the form of a symbol representing the idea you desire to
communicate. Encoding is the process of putting an idea into a symbol. The symbols into which
you encode your thoughts vary. You can encode your thoughts into words, and you can also
encode thoughts into nonspoken symbols.
3. Message. The term message identifies the encoded thought. Encoding is the process, the
verb; the message is the resulting object.
4. Channel. The term channel is used technically to refer to the means by which the encoded
message is transmitted. Today it is called media.
5. Noise. The term noise technically refers to anything that distorts the message the source
encodes. Noise can be of many forms:

 External noise can be the sights, sounds, and other stimuli that draw your attention
away from the message.
 Internal noise refers to your thoughts and feelings that can interfere with the message.
 Semantic noise refers to how alternative meanings of the source's symbols can be
distracting

19
7. Receiver. The receiver is the person who attends to the message. Receivers may be
intentional; that is, they may be the people the source desired to communicate with, or they
may be any person who comes upon and attends to the message.
8. Decoding. Decoding is the opposite process of encoding and just as much an active process.
The receiver is actively involved in the communication process by assigning meaning to the
symbols received.
9. Receiver response. It refers to anything the receiver does after attended to and decoded the
message. That response can range from doing nothing to taking action or actions that may or
may not be the action desired by the source.
10. Feedback: It refers to that portion of the receiver response of which the source has
knowledge and to which the source attends and assigns meaning.
11. Context. Generally context can be defined as the environment in which the communication
takes place and which helps define the communication. you know physical context, you can
predict with a high degree of accuracy much of the communication.
Intercultural communication, sometimes used synonymously. with cross-cultural
communication, is a form of communication that aims to share information across different
cultures and social groups. It is used to describe the wide range of communication processes
and problems that naturally appear within an organization made up of individuals from
different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds.. In this sense it seeks to
understand how people from different countries and cultures act, communicate and perceive
the world around them. Many people argue that culture determines how individuals encode
messages, what medium they choose for transmitting them, and the way messages are
interpreted. As a separate notion, it studies situations where people from different cultural
backgrounds interact. Aside from language, intercultural communication focuses on social
attributes, thought patterns, and the cultures of different groups of people. It also involves
understanding the different cultures, languages and customs of people from other countries.
Intercultural communication plays a role in social sciences such as anthropology, cultural
studies, linguistics, psychology and communication studies. Intercultural communication is also
referred to as the base for international businesses.
Generally, in communication, we seek to reduce uncertainty. Communication with strangers
involves relatively greater degrees of uncertainty, due to the difficulty in predicting a stranger's
responses. We experience uncertainty with regard to the stranger's attitudes, feelings and
beliefs. We are also uncertain of how to explain the stranger's behavior. Motivation to reduce
this uncertainty is more acute when we expect to have further interactions with the stranger,
or when they are a potential source of benefit.
We may reduce our uncertainty and increase the accuracy of our predictions by gaining more
information about the stranger. The increased uncertainty in interactions with strangers is

20
accompanied by higher levels of anxiety, as we anticipate a wider array of possible negative
outcomes. We may worry about damage to our self-esteem from feeling confused and out of
control. We may fear the possibility of being incompetent, or being exploited. We may worry
about being perceived negatively by the stranger. And we may worry that interacting with a
stranger will bring disapproval from members of our own group. Generally these anxieties can
be reduced by paying more conscious attention to the communication process, and by
gathering more information on the stranger. The authors add a further caution. Generally,
individuals tend to explain their own behavior by reference to the situation. Observers tend to
attribute an individual's behavior to elements of that individual's character. When interacting
with strangers we are especially likely to attribute their behavior to their character, and then to
view their character as typical of their culture (or race, etc.). That is, we are especially likely to
interpret a stranger's behavior in light of our stereotypes about what "those kind of people" are
like.
The problems in intercultural communication usually come from problems in message
transmission. In communication between people of the same culture, the person who receives
the message interprets it based on values, beliefs, and expectations for behavior similar to
those of the person who sent the message. When this happens, the way the message is
interpreted by the receiver is likely to be fairly similar to what the speaker intended. However,
when the receiver of the message is a person from a different culture, the receiver uses
information from his or her. culture to interpret the message. The message that the receiver
interprets may be very different from what the speaker intended.
A. Barriers to Intercultural Communication
1. Attitude
Sample cases:
a. Globalization means that there is now one business culture everywhere in the world. If
they
want to do business with me, then they'll have
b. to adapt to my culture.
c. “When in Indonesia, do as the Indonesians do"
d. It's impossible to generalize cultures- there are many differences.
e. Today I work with Indonesians, tomorrow I'll meet my American partners. I cant
possibly
learn all I need to know about all the cultures I have to deal with.

21
 f. What I need when I go aboard is a list of dos and don'ts.
g. Intercultural training just confirms stereotype.
Comments:
 People do share certain beliefs and values, especially business people. However, it is
misleading to believe that they are always stronger than other types of cultures. One of
the examples: Western franchise brands, such as KFC, which tries to standardize its
products has to adapt to local taste. The pressure of globalization can also lead to the
strengthening of local identity. The idea that people from different cultures can be fused
together is at the heart of the concept of the "melting pot".
 It is an ethnocentric approach and is unlikely to success in business or other
relationships.
 C. This is commonly used phrase, and is useful in that it stresses the importance of
considering the culture of the host. In practice, culture is so deeply rooted that it is not
possible to change one's original culture and take on a new one.
 Care should be taken with generalizations, but at times they are necessary, and they can
be useful as long as allowance is made for individual differences.
 Intercultural training can sensitize you to the sorts of factors that may be influencing
communication.
 Simple list of dos and don'ts are of rather limited help in making communication
successful. While they are appealing to the busy business person, effective intercultural
communication requires more than a knowledge of a few basic facts.
 Good training will avoids stereotyping, and encourage people to change their view in
the light of what they observe.

2. Perception
The fact that people perceive the same thing in different ways is particularly important in
intercultural communication. The way we perceive is culturally determined, and the general
lack of awareness of this is another barrier to intercultural communication.
3. Stereotype
A stereotype is a fixed idea or image that many people have a particular type of person, thing,
or event, but sometimes it is not true in reality. Generalization and categories are necessary,
but when they are too rigid they can be a barrier to the effective interpretation of a situation. In
intercultural communication, it is vital to distinguish between what is part of a person's cultural
background and what is part of their personality.

22
4. Interpretation
What is the problem in this situation?
A Japanese businessman is negotiating with an Australian partner.
Chan : The deal will be very difficult...
Andrew: Well, what can I help to solve the problems, Chan?
Chan :....
This is the case of misinterpretation, in which two people have interpreted the same
statement in completely different ways.
For the Japanese (Chan), the message was quite clear. For him, the statement that it would
be very difficult means there would be no deal. He expresses this INDIRECTLY, to be polite, and
to avoid 'loss of face". The Australian, not being aware of this, thought that there were some
problems that could be resolved.
Gudykunst (in Gibson, 2000) suggests three ways of checking our interpretation of other
people's behavior:
o Perception checking

The aim of perception checking is to ensure that our interpretation of the other person's
behavior is what he or she meant it to be. First we have to describe what we thought the
other person's meant, before asking if this interpretation is correct. Even this process is
culturally determined, and for people from some cultures could be too direct. If you are an
individualist communicating with a collectivist, it is important to keep in mind that
collectivist may not feel comfortable answering direct questions. In this case you may have
to ask your perception checking questions more indirectly.
o Listening effectively

It is important to distinguish between hearing (the physical process) and listening which
involves much more attention, and includes absorbing new. information, checking it with
what you already know, categorizing it, selecting ideas, and predicting what is coming next.
Active listening involves showing the speaker that we are involved in the conversation,
trying to understand them better(by asking questions, for instance, or restarting what they
have said).

23
 o Giving feedback

This is the verbal or non-verbal response to others. Again, the ways feedback is given vary
widely across cultures, but it often useful to follow the following guidelines:

 Be specific
 Separate the feedback from the person
 Present the problem as a mutual one
 Mix negative with positive feedback
 Provide feedback at an appropriate time
 Use "I" statement whenever possible
5. Culture Shock
Culture shock is precipitated by the anxiety that result from losing all our familiar signs and
symbols of social intercourse. These signs are cues include the thousand and one ways in which
we orient ourselves to the situations of daily life. Further discussion about culture shock will be
in the next chapter.
6. Non-Verbal Behavior
While language is the primary means of communication, nonverbal behavior also
communicates. Nonverbal patterns include gestures, facial expression, eye contact, body
movement, touching, and the use of space and time. Gestures are an obvious source of
misunderstanding, because they may have different meanings. However, other forms] of
nonverbal communication may cause particular difficulty, partly because we do not think about
them much. Therefore, we may not be able to figure out what is causing the misunderstanding
or why we feel uncomfortable. For example, patterns of touching vary a great deal in different
cultures. In some cultures, people frequently touch, kiss, and hold hands in public. In other
countries, this is not acceptable. In some cultures, people stand very close together when they
talk, but in other cultures, they stand relatively far apart. In some cultures, a person who looks
down while talking appears dishonest, while in other cultures, looking down shows respect. In
some cultures, you are expected to be on time for an appointment, but in other cultures, you
are expected to be late. All of these differences have the potential to cause problems
B. Cultural Learning
At the lowest level is the belief that all people are alike. Then comes a recognition that there
are differences, an acceptance of the differences, seeing ways of synthesizing the different
things run smoothly. ays, selecting, and making
The process of cultural learning can be helped along by experience, reflection and training.
Intercultural When we understand body language we become better able to refine and improve

24
what our body says about us, which generates a positive improvement in the way we feel, the
way we perform, and what we achieve.
B. Eye Contact (Oculistics)
Eye contact is the meeting of the eyes between two individuals. In humans, eye contact is a
form of nonverbal communication and has a large influence on social behavior. The study of
eye contact is sometimes known as Oculistics.
Eye contact provides a way in which one can study social interactions, as it provides
indications of social and emotional information. People, perhaps without consciously doing so,
probe each other's eyes and faces for signs of positive or negative mood. In some contexts, the
meeting of eyes arouses strong emotions. Eye contact can establish a sense of intimacy
between two individuals, such as the gazes of lovers or the eye contact involved in flirting.
Alternatively, avoiding eye contact can establish distance between people. When in crowds,
people tend to avoid eye contact in order to maintain privacy.
Eye contact develops in a cultural context and different gazes have different meanings all
over the world. The customs and significance of eye contact vary widely between cultures, with
religious and social differences often altering its meaning greatly. According to the tenets of the
Islamic faith, Muslims.
c. Head
The head is very significant in body language. The head tends to lead and determine general
body direction, but it is also vital and vulnerable being where our brain is, so the head is used a
lot in directional (likes and dislikes) body language, and in defensive (self-protection) body
language too.4. Dress
d. Arms
Arms act as defensive barriers when across the body, and conversely indicate feelings of open
Arm and security when in open positions, especially combined with open palms.
e. Hands
Hands contain many more nerve connections (to the brain) than most if not all other body
parts. They are extremely expressive and flexible tools, so it is natural for hands to be used a lot
in signalling consciously as with emphasizing gestures or unconsciously as in a wide range of
unintentional movements which indicate otherwise hidden feelings and thoughts.
Since the time of our cave-dweller ancestors, people paid great deal of attention to clothes.
They made clothes out of tree leaves, animals' hides, and now we have excellent apparel
industries that use artificial materials to manufacture clothing. Our clothing is a part of our
cultural identity.

25
Even the way people dress for business differs widely across cultures. Wearing formal clothes in
all over the world means person is going to an interview, workplace, celebration, or a place
where some high ranking people are present. Wearing informal clothes in all over the world
means that the person is going to a friendly party, BBQ or an informal place. WhatWhat do you
think is happening here?
Businessman from continental Europe, wearing a sport jacket and a tie, arriving for a meeting in
London with his British counterpart wearing a suit, to be greeted with the words, "Did the
airline lose your luggage?"
To the British partner, his Europe partner's choice of a sport jacket suggested inappropriate
informality. As always, it is not only national cultural differences that are important, corporate
culture can differ widely too, even within the same industry.
training not only provides information but also develops skills, and encourages attitudes to
enable people to progress along the cultural learning curve.
C. Dealing with Difference
Use the following statements to reflect on how well suited you are to be an international
student/employee. How many are true you?
1. I am a sociable person and have a lot of friends.
2. I enjoy travel, and learning about new culture.
3. I have always been good at learning languages.
4. I enjoy dealing with ambiguous situation.
5. I am tolerant of people who disagree
6. I am prepared to change plans according to what happens.
7. I am a good listener.
8. I can cope with stress.
9. I have experience working abroad.
10. I have partner/family who is/are also keen in living abroad.
11. I am patient when things don't work out as I want them too.
12. I prefer to work in a team rather than on my own.

26
The more of those statements you can honestly agree with, the more suitable you are for work
in an international context.
Based on a research, Marx (in Gibson, 2000) enlists - in order of priority what personal manager
in German companies looked for in international manager:
1. Social competence
2. Openness to other ways of thinking
3. Cultural adaptation
4. Professional excellence
5. Language skills.
6. Flexibility.
7. Ability to manage/ work in a team
8. Adaptability of the family.
9. Patience
10. Sensitivity
Note that on the list, professional excellence doesn't come at the top of the list. If technical skill
is the only criterion for working aboard, the result will be rarely successful. Where aggression,
speed, and competitiveness may be important in a monocultural environment, they could be
dangerous ii an intercultural one, where qualities, such as adaptability, and high tolerance for
ambiguity are more important.
D. Improving Intercultural Communication
It is essential that people research the cultures and communication conventions of those whom
they propose to meet. This will minimize the risk of making the elementary mistakes. It is also
prudent to set a clear agenda so that everyone understands the nature and purpose of the
interaction.
In interactions with people from foreign cultures, a person who is interculturally competent
understands the culture specific concepts of perception, thinking, feeling, and acting. The basic
requirements for intercultural competence are:

27
 Break the Assumptions
Everyone makes or has assumptions about others. Assumptions are beliefs rather than
objective truth and are usually influenced by a number of subjective factors.for
intercultural communication to truly work, people need to assess their assumptions and
ask themselves why they hold those ideas or beliefs. By doing so and even openly
examining them with others, the initial barrier to intercultural communication is
overcome.
 Empathise
In order to come to appreciate and understand people from different cultures, empathy
is vital. Through putting yourself in someone else's shoes you come to see or appreciate
their point of view.
 Involve
Involving others in tasks or decision making empowers and builds strong relationships.
Using intercultural diversity is in essence a more creative approach to problem solving
as it incorporates different points of view.

 Discourage Herd Mentality

Herd mentality refers to a closed and one dimensional approach. Such a way of thinking
curbs creativity, innovation and advancement as people are restricted in how to think,
approach and engage with people or challenges.
Intercultural communication can only flourish and therefore contribute if people are
encouraged to think as individuals, bring their cultural influences to the table and share
ideas that may be outside the box.

 Avoid Insensitive Behavior

People can and do behave in culturally insensitive ways. By attacking someone's person,
you attack their culture and therefore their dignity. This can only be divisive.
Effective communication depends on the informal understandings among the parties
involved that are based on the trust developed between them. When trust exists, there
is implicit understanding within communication, cultural differences may be overlooked,
and problems can be dealt with.

28
more easily. The meaning of trust and how it is developed and communicated vary across
societies. Similarly, some cultures have a greater propensity to be trusting than others.
The development of intercultural competence itself is mostly based on the individual's
experiences while he or she is communicating with different cultures. When interacting with
people from other cultures, the individual experiences certain obstacles that are caused by
differences in cultural understanding between two people from different cultures. Such
experiences may motivate the individual to acquire skills that can help him to communicate his
point of view to an audience belonging to a different cultural ethnicity and background.
As an example, International students face this issue: they have a choice of modifying their
cultural boundaries and adapting to the culture around them or holding on to their native
culture and surrounding themselves with people. The students who decide to hold on to their
native culture are those who experience the most problems in their university life and who
encounter frequent culture shocks. But international students who adapt themselves to the
culture surrounding them (and who interact more with domestic students) will increase their
knowledge of the domestic culture, which may help them to "blend in" more. Such individuals
may be said to have adopted bicultural identities.

29
 CHAPTER V
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. In other words we
can say communication as the exchange of ideas, information, etc. between two or more
people. Most of us spend about 75 percent of our waking hours communicating our knowledge,
thoughts, and ideas to others.
There are three major types of communication, namely visual, verbal or dialog, and von-verbal
communication.. Visual communication, as the name suggests, is communication through visual
aids. It is the transmission of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked
upon.Dialog or verbal communication is a conversation between two or more entities in which
they use their speech organs to convey a message.
Non-verbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving
wordless messages. Non-verbal communication can be divided into 4 parts namely body
language (kinesics), eye contact (oculistics), touch (haptics), body distance (proxemics),
paralangue, and turn taking.

A. Body Language (Kinesics)

Body language is a significant aspect of modern communications and relationships. Body
language can be defined as the conscious and unconscious movements and postures by which
attitudes and feelings are communicated. It goes both ways:
Your own body language reveals your feelings and meanings to others.
Other people's body language reveals their feelings and meanings to you.
Body language, and more technically the study of body language, is also known as kinesics,
which is derived from the Greek word kinesis, meaning motion. This includes body movement,
body position, facial expression, as well as dress.

30
1. Body movement (gesture)
Body languages allow individuals to communicate a variety of feelings and thoughts, from
contempt and hostility to approval and affection, often together with body language in addition
to spoken words. The most familiar categories of body language are the so-called emblems or
quotable gestures. These are conventional, culture-specific body language that can be used as
replacement for words, such as the handwave used in the U.S. for "hello" and "goodbye". Body
languages are a crucial part of everyday conversation such as chatting, describing a route, or
negotiating prices on a market etc.
One of the most frequently observed, but least understood cue is a hand movement. Most
people use hand movements regularly when talking. It can indicate a particular meaning,
feeling or intention. The same gestures can mean different things to people from different
cultures. Nodding head means "yes" or understanding in many countries. In other places such
as Genovia, nodding head means 'no". In some Australian Aboriginal cultures, it is disrespectful
to look an elder, superior, in the eyes. It is a sign of respect to drop the eyes, (whereas in
Western culture not meeting somebody's gaze is commonly considered to be a negative sign,
indicating deceit, lying, lack of attention, lack of confidence, etc).
One of the most frequently observed, but least understood cue is a hand movement. Most
people use hand movements regularly when talking. It can indicate a particular meaning,
feeling or intention. This category includes:

Salute: The salute is a formal greeting where the open hand is brought up to the forehead. It is
often used in the military in a strictly prescribed manner and in specific situations.

Bowing: Bowing is another formal greeting and can be as extreme as a full 90 degree bend from
the waist to even complete prostration on the floor. The greeter averts the eyes (I dare not look
at your majesty) and exposes the head (You can kill me if you wish). The female variant on the
bow is the curtsey, which again can be a full sinking to the floor or a slight bob. Bowing and its
variants place the person into a lower rank than the person who receives the greeting and into
a position of greater vulnerability.

31
Waving: Waving can be done from a distance. This allows for greeting when you first spot
another person. Waves call attention and a big, overhead wave can attract a person's attention
from some distance. This also makes others look at you and is not likely from a timid person. A
stationary palm, held up and facing out is far less obvious and may be flashed for a short period,
particularly if the other person is looking at you (all you need is that he or she sees the
greeting).
Another familiar body language are using fingers. Samebody movement, fingers communicate
many things. Here are some of the gestures
2. Body Position
What do you think is happening here?
Sales representative, Franz Bauer, from Germany and Jim Banks from Britain are in a difficult
negotiation. Things are getting tense. Franz sits upright and is disturbed as Jim relaxes on his
chair. Franz feels that Jim is not taking the negotiation seriously. Jim feels that Franz is getting
more and more aggressive.
The situation above shows how two people can misinterpret each other's behavior, and so the
situation escalates. The German's upright position indicates the seriousness; meanwhile the
Britain's relaxing posture in the chair indicates his wish to defuse the situation.
In some cultures travelers should be careful to avoid exposing certain parts of their body. In
Arab cultures, for example, the sole of the foot is considered dirty, and should never be shown,
so anyone can adopt the local custom of sitting on the floor, for instance, has to take care to
avoid doing this.

3. Facial Expressions
Facial expressions usually communicate emotions. The expressions tell the attitudes of the
communicator. It is now generally accepted that certain basic facial expressions of human
emotion are recognized around the world and that the use and recognition of these expressions
is genetically inherited rather than socially conditioned or learned.
Researchers have discovered that certain facial areas reveal our emotional state better than
others. This means that, as the receiver of a message, we can rely heavily on the facial
expressions of the sender because his expressions are a better indicator of the meaning behind
the message than his words. Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are
monitored constantly by the recipient. The meaning of these expressions may be similar across
cultures, such as:

32
 a. Eyes
Here is basically making things up and saying. them. Depending on context this can
indicate lying, but in other circumstances, for example, storytelling to a child, this would
be perfectly normal. Looking right and down indicates accessing feelings, which again
can be a perfectly genuine response or not, depending on the context, and to an extent
the person.
b.Mouth
The mouth can be touched or obscured by a person's own hands or fingers, and is a
tremendously flexible and expressive part of the body too, performing a central role in
facial expressions.
b. Arms
Arms act as defensive barriers when across the body, and conversely indicate feelings of
openness and security when in open positions, especially combined with open palms.
c. Hands
Hands contain many more nerve connections (to the brain) than most if not all other
body parts. They are extremely expressive and flexible tools, so it is natural for hands to
be used a lot in signalling consciously as with emphasizing gestures or unconsciously as
in a wide range of unintentional movements which indicate otherwise hidden feelings
and thoughts.
4. Dress
Since the time of our cave-dweller ancestors, people paid great deal of attention to clothes.
They made clothes out of tree leaves, animals' hides, and now we have excellent apparel
industries that use artificial materials to manufacture clothing. Our clothing is a part of our
cultural identDres
Even the way people dress for business differs widely across cultures. Wearing formal clothes in
all over the world means person is going to an interview, workplace, celebration, or a place
where some high ranking people are present. Wearing informal clothes in all over the world
means that the person is going to a friendly party, BBQ or an informal place.
What do you think is happening here?
Businessman from continental Europe, wearing a sport jacket and a tie, arriving for a meeting in
London with his British counterpart wearing a suit, to be greeted with the words, "Did the
airline lose your luggage?"
To the British partner, his Europe partner's choice of a sport jacket suggested inappropriate
informality. As always, it is not only national cultural differences that are important, corporate
culture can differ widely too, even within the same industry. When we understand body
language we become better able to refine and improve what our body says about us, which
generates a positive improvement in the way we feel, the way we perform, and what we
achieve.

33
B. Eye Contact (Oculistics)
Eye contact is the meeting of the eyes between two individuals. In humans, eye contact is a
form of nonverbal communication and has a large influence on social behavior. The study of
eye contact is sometimes known as Oculistics.
Eye contact provides a way in which one can study social interactions, as it provides indications
of social and emotional information. People, perhaps without consciously doing so, probe each
other's eyes and faces for signs of positive or negative mood. In some contexts, the meeting of
eyes arouses strong emotions. Eye contact can establish a sense of intimacy between two
individuals, such as the gazes of lovers or the eye contact involved in flirting. Alternatively,
avoiding eye contact can establish distance between people. When in crowds, people tend to
avoid eye contact in order to maintain privacy.
Eye contact develops in a cultural context and different gazes have different meanings all over
the world. The customs and significance of eye contact vary widely between cultures, with
religious and social differences often altering its meaning greatly. According to the tenets of the
Islamic faith, Muslims ought to lower their gazes and try not to focus on the features of the
opposite sex, except for the hands and face. Japanese children are taught to direct their gaze at
the region of their teacher's Adam's apple or tie knot. As adults, Japanese tend to lower their
eyes when speaking to a superior as a gesture of respect. In Eastern Africa, it is respectful not to
look the dominant person in the eye, whereas such avoidance of eye contact is negatively
interpreted in Western cultures. As with all forms of social interaction that impart social
significance, eye contact is culturally determined.
What do you think is happening here? 1. A British expatriate living in Germany complains about
being stared at the underground train, "They stare me straight in the face as if I've come from
another planet".
2. A US manager reports problems with Japanese staff. "I asked them how the project was
going and of course, not much has been done. I was suspicious when they didn't even look me
in the eye".

The length of time that is acceptable to look directly in the eye can also differ from one country
to another. In some cultures, looking someone in the eye is taken as the sign of interest and
34
honesty, in others, however this can be seen as a sign of disrespect. Visitors gradually learnt not
to look too directly at the person they are talking too, in case they are thought to be staring
intrusively.
C. Touch (Haptics)
Question: Why do we touch, where do we touch, and
what meanings do we assign when someone else touches us?
What do you think is happening here?
An African-American male goes into a convenience store recently taken over by new Korean
immigrants. He gives a $20 bill for his purchase to Mrs. Cho who is cashier and waits for his
change. He is upset when his change is put down on the counter in front of him.
What is the problem? Traditional Korean (and many. other Asian countries) don't touch
strangers., especially between members of the opposite sex. But the African American sees this
as another example of discrimination (not touching him because he is black).
Touch is culturally determine, but each culture has a clear concept of what parts of the body
one may not touch. Basic message of touch is to affect or control protect, support, disapprove
(i.e. hug, kiss, hit, kick). Here are some examples:
In USA, handshake is common (even for strangers), hugs, kisses for those of opposite gender or
of family (usually) on an increasingly more intimate basis. Most African Americans touch on
greeting but are annoyed if touched on the head (good boy, good girl overtones). Islamic and
Hindu: typically don't touch with the left hand. To do so is a social insult. Left hand is for toilet
functions. Mannerly in India to break your bread only with your right hand. Islamic cultures
generally don't approve of any touching between genders (even hand shakes). But consider
such touching (including hand holding, hugs) between same-sex to be appropriate. Many Asians
don't touch the head (Head houses the soul and a touch puts it in jeopardy). What do you think
is happening here?
A European manager who came to work in the US of an insurance company was pleased to find
that he had an excellent secretary. After she had completed another piece of work long before
the deadline, he went up to her, tapped her on the shoulder and said, "Thanks again. It really is
such a help that you are here". Her response was to complain to the boss.

The situation above show that where, how, and how often people touch each other varies
widely across cultures. In the USA, the actions of some male employees touching female
employees, whether innocently or otherwise, has given rise to law suits for sexual harassment.
When and how often people shake hands varies widely too. A group of British investment
35
bankers felt that their German colleagues shook hands excessively. In other cultures, hugging or
kissing are more appropriate forms of greeting, even in a business context.
D. Body Distance/Space (Proxemics)
Proxemics or personal space is defined as (the study of) the amount of space that people find
comfortable between themselves and others. People are usually more comfortable standing
closer to family members than to strangers. The study of the way that people use physical
space to convey messages is called Proxemics.
Personality also determines the size of this space. For American, distance in social conversation
is about an arm's length to four feet. Less space in American culture may be associated with
greater intimacy or aggressive behavior.
"Excuse me" or "Pardon me" for the slightest accidental touching of another person shows the
American attitude about personal space. When a person's space is intruded by someone, he or
she may feel threatened and react defensively. What do you think is happening here? Julio, an
Argentinian student who is keen to improve his English, is attending a course in English. He
often stays behind after the class to ask the British lecturer, Mr. Jim, some questions. When
Julio approaches, Mr. Jim looks uneasy and begins to move away. Julio wonders whether Mr.
Jim doesn't like him, if he ask too many questions, or whether students are not suppose to ask
questions after class.How close you get to another person when talking to them differs widely
across cultures. Research has shown that in the USA the "comfort zone" is about an arm's
length. In Latin America, the tendency is for the people to get closer to each other than people,
for instance, in the UK. The fact that this is a tendency or not, mean that all British people do
this. Julio's explanation of Mr. Jim's behavior might be correct, but it could also ne that the
lecturer feels uneasy because the student is coming too close to him.
E. Paralangue
It is not only words that convey message, but also a range of other factors, such as: vocal
characterizers -laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch, yawn send different messages in different
cultures. For example, in Japan, giggling indicates embarrassment, and in India, belch indicates
vocal qualifiers such as volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo, and tone have different meaning..
Loudness indicates strength in Arabic cultures and softness indicates weakness. In German, it
indicates confidence and authority. Meanwhile in Japanese, it indicates indicates loss of
control. Generally, one learns not to "shout" in Asia for nearly any reason.

Vocal segregates such as "uh-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh, humm, eh, mah, nahh" indicate
formality, acceptance, assent, uncertainty, and also controlling conversation.
What do you think is happening here? A British Polish joint venture is running into problems.
Magda Sapinska, one of the Polish staffs, impresses the UK partner company with her

36
performance. They asks her to stay on for another weeks for further discussion. The British
manager asks her to ring her boss to see what he thinks. The telephone conversation is in Polish
language. Although the British manager can't speak Polish, it quickly seems clear to him that
Magda is having a problem with her boss office.
When she puts the phone down, he says to her, "Magda, sorry to have got you into this
problem ". Magda is puzzled and says, "What are you talking about? Everything's fine. My boss
has given us the OK".
Intonation patterns and tone voice vary widely in different cultures. What in one culture sounds
like a hysterical argument, in another culture would be considered to be the norm for a
reasonable argument. The British manager came to wrong conclusion about the tone of the
conversation when he judged the sound of people speaking in Polish by the very different
intonation pattern in English..
F. Turn - taking
In normal, civilized Western-type of conversation, speakers do not speak all the time; they wait
for their' turn'. But, how do people go about allocating turns to each other or themselves? This
is the mechanism of turn taking. On the one hand, there are natural breaks in every
conversation; a speaker has to pause for breath, or runs out things to say, or simply declares his
or her contribution to be finished.
What do you think is happening here? Researchers looking into intercultural communication
asked and Italian and a Japanese to find out particular information from each other. They
interviewed them separately after the conversation. The Italian said, "He seemed like a nice
guy, but he never really said
anything". And the Japanese said, "He was very friendly, but he never gave me a chance to
speak".
The way that turn-taking works in a conversation, and the role of silence, differ between
cultures. In some it is acceptable, and even desirable to interrupt, whereas in some others it is
normal to wait for your partner to finish speaking before making your point. In some cultures, a
period of silence is accepted as the norm.

CHAPTER VI
CULTURE SHOCK

37
person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration or a visit to a
new country, or to a move between social environments, also a simple travel to another type of
life.

A. Cause of shock culture

Besides language barrier, frustration, anxiety and stress also occur whenever people can't do all
the things they are. accustomed to doing in their everyday lives. These can include work, home
and leisure related activities that they are either no longer able to do at all or no longer able to
do like they are accustomed to. For example, sometimes because of differences in
transportation services people cannot move around as freely or as widely as they are
accustomed to. Additional issues such as telecommunication system, things like grocery
shopping, gas-station system, getting to work, and other things can lead to frustration also.
Another source of considerable distress for some people is not being able to eat the foods they
are accustomed to. Anyone who wants to live and work overseas should be prepared to make
considerable changes in their diet and get accustomed to the local foods and the sometimes
limited selection of familiar foods in the stores and restaurants. They may not have the nice
variety of very large and well-stocked grocery stores they had back home or the many choices
of restaurants and fast-food places.
And lastly is the issue of values. A person can experience considerable stress and anxiety when
they are living in a different culture with different values from their own. A person may find
that some of their own cherished and deeply held values and assumptions about life may not
be equally important to members of their new host culture. The areas of religion, moral
behavior, justice and fair play, racial equality, work ethic and privacy are areas where there may
a great deal of cultural relativism, and people living and working overseas need to learn to deal
with these differences in a relaxed and nonjudgmental way.

B. The Symptoms of Shock Culture

Although "culture shock" is generally understood as a temporary shock felt when confronted by
different cultural. customs, ways of thinking and behavior patterns, it actually refers to a
psychological state of depression caused by the experience of successive failures in unfamiliar

38
social situations. Culture shock is temporary, and everybody goes through it to some extent in
the process of cultural adaptation. General symptoms of culture shock Include

 irritation
 homesickness
 Loneliness
 nervousness
 loss of appetite
 sleeplessness
 feeling tired
 extreme pride in one's home culture
 hypersensitivity or excitability
 confusion
 incompetence etc.

C. The Stages of Shock Culture and Cultural Adjustment

Culture shock can be described as consisting of at least one of four distinct phases: honeymoon,
negotiation, adjustment, and mastery. During the honeymoon phase.
the differences between the old and new culture are seen in a romantic light. During the first
few weeks, most people are fascinated by the new culture. They associate with nationals who
speak their language, and who are polite to the foreigners. This period is full of observations
and new discoveries. Like most honeymoon periods, this stage eventually ends..
After some time (usually around three months, depending on the individual), differences
between the old and new culture become apparent and may create anxiety. This is the mark of
the negotiation phase. Excitement may eventually give way to unpleasant feelings of frustration
and anger as one continues to experience unfavorable events that may be perceived as strange
and offensive to one's cultural attitude. Still, the most important change in the period is
communication. People adjusting to a new culture often feel lonely and homesick because they
are not yet used to the new environment and meet people with whom they are not familiar
every day.

Again, after some time, one grows accustomed to the new culture and develops routines,
marking the adjustment phase. On nows what to expect in most situations and the host country
no longer feels all that new. One becomes concerned with basic living again and things become
more normal. One starts to develop problem-solving skills for dealing with the culture and

39
begins to accept the culture's ways with a positive attitude. The culture begins to make sense
and negative reactions and responses to the culture are reduced.
In the mastery stage, assignees are able to participate fully and comfortably in the host culture.
Mastery does not mean total conversion. People often keep many traits from their earlier
culture, such as accents and languages. It is often referred to as the biculturalism stage.

D. Coping Shock Culture

Culture shock can be prevented by striving to become more culturally relativistic and flexible in
thinking and behavior, by developing a real enthusiasm for learning about the host culture and
by forming real intercultural relationships. Successful cross-cultural communications is a fairly
straightforward proposition. With the correct attitude, a few good cultural informants, a few
cross-cultural communications concepts and some time spent as a participant-observer, a
person will quite naturally develop a repertoire of intercultural interaction skills. And, when a
person begins to move further along the continuum of cross cultural understanding and
interaction, they will more quickly put down ego-identity roots in the new host culture and feel
more at ease with themselves and their surroundings. They will become happier and productive
at work, at home or while moving about within the society at large. They will no longer be
negatively affected by disconfirmed expectancies. They will understand more and be
understood more by others. In short, they will have become bicultural individuals.

CHAPTER VII
CULTURE CONFLICT

40
Cultural conflict is a type of conflict that occurs when different cultural values and beliefs clash.
Broad and narrow definitions exist for the concept, both of which have been used to explain
violence (including war) and crime, on either a micro or macro scale.
Conflicting valuesEdit
Jonathan H. Turner defines cultural conflict as a conflict caused by "differences
in cultural values and beliefs that place people at odds with one another."[1] On a micro level,
Alexander Grewe discusses a cultural conflict between guests of different culture and nationality
as seen in a British 1970 sitcom, Fawlty Towers.[2] He defines this conflict as one that occurs
when people's expectations of a certain behavior coming from their cultural backgrounds are not
met, as others have different cultural backgrounds and different expectations.[2]
Cultural conflicts are difficult to resolve as parties to the conflict have different beliefs.
[3] Cultural conflicts intensify when those differences become reflected in politics, particularly
on a macro level.[3] An example of cultural conflict is the debate over abortion.[3] Ethnic
cleansing is another extreme example of cultural conflict.[4] Wars can also be a result of a
cultural conflict; for example the differing views on slavery were one of the reasons for
the American civil war.[5]
Crime and devianceEdit
A more narrow definition of a cultural conflict dates to Daniel Bell's 1962 essay, "Crime as an
American Way of Life", and focuses on criminal-enabling consequences of a clash in cultural
values.[6]
William Kornblum defines it as a conflict that occurs when conflicting norms create
"opportunities for deviance and criminal gain in deviant subcultures."[6] Kornblum notes that,
whenever laws impose cultural values on a group that does not share those views (often, this is
the case of the majority imposing their laws on a minority), illegal markets supplied by criminals
are created to circumvent those laws.[6] He discusses the example of prohibition in
the interbellum United States, and notes how the cultural conflict between pro- and anti-alcohol
groups created opportunities for illegal activity; another similar example he lists is that of
the war on drugs.[6]
Kornblum also classifies the cultural conflict as one of the major types of conflict theory.
[6] In The Clash of Civilizations Samuel P. Huntington proposes that people's cultural and
religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post-Cold War world.
Influence and understandingEdit

Michelle LeBaron describes different cultures as "underground rivers that run through our lives
and relationships, giving us messages that shape our perceptions, attributions, judgments, and
ideas of self and other She states that cultural messages "shape our understandings" when two or
more people are present in regards to relationships, conflict, and peace LeBaron discusses the
influence of culture as being powerful and "unconscious, influencing conflict and attempts to
resolve conflict in imperceptible ways She states that the impact of culture is huge, affecting

41
"name, frame, blame, and attempt to tame conflicts Due to the huge impact that culture has on
us, LeBaron finds it important to explain the "complications of conflict
 First, "culture is multi-layered," meaning that "what you see on the surface may mask
differences below the surface."
 Second, "culture is constantly in flux," meaning that "cultural groups adapt in dynamic
and sometimes unpredictable ways."
 Third, "culture is elastic," meaning that one member of a cultural group may not
participate in the norms of the culture.
 Lastly, "culture is largely below the surface," meaning that it isn't easy to reach the
deeper levels of culture and its meanings

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