PMAT 11223 Discrete Mathematics

DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
PMAT 11223
Lesson 04
2.4 PROOFS OF EQUIVALENCE
To prove that 3 statements 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 are equivalent, i.e. 𝑝 ⟷ 𝑞 and 𝑞 ⟷ 𝑟, only 3 proofs are
required, i.e. 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 and 𝑞 ⟶ 𝑟 and 𝑟 ⟶ 𝑝.
( 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 and 𝑞 ⟶ 𝑟 gives 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑟;
𝑞 ⟶ 𝑟 and 𝑟 ⟶ 𝑝 gives 𝑞 ⟶ 𝑝;
𝑟 ⟶ 𝑝 and 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 gives 𝑟 ⟶ 𝑞,
i.e. the 6 proofs can be reduced to 3 ).
In general, both direct and indirect proofs are needed.
2.4.1 Example: Prove that the followings are equivalent.
i. 𝑝: 𝑛 is odd ;
ii. 𝑞: 𝑛 + 5 is even ;
iii. 𝑟: 𝑛2 + 1 is even.

a) 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞

Proof: For 𝑛 odd, 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1

∴ 𝑛 + 5 = 2𝑘 + 1 + 5
= 2𝑘 + 6
= 2(𝑘 + 3)
= 2𝑚 (Where 𝑚 = 𝑘 + 3),
which is even, as required.

b) 𝑞 ⟶ 𝑟

Proof: For 𝑛 + 5 even, 𝑛 + 5 = 2𝑘

∴ 𝑛 = 2𝑘 − 5
∴ 𝑛 + 1 = (2𝑘 − 5)2 + 1
2

= 4𝑘 2 − 20𝑘 + 25 + 1
= 4𝑘 2 − 20𝑘 + 26
= 2(2𝑘 2 − 10𝑘 + 13)
= 2𝑚 (Where 𝑚 = 2𝑘 2 − 10𝑘 + 13),
which is even, as required.

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 PMAT 11223 Discrete Mathematics

c) 𝑟 ⟶ 𝑝, i.e. ∼ 𝑝 ⟶∼ 𝑟 (Indirect proof)

To prove: If 𝑛 is even, 𝑛2 + 1 is odd.

Proof: For 𝑛 even, 𝑛 = 2𝑘

∴ 𝑛 + 1 = (2𝑘)2 + 1
2

= 4𝑘 2 + 1
= 2(2𝑘 2 ) + 1
= 2𝑚 + 1 (Where 𝑚 = 2𝑘 2 ),
which is odd, as required.

∴ 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟 are equivalent.

2.5 PROOF BY CONTRADICTION

To prove 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞, assume that this is false, and arrive at an impossibility (a contradiction).
The contradiction means that the assumption is incorrect. This, in turn, means that 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞
is true.

2.5.1 Example: Prove by contradiction: ‘If 5𝑛 + 1 is even, then 𝑛 is odd’.

Proof: Assume that there is an integer 𝑛 such that if 5𝑛 + 1 is even, then 𝑛 is

even.
∴ 5𝑛 + 1 = 2𝑘 ⟼ (1) and 𝑛 = 2𝑚 ⟼ (2) for integers 𝑘 and 𝑚.

Substituting (2) in (1) gives

(5 × 2𝑚) + 1 = 2𝑘
∴ 10𝑚 + 1 = 2𝑘
1
(Dividing by 2) 5𝑚 + 2 = 𝑘
1
𝑘 − 5𝑚 = 2 ⟼ (3)
As 𝑘 and 𝑚 are integers, 𝑘 − 5𝑚 must also be an integer.
∴ (3) gives the required contradiction, and the assumption is false.
∴ If 5𝑛 + 1 is even, then 𝑛 is odd, as required.

2.5.2 NOTE: This can be proved more simply using indirect proof.

2.6 PROOF BY CASES

Here, the proof is split into 2(or more) cases. For proofs concerning integers, odd and
even integers often provide the 2 cases.

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 PMAT 11223 Discrete Mathematics

2.6.1 Example: Prove: For integers 𝑛, 𝑛2 + 𝑛 is even.

Proof:
i. For 𝑛 even, 𝑛 = 2𝑘
∴ 𝑛2 + 𝑛 = (2𝑘)2 + 2𝑘
= 4𝑘 2 + 2𝑘
= 2(2𝑘 2 + 1)
= 2𝑚 (Where 𝑚 = 2𝑘 2 + 1),
which is even.
ii. For 𝑛 odd, 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1
∴ 𝑛2 + 𝑛 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 + 2𝑘 + 1
= 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1 + 2𝑘 + 1
= 4𝑘 2 + 6𝑘 + 2
= 2(2𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 1)
= 2𝑚 (Where 𝑚 = 2𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 1),
which is even, and the proof is complete.

2.7 COUNTER-EXAMPLES
A counter-example is used to prove that a statement is false.

2.7.1 Example: Show that the followings are false:

i. For integers 𝑛, 3𝑛2 + 2𝑛 + 2 is even.

For 𝑛 = 1, 3𝑛2 + 2𝑛 + 2 = 3 + 2 + 2 = 7, which is not even.
∴ The statement is false.
2.7.2 NOTE: Many other counter-examples could be used, e.g. 𝑛 = −1, 𝑛 = 3, etc. Only one is
needed to disprove the statement.
ii. For real numbers 𝑥, (𝑥 + 2)2 = 𝑥 2 + 4.
For 𝑥 = 1, (𝑥 + 2)2 = 32 = 9 but 𝑥 2 + 4 = 12 + 4 = 5.
∴The statement is false.

iii. For real numbers 𝑥, 2𝑥 2 ≥ 𝑥.

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 PMAT 11223 Discrete Mathematics

1 1 2 2 1 1
For 𝑥 = 4, 2𝑥 2 = 2 × (4) = 16 = 8, but 𝑥 = 4.
∴The statement is false.
2.7.3 NOTE: If 2𝑥 2 ≥ 𝑥 is true, then 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 ≥ 0
∴ 𝑥(2𝑥 − 1) ≥ 0,
which is not true when 𝑥 and 2𝑥 − 1 are of different signs,
1
e.g. 𝑥 > 0 and 2𝑥 − 1 < 0 i.e. 𝑥 > 0 and 𝑥 < 2.
1
Any 𝑥 with this property provides a counter-example, e.g. 𝑥 = 10.

3. SETS

3.1 DEFINITIONS
Any collection of well-defined objects is called a set, and the objects themselves are
called elements of the set.
3.1.1 Notation: Capital letters 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑋, 𝑌, … represent sets;
Lowercase letters 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑥, 𝑦, … represent elements.
∈ means ‘is an element of ’
∉ means ‘is not an element of ’

3.1.2 Example: if 𝐴 = {3,4,8}, then 3 ∈ 𝐴, but 6 ∉ 𝐴.

3.2 SPECIAL SETS

ℕ = {1,2,3,4, … }, the set of all natural numbers

𝕀 or ℤ = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, … }, the set of all integers
3
ℚ, the set of all rational numbers, e.g. 4 ∈ ℚ , 𝜋 ∉ ℚ
𝑎
ℚ = { : 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏 ≠ 0}
𝑏
ℝ, the set of all real numbers, e.g. 𝜋 ∈ ℝ, 1 + 𝑖 ∉ ℝ
ℂ, the set of all complex numbers

In general, sets may be specified by listing each element, or by stating a rule obeyed by
each element.
e.g. 𝐴 = {1,2,3} = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ: 𝑥 < 4} and
𝐵 = {22,24,26, … } = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 > 20}.

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 PMAT 11223 Discrete Mathematics

Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements.

3.2.1 Example: If 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℕ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 < 𝑥 < 2} and 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 < 𝑥 < 2} and are
not equal, as, say, 1.3 ∈ 𝐵, but 1.3 ∉ 𝐴.

Note that 𝐴 = {1}, whereas 𝐵 contains all points on the real number line between
0 and 2.
The cardinality, |𝐴|, of a set 𝐴 is the number of elements in 𝐴.

3.2.2 Example: If 𝐴 = {2,5,8}, |𝐴| = 3 and , |ℝ| = ∞

The empty set or null set, 𝜙, is the set containing no elements, i.e. |∅| = 0.

3.2.3 Example: {𝑥 ∈ ℕ: 1.2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1.7} = 𝜙

The universal set, 𝓤, is a given set containing all possible elements under consideration.

3.3 SUBSETS

A set 𝐵 is a subset of a set 𝐴 if every element in 𝐵 is also in 𝐴.

This is written as 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.

3.3.1 Example: If 𝐴 = {1,2,4,5,6}, 𝐵 = {1,2}, 𝐶 = {2,3}, then 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴, but 𝐶 ⊈ 𝐴, i.e. 𝐶 is

not a subset of 𝐴 (as 3 ∈ 𝐶,but 3 ∉ 𝐴).

3.3.2 NOTE: ∈ refers to elements, ⊆ to sets.

3.3.3 Example: If 𝐴 = {1,2}, then 1 ∈ 𝐴 and {1} ⊆ 𝐴, but 1 ⊈ 𝐴 and {1} ∉ 𝐴.

For any set 𝐴,

𝜙 ⊆ 𝐴, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴, and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝒰.
Two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 can be shown be equal by showing that both 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.
The power set 𝑷(𝑨), of a set 𝐴, is the set of all subsets of 𝐴.

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 PMAT 11223 Discrete Mathematics

3.3.4 Example: If 𝐴 = {2,3,5}, 𝑃(𝐴) = {∅, {2}, {3}, {5}, {2,3}, {2,5}, {3,5}, 𝐴}.
Here |𝐴| = 3, and |𝑃(𝐴)| = 8 = 23 .

3.3.5 NOTE: It can be shown that, in general,

|𝑃(𝐴)| = 2|𝐴|.

3.3.6 Example: If |𝐴| = 5, |𝑃(𝐴)| = 25 = 32.

3.4 SET OPERATIONS

3.4.1 Definitions:

The union of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set of all elements in 𝐴 or 𝐵 (or both), and is denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.

The intersection of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set of all elements in both 𝐴 and 𝐵, and is denoted by 𝐴 ∩
𝐵.
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 }
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 }

The complement of 𝐴 is the set of all elements in some universal set,𝒰, but not in 𝐴, and
is denoted by 𝐴′ (or 𝐴̅)
𝐴′ = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}.

3.4.2 Example: If 𝒰 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ: 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 9}, 𝐴 = {1,2,3}, and 𝐵 = {2,3,4,5}, then

𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1,2,3,4,5}
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {2,3}
𝐴̅ = {4,5,6,7,8,9}
𝐵̅ = {1,6,7,8,9}

Further set operations can be defined in terms of the 3 operations union, intersection and
complement.
3.4.3 Difference of two sets

The set difference, 𝐴\𝐵, is the set of all elements in 𝐴, but not in 𝐵.
𝐴\𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵} = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′

3.4.4 Symmetric Difference of two sets

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 PMAT 11223 Discrete Mathematics

The symmetric difference, 𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵 or (𝐴 △ 𝐵), is the set of all elements in 𝐴 or 𝐵, but not
both (the exclusive ‘or’).
𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵}
= (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)\(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
= (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′
= (𝐴\𝐵) ∪ (𝐵\𝐴)

3.4.5 Example: If 𝒰 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ: 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 9}, 𝐴 = {1,2,3}, and 𝐵 = {2,3,4,5}, then

𝐴\𝐵 = {1} (= 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′)
𝐵\𝐴 = {4,5} (= 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴′)
𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵 = {1,4,5} (= (𝐴\𝐵) ∪ (𝐵\𝐴))

3.4.6 NOTE: In general,

𝐴\𝐵 ≠ 𝐵\𝐴.

3.4.7 Example: Given 𝒰 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ: 10 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 25},

𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝒰: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3},
𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝒰: 𝑥 > 20},
𝐶 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝒰: 𝑥 = 2𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … },
𝐷 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝒰: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}, find i.e. list explicitly

i. 𝐴 = {12,15,18,21,24}
ii. 𝐵 = {21,22,23,24,25}
iii. 𝐶 = {16}
iv. 𝐷 = {11,13,15,17,19,21,23,25}
v. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐶 = {12,15,16,18,21,24}
vi. 𝐴∩𝐶 =𝜙
vii. 𝐵 ∩ 𝐷 = {21,23,25}
viii. 𝐴 − 𝐵 = {12,15,18}
ix. 𝐴 − 𝐷 = {12,18,24}
x. 𝐶 − 𝐴 = {16}
xi. 𝐵 − 𝐴 = {22,23,25}
xii. 𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵 = {12,15,18,22,23,25}
………. // ……….

7 J Munasinghe, Department of Mathematics, University of Kelaniya