Voloanology and geology of ignimbrites in Indonesia,

North Italy, and the g.S.A.

R. W . VA~ B E M M E L E N
Geological Institute of the State University of Utrecht, Oude Gracht 320,
Utrecht, Netherlands.

Summary

1) An analysis of the orogenic a n d plutono-volcanic evolution of the Su-

m a t r a - J a v a arc of Indonesia, shows t h a t three i m p u l s e s of orogenic uplift
occurred after its mesozoic geosynclinal subsidence. All three were a c c o m p a n i e d
b y the rise and occasional i g n i m b f i t i c eruptions of acid m a g m a . Volcanic
activity, producing igneous rocks of i n t e r m e d i a r y composition, developed d u r i n g
the intervening p e r i o d s (Table 1 and fig. 1); the l a t t e r is the n o r m a l t y p e of
orogenic volcanism.
The i g n i m b r i t i c type of eruptions differs f r o m the n o r m a l orogenic vol-
c a n i s m (Table 2). The f o r m e r p r o d u c e extensive and v o l u m i n o u s sheets of acid
,, flood-tufts>,, which b u r y the landscape and which a r e p a r t l y w e l d e d a n d
recrystallized during their cooling. These i g n i m b r i t e deposits are the synorogenic
acid c o u n t e r p a r t of the post-orogenic, b a s i c p l a t e a u basalts, or ,, flood-basalts ~,,
as they were t e r m e d by TYRRELL.
This ignimbritic type of eruptions m a y not be c o m p a r e d with ,, nude ar-
dente ,~ eruptions. They represent different groups in the classification of volcanic
eruptions according to viscosity and gas content of t h e m a g m a (Table 3).
However, transitions will occur between ladu's and ignimbrites, between pumi-
ceous airfall tufts p r o d u c e d by Plinian o u t b u r s t s and ignimbrites, as well as
between l a v a flows and ignimbrites (tufolavas, f o a m or f r o t h lavas).
2) The quartz-latitic ignimbrites of the Bolzano province in N o r t h I t a l y are
related with a cauldron, a b o u t 65 k m in diameter. F r o m this b a s i n i g n i m b r i t e
flows of over I00 km length r a d i a t e in various directions. These i g n i m b r i t e s
e r u p t e d during an a c m e of volcanism of relative short duration, a f t e r an initial
phase of volcanism, which h a d an i n t e r m e d i a r y composition. The total volume
of the Bolzano ignimbrites a m o u n t s to several t h o u s a n d s of cubic kilometres.
This volcanism was the final act of the hercynic era of orogenesis.
3) The cenozoic zgnimbrites of the Cordilleran system have their g r e a t e s t
d e v e l o p m e n t in tbe Great Basin District. Their total v o l u m e is e s t i m a t e d at
140.000-200.000 cb.km. These i g n i m b r i t e deposits are p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d with c r u s t a l
stretching in the crestal p a r t of the Cordilleran t u m o r as is s c h e m a t i c a l l y
i n d i c a t e d in a section (fig. 2).
 152-

Zusammenfassung

1) Eine Analyse der orogenen und plutono-vulkanischen Evolution des Su-

matra-3ava Bogens in Indonesien, zeigt dass seit der geosynklinalen Senkung des
Mesozoikums, w~krend des Kainozoikums drei kurzfristige Aufhebungsimpulse
in dieser Zone stattgefunden haben. AUe drei wurden begleitet yon Intrusionen
trod gelegentlieh auch ignimbritischen Eruptionen sauren Magmas. Der nor-
male orogene Vulkanismus ist intermedi/irer Zusammensetztmg und fand
w~hrend der Zwischenperioden statt (Tabelle 1 und Fig. 1).
Der ignimbritische Typus der Eruptionen unterscheidet sich yon den nor-
malen vulkanischen Ausbriichen (Tabelle 2). Die erstgenannten produzieren
ausgedehnte trod voluminSse Tuffdecken, die man ~ Fluttuffe ,~(flood tufts) nennen
kSnnte, weiI sie die Landschaft tiberfluten und das unterliegende Relief abdecken.
Diese Tuffdecken sind wtihrend tier Abkikhlung z.T. verschweisst (welded) mad
rekristaUisiert worden. Die Ignimbritablagermagen sind das saute, synorogene,
vulkanische Hauptph~nomen, mad bilden das Gegensttick der basischen, posto-
rogenen Plateau-basalte, die yon TYRREL • Flutbasalte ~ (floodbasalts) genannt
wurden.
Der ignimbritische Typus vulkanischer Ausbriiche daft man nicht mit
nu6e ardente ~ Eruptionen gleichsetzen. Ignimbrite gehSren zu einer andern
Klasse tier Klassifiziertmg der Vulkanausbriiche nach Viskosit~it und Gasgehalt
des Magmas (Tabelle 3). Es kommen jedoch Oberg~nge vor zwischen Ladu's
und Ignimbriten, zwischen Bimssteintugen der plinianischen Ausbriiche mad
Ignimbriten, und zwischen LavastrSmen und Ignimbriten (Tufolaven, Schaum-
laven).
2) Die quarzlatitische Ignimbritablagerungen tier Bozener Quarzporphyr-
provinz in Norditalien liegen in einem Becken, etwa 65 Km in Durchmesser,
yon wo aus fiber 100 Km lange ignimbritischen Tuffstr6men ausstrahlen. Die
saute Ignimbrite wurden in relativ kurzer Zeit ergossen, nach einem Initialphase
des orogenen Vulkanismus, welche chemisch eine mehr intermediate Zusam-
mensetzung zeigt. Das Volum der Bozener ,, Quarzphyre ~ ist in der Ordnungs.
grSsse mehrerer Tausenden kubiken Kilometer. Diese Ignimbritausbrtiche sind
der Schlussakt der herzynischen Gebirgsbildung.
3) Die kainozoische Ignimbritablagerungen des Kordilleren Systems westlich
Nord-Amerikas linden ihre grSsste Verbreittmg im Great Basin District. Das
Gesamtvolum dieser Ignimbrite betr~gt 140.000 his 200.000 kubike Kilometer.
Die Ausbriiche dieses sauren, anatektischen Magmas stehen in Zusammenhang
mit der lateralen Ausdehnung tier Kordillerentumor mad der Horst- und Graben-
bildung in ihrem Daehgebiet, ~ the Great Basin ,,. (siehe Querschnitt, Fig. 2).

1. Relations between orogenesis and cenozoic ignimbrites in Indonesia

The evolution of the Sumatra-Java arc of the Sunda Mountain

S y s t e m in I n d o n e s i a w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y p l u t o n i c a n d v o l c a n i c
a c t i v i t y . T h e r e is a d i s t i n c t c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o r o g e n i c oscil-
 -- 153

lations of this belt and the character of the accompanying plutono-

volcanic processes (VAN BEM~n~LEN, 1949, 1950, 1954, see also fig. 1).
The orogenic cycle started with geosynclinal subsidence in
younger mesozoic time. During this phase intrusions and submarine
extrusions of ophiolitic (basic to ultrabasic) m a g m a occurred. This
initial geosynclinal phase was terminated at the end of the Cretaceous
by a first impulse of orogenic uplift, which created a non-volcanic
geanticlinal upwarp, in the core of which granitic batholiths were
emplaced.
After a short emergence above sea level (Paleocene-Lower Eocene)
stow subsidence started again. The first sediments in Java are u p p e r

~
• C H ~ M Ir OF YH[ C V O L U T I O N O F THe. VOLCANIC INNEI~l ARC OF
SU~DA MOUNTAIN .~YSTI:'M ~,tt* ,,.J,.~

.I "J. "~'~

• ,, . . . . . . . . . . . . . , -,

Fig. 1 - S c h e m e of t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e J a v a - S u m a t r a s e c t i o n o f t h e S u n d a M o u n t a i n
System.

eocene limestones and marls, which do not yet contain tuffaceous

components. Then, in oligomiocene time, volcanoes were f o r m e d on
the subsiding crest of the geanticline. On Sumatra the tertiary sedi-
m e n t a t i o n begins with the Quartzsandstone Formation which is
succeeded by the Old-Andesite Volcanoes, which are largely sub-
marine. This is the first cycle of andesitic, calcalkaline Pacific Vol-
canism. It produced the socalled ~ Old Andesite Formation ,~ of oligo-
miocene age.
In mid-miocene time a second impulse of uplift occurred, which
was accompanied by the formation of longitudinal rifts and fissures
on the crest of the geanticline (the proto-Semangko Zone of S u m a t r a ;
VAN BEMMELEN, 1949, p. 673). Through this rift zone acid m a g m a rose
 154

to the surface and produced ignimbrite deposits, such as the tuff

sheet of 7 5 - 200 m thickness, intercalated between the marine Telisa
Beds (Lower Miocene) and the marine Lower Palembang Beds (Upper
Miocene) in the Baturadja area of South Sumatra (VAN BEMMELEN
1932, 1949, VO1. I. A, table 31 on p. 121), and the ignimbrite sheet
of about 150 m thickness between the Djampang Beds (Lower Mio-
cene) in the Karangnunggal region of the Southern Mountains on West
Java (VAN BEMMELEN, 1941 and 1949, vol. I. A, table 26 on p. 108-109).
Moreover, this intra-miocene phase of orogenesis was accom-
panied by the intrusion of dacito-liparitic dikes and hydrothermal
mineralizations (the gold-silver ores of South Sumatra and West Java;
VAN BEMMELEN, 1949, vol. II, p. 106 and p. 135). It was terminated
by the emplacement of granodioritic batholiths, which rose in places
into the very base of the Old-Andesite volcanoes (vAN BEMMELEN,
1949, vol. I. A, fig. 257 on p. 547 and fig. 321 on p. 626).
In mio-pliocene time subsidence again prevailed in the Sumatra-
Java belt. The andesitic volcanism resumed its activity, forming the
second or intermediary Andesite Formation (Middle Palembang Beds
of Sumatra, vAN BEMMELEN, 1949 vol. I. A, tables 31 and 32 on p. 121 ;
Bentang Beds, etc of Java, vAN BEMMELEN, 1949 vol. I. A, table 26
on p. 108-109).
At the end of the Tertiary a third impulse of orogenic uplift
created the present Sumatra-Java geanticline. This arching up was
again accompanied by rifting and voluminous outbursts of acid pu-
miceous tufts. On Sumatra this rift on the crest of the Barisan gean-
ticline is called the Semangko Zone. It produced the ignimbritic sheets
and flows of Ranau (vANBEMMELEN, 1932, 1933), Pasumah (WESTERVELD,
1942), Karbouwengat (VAN BEMMELEN, 1949 VO1. I. A., p. 686), and
Toba (VAN BEMMELEN, 1939, 1949 vol. I. A, p. 687-696; WESTERVELO,
1947). The volcano-tectonic cauldrons of Ranau and Toba are situated
on axial culminations of the Barisan geanticline (see also the series
of evolutionary sections across Sumatra in vAn BEMMELEN, 1949, vol.
I. B, fig. 374, plate 40).
On Java the axial depression is called Bandung Zone. It is not
a graben zone like the Semangko rift on Sumatra, but it had an
asymmetrical structure, namely normal faulting at its southern side,
and northward sliding of the top part and northern flank of the
geanticline, causing the intense folding and thrusting in the adjacent
belt Bogor-North Seraju - Kendeng Zone).
It is remarkable that no ignimbritic outbursts of the collapsed
 155

Bandung Zone are known. Apparently the magma, occurring in the

core of the Java geanticline, was injected sidewards (as indicated by
fig. 332 on p. 643 in VAN BEMMELEN, 1949, vol. I. A, and by the evo-
lutionary series of sections across East-, Central- and West Java, figs.
293 and 312 on plate 35 and fig. 343 on plate 37 in VAN BEMMELEN,
1949 vol. I. B).
A similar r e m a r k can be made for the Alps, where the rise of
a magmatic blister during the Gosau phase of orogenesis caused side-
wards injections of reborn acid m a g m a into the Pennine and Tauern
foredeeps, forming the igneous cores of the Pennine Nappes, instead
of being emitted upwards through fissures in the roof of the Adriatic
t u m o r as ignimbritic flood tufts (see VAN BEMMELEN, 1960 and 1961 a).
However, farther East, in the Pannonian Basin, at the inside of
the Carpathians, the spreading of the crust caused a Basin-Range type
of block faulting, which was accompanied by ignimbritic eruptions in
triassic as well as in tertiary time (~).
After the plio-pleistocene uplift of the Sumatra-Java belt, a third
cycle of andesitic eruptions started, forming the quaternary volcanoes
which are partly extinct and partly still active.
It appears that in the case of the Sumatra-Java belt the volu-
minous ignimbritic eruptions accompanied the impulses of uplift of
the belt by buoyant magmatic blisters of low density. But in those
cases where the geanticline or t u m o r spread sidewards, whereby the
rheomorphic core was injected laterally, no external volcanic manifes-
tations of this acid m a g m a occurred (compare for instance the
sections II and VI of fig. 374 on plate 40 in VAN BEM~4ELEN, 1949,
vol. I. B).
Figure 1 (according to VAN BEMMELEN, 1950, fig. 3 on p. 213)
schematically illustrates this cenozoic evolution of the Sumatra-3ava
belt. This evolution can also be summarized in the following form:

The Sumatra-Java belt shows a clear correlation between the

impulses of orogenic uplift and the intrusions and extrusions of acid
magma. This leads to the thesis that there is a genetic relation
between both; the rise of the geanticline is caused by the buoyancy
of magmatic blisters of low density, so called ~ asthenoliths ,~, which

(~) G. PANT/): Ignimbrites of Hungary with regard to their genetics and classification.
Lecture at the Catania Meeting on ignimbrites and hyaloclastites of the International
Association in September 1961 (Bulletin Volcanologique 25, p. 175).
 156

are composed (at their upper part) of anatectic sialic matter, that is
reborn granodioritic to granitic magma. During the first impulse of
uplift this acid magma did not yet reach the surface; it created a
non-volcanic geanticline. The second and third impulses of uplift,
however, where accompanied by voluminous eruptions of acid tuff
sheets and flows, the so-called ignimbrites.
The three cycles of andesitic, calc-alkaline or Pacific volcanism,

Table 1 - The orogenic and plutono-volcanic evolution of the Sumatra-Java belt.

Orogenic oscillations Plutono-volcanic

Stratigraphic time and sedimentation processes

Quaternary Preponderantly terrestrial vol- 3rd or Young Andesite Form-

canic sediments ation

Plio-Pleistocene 3rd impulse of uplift (folding, 3rd phase of acid plutono-

faulting, erosion) volcanism

Mio-Pliocene Slow subsidence, partly marine 2nd or intermediary Andesite

partly terrestrial volcanic Formation
sediments

Middle-Miocene 2nd impulse of uplift (folding, 2nd phase of acid plutono-

faulting, erosion) volcanism
Oligo-Miocene Slow subsidence, preponder- 1st or Old Andesite Formation
antly marine volcanic sedi-
ments
Eo-Oligocene Slow subsidence, non-volcanic Non-volcanic island arc
sediments (partly on land,
partly in shallow sea)
Paleocene Ist impulse of uplift (folding, 1st phase of acid plutonism
faulting, erosion) (no external volcanism)

Cretaceous Slow geosynclinal subsidence Ophiolites (ultra-basic to basic

submarine volcanism igneous rocks)

developed during the more quiet intervening periods of slow sub-

sidence. This volcanism was caused by eruptions of local, high-level
pockets of reborn magmas of intermediary composition, situated
above the more acid asthenolithic blisters. For this thesis abundant
field indications are found in Java (see VA~ BEMMELEN, 1949 I. A and
1950, chapter III, C: Origin of the igneous rocks, p. 232-256).
The voluminous eruptions of acid, dacitoliparitic tufts are pro-
 m 157 m

duced by fissures, which originated by crustal stretching on the back

of the geanticline (Semangko Zone of Sumatra, for instance). They
are typically synorogenetic paroxysms.
The calc-alkaline, andesitic volcanoes are f o r m e d in the m o r e
quiet phases of evolution between these impulses of orogenic uplift.
They grow m o r e slowly, building up layered cones by series of smaller
eruptions through central vents. Though forming a n a r r o w belt on the
back of a geanticline, the location of the vents of these volcanoes is
less clearly determined by faults.
The ignimbritic eruptions cause volcano-tectonic collapses on the
crest of rising anticlines or tumors, whereas the andesitic volcanoes
f o r m protuberances on the back of subsiding geanticlines or tumors.
The general r e m a r k can be made, that on S u m a t r a the acid,
ignimbritic eruptions are paroxysmal outbursts at the end of cycles
of normal andesitic volcanism. A simular evolution is shown by the
Yellowstone Park, the Valles Caldera, the Bolzano district, etc.
The volumes of the ignimbritic eruptions range from some tens
to some h u n d r e d s and even thousands of cubic kilometers (Toba tufts
ca. 2000 cb.km), whereas the volumes of the m a t t e r p r o d u c e d by the
individual eruptions of the normal orogenic volcanism ranges fTom
0.001 cb.km to about 10 cb.km (SMITI~, 1960 a; BOYD, 1961).
The ignimbritic eruptions produce tuff sheets and flows, which
bury and flood the relief of extensive regions. They might be called
~ flood tufts ~, as they form the synorogenic and acid counterpart of
the post-orogenic and basic voluminous ,~ flood basalts ~ (a n a m e for
plateau basalts, introduced by G. W. TYRRELL).
The differences between the ignimbritic and n o r m a l orogenic
volcanism (<~ normal ~ in the sense of the eruption-cycles as described
by VAN BEMMELEN, 1949, vol. I. A, p. 199 and following), are sum-
marized in table 2 (See also chapter 2 of this paper).

2. The permian tgnimbrltes of the Bolzano province (North Italy)

The ignimbrite problem in the Bolzano region has been the

special topic of the Pentecost Excursion of the Geologische Vereini-
gung in 1959 (MAUCr~R, 1960). The present a u t h o r has done field w o r k
in this area with students of the Geological Institute of the State
University at Utrecht since 1957 (DrETZEL, 1960, VAN HILTEN, 1960,
ACTERBERC, 1961, DE BOER, 1963).
 158 --

MAUCHER(1960, p. 491) gave the following definition of ignimbrites

(translation by the present author): ,, Ignimbrites are acid - - more
seldom intermediary - - rocks, which are deposited from fluidized
suspensions of small and hot magma particles in very hot gases, with
temperatures which were at least above the yielding point (Er-
weichungspunkt) of the glass shards, so that plastic deformation and
welding of the shards and splinters during and after the deposition
was possible ~.
This definition covers the concept of ,, welded tufts ,,, but it does
not grasp the concept of ignimbrites in the sense of the genetically
coherent group of various rock types occurring in the simple and
composite cooling units of ignimbritic deposits.
The ignimbrite concept is primarily a volcanological concept. It
introduces a new mechanism of eruption and deposition of volcanic
matter, which occupies an intermediate position between the outflow
of silicate melts (lava flows) and the outbursts of magma (producing
airfall tufts).
R. L. SMITH (1960 a, 1960 b) and others (such as GILBERT, ENSLOW,
BOYD) have demonstrated that there are zonal variations in ignim-
brites, deposited by a single paroxysmal eruption (a ~ simple cooling
unit ~0. The tufts grade downward from a non-welded top into a
partially welded zone near to the base. At the bottom again thinner
layers of partial- and non-welding are to be found. In the top part
the contingent pumice fragments are not collapsed, but as the load
increases, they are more and more compressed assuming ultimately
a pancake form. Moreover, partial or complete remelting not only
of the pumice, but also of the welded glass shards around it may
occur in the lower parts of the ignimbrite deposits.
Apart from welding SMITH distinguishes three principle types of
secondary crystallization during the cooling history: Devitrification (in
the zones of dense and partial welding), vapour phase crystallization
(in the porous upper part of the zone of partial welding), and gra-
nophyric crystallization (only in the centres of very thick cooling
units). Moreover, at the top fumarolic alterations may be found. The
uranium deposits of the Bohano province are related with the latter
(MITTEMPERGHER,1958).
It is characteristic for such pyroclastic sheets and flows that in
some parts of it welding occurred, and in others only partial welding
or no welding at all. The ratio between the welded and the non-
welded portions of the cooling unit as well as the degree of welding
 -- 159

Table 2 - Differences between ignimbritic e r u p t i o n s a n d n o r m a l orogenic vol,canism.

Characteristic
Iguimbritic volcanism N o r m a l orogenic volcanism
features

Feeder channels Mostly fissures Mostly central vents

Volume of the sepa- I n the o r d e r of 10 to m o r e I n the o r d e r of 0.001 to 10

rate eruptions t h a n 1000 cubic kilometers cubic kilometers
( = simple cooling
units)

Composition of the Dacito-rhyolitic P r e p o n d e r a n t l y andcsitic; sub-

erupted magma ordinately dacito-rhyolittc

Morphogenic effects Collapse of volcano-tectonic G r o w t h of composite volcanic

in the source area cauldrons cones

Sense of the ac- Relatively quick impulses of I n t e r m e d i a r y p h a s e s of slow

companying dif- uplift (formation of geanti- subsidence of the orogenic
ferential vertical clines, domes, geotumors) upwarps
m o v e m e n t s of the
crust

State of the erupted Magma boils over in a fluidized M a g m a is e r u p t e d e i t h e r as

magma state, glass-shards, p u m i c e , lava, o r by explosive escape
phenocrystals, xenoliths, sur- of gases
r o u n d e d by a c o n t i n u o u s
gas-phase

P r o d u c t s of the . Flood tufts ~,, which cover t h e Lava sheets, tongues, plugs
eruptions t e r r a i n as sheets o r flows a n d domes, often w i t h high
with level surfaces a n d a gradients of slope, air fall
small gradient of slope tufts, volcanic breccias, nude
a r d e n t e deposits

Welding Partially welded a s h flows Generally no welding of the

air-fall tufts

depend on the composition, the initial temperature, and the size of

the deposit.
In MAUCr~ER'S definition only the mode of t r a n s p o r t at the sur-
face (in fluidized suspensions of m a g m a particles) and the subsequent
welding are mentioned, but not the mode of eruption. Nevertheless,
the latter is essential for the concept of ignimbrites.
There is a general tendency in literature, especially in America, to
compare ignimbrites with deposits of nu6es ardentes. In my opinion
this is a misinterpretation of their eruption character, which has its
own typical features. Nude ardente deposits of the Peldan and Vincent
type result f r o m eruptions of n o r m a l volcanic cones with central
 160 --

vents. The m a g m a rises in the vent in a coherent, partly molten, partly

crystallized state (occasionally with a vapour phase in dispersed
pores). Its shattering into larger and smaller fragments by the explo-
sive escape of gases occurs at the surface during the explosion of
the m a g m a from the vent or the plug and during its sliding downslope.
The t e m p e r a t u r e of the escaping gas, being at first the same as
that of the magma, rapidly decreases by adiabatic expansion. The
t e m p e r a t u r e of the nudes ardentes of the Merapi is so low that they
rarely set fire to b a m b u huts. Their initial temperature ranges between
800 °- 1000° C and at the foot of the volcano it has d r o p p e d to 400° -
450 ° C (VAN B~i~mJ~N, 1949, vol. I. A, p. 192), which is below the
m i n i m u m welding temperature.
The volume of such nude ardente deposits is restricted and they
are produced by single, short outbursts. Their volume does not exceed
some cubic kilometers. The greatest volumes of eruptions of central
vents is produced by the gas or Perret phase of the Plinian type of
outbursts. In those cases some tens of cubic kilometers of ashes can
be blown out vertically during eruptions lasting hours or days, pro-
ducing air-fall tuff sheets. Caldera collapses may result (Krakatau,
Hakone, Crater Lake).
In the nude ardente deposits two parts can be distinguished: A
lower part of volcanic breccias and tufts laid down by a ~, ladu ~, a
pyroclastic block and ash flow which during its downslope course has
followed the terrain depressions and the drainage valleys; and an
u p p e r p a r t consisting of air-fall lapilli and ashes, which settled from
the hot gas cloud that developed by m o r e or less explosive liberation
of the gases at the eruption centre, and also f r o m the ladu. The extent
and distribution of these air-borne nude ardente deposits is not so
limited by the terrain depressions as those of the ladu (see NEOMANN
VAN PADANd, 1931, 1933; VAN BEMMELEN, 1949, vol. I. A, p. 193). The
ladus of the nudes ardentes produce volcanic breccias with a great
variety in the size of the components.
The ignimbritic deposits are n o t so clearly related with a single
central vent of a distinct volcanic cone. They tend to be fissure
eruptions or m o r e or less simultaneous eruptions from multiple vents,
situated on sets of intersecting cracks and fissures in a volcanic
complex or province. Already inside the top part of the supply channel
the rising anatectic m a g m a is transformed by exsolution of gas into
a twophase mixture, namely fragments of the c o m m i n u t e d m a g m a
and a continuous gas phase. A turbulent suspension of m a g m a
 161 --

particl.es in a continuous gas phase boils over the r i m of the fissures

as a fluidized system of pumice, glass shards, phenocrysts, and xeno-
liths all s u r r o u n d e d by very hot and highly compressed gases, which
reduce the internal friction to. extremely low Values. This mixture
reaches the surface in great quantities p e r time unit. It will show a
certain ebullition above the site of eruption, and large billowing clouds
m a y have risen to great heights. But the bulk of the material spread
sidewards f r o m the eruption fissure, as a pyroclastic ash flow of very
low viscosity, flooding and burrying the topography (2).
The volume of such pyroclastic flows surpasses that of the nu6es
ardentes 10 to 100 times. The spreading out of ignimbritic sheets will
take days, weeks or even months. Successive eruptions may rapidly
Table 3 - Classification of the eruption types according to the viscosity and the gas
content of the magma.

Low viscosity Lava sheets Strombolian (Ytri eruption

(basic composition) eruptions of Iceland)

Medium viscosity , Lava tongues Vulcanian Plinian

(intermediary composition) eruptions eruptions

High viscosity i L~va plugs and Pel~an eruptions Ignimbritic

(acid composition) : domes (nu6es ardents) eruptions

i Low gas Medium gas High gas

content content content

follow the initial outburst, which can be considered as the more or

less individualized pulses of one great eruption. Each layer is added
before the next underlying layer appreciably cooled, so that thick
sheets can accumulate which act as cooling units. The deposit is re-
markably homogeneous in composition and in size of the components.
Such voluminous pyroclastic flows are a m u c h m o r e efficient heat-
conserving m e c h a n i s m than the nu6es ardentes of the Pel6an type
( S M I T H , 1960a; BovD, 1961).
Our thesis that the nude ardente eruptions and the ignimbrite
eruptions belong to different classes of volcanic eruptions can also
be illustrated by a classification of the volcanic eruption according
to the viscosity and the gas content of the erupted m a g m a
(table 3) (3).

C') Rittmann uses the italian term ,, traboccare ,~, which is used for the boiling
milk that overflows the rim of the pan.
(a) See also Rittmann, 1960, p. 254.
 162

However, such classifications are always over-simplifications of

the natural circumstances (van BEMMELEN, 1961b). Of course, tran-
sitions do occur. So there will be transitions between nude ardente
deposits and ignimbrites, between air-fall pumice tuff deposits of
Plinian outbursts and ignimbrites, between lava flows and ignimbrites.
In the latter case the Russian speak of ,~ tufolavas ,, (4). PANT/) proposes
the term ,~ foam lava ~, and CnOUBERT suggests the term ,~ ignimul-
sites ,~ (~).
High gas content and low viscosity (basic composition) generally
do not go together in nature. However, an exceptional basaltic fissure
eruption in the central graben of Iceland, which was characterized
by the mixing of the magma with melt water of the icecap during its
ascent in the eruption channel, produced the basaltic tuff sheet of
Dyngjufjdll Ytri (Askja complex). This eruption had several character-
istics of the ignimbritic type of eruptions. It was a fissure eruption
of a fluidized suspension of magma particles in a continuous gas
phase, which produced a voluminous tuff sheet of great extension and
with a level surface. Therefore van BE/vLMELEN and RUTTEN (•955)
have called this deposit an ~ ignimbrite ,,. However, because no
welding occurs in it (only a secondary trass-like cementation), and
because of the basaltic composition of the deposit, it is not conform
to MARSHALL'S definition (1935), so that it is better not to call this
Ytri tuff sheet an ignimbrite.
The m i n i m u m temperature at which volcanic glass shards will
weld is a function of pressure (by load), time and water content of
the glass. This minimum temperature at which rhyolitic glass will
weld is approximately 600 ° C according to experiments by SMITH,
BOYD, and others. The ~ permissible cooling ~,(6) is generally surpassed
by the deposits of nudes ardentes; but pyroclastic flows produced
by the ignimbri.tic type of eruptions are of such a large size and the
cooling by expansion of the gas is enough restricted, that welding
can occur in the inner parts of the deposits (see BOYD, 1961, fig. 11).
The principal cooling effects during the eruption are (1) radiation
and conduction during emplacement of the pyroclastic flow, (2)

(') See the abstracts of the reports of the Russian lectures, presented at the
Symposium ~ Ignimbrites and hyaloclastites ~, organized b y the International Associa-
tion of Volcanology of the I.U.G.G. in Catania, Sept. 1961.
(~) See their papers presented at the same meeting.
(6) Permissible cooling is defined by Boyd (1961, p. 414) as the difference between
the initial magma temperature and the m i n i m u m temperature at which welding will
take place.
 163

cooling by exsolution of the gas, and (3) cooling by expansion of the

gas. According to BoYD (1961) the first will have a m a x i m u m value of
about 45°C for a layer of 30 m thickness. The drop in t e m p e r a t u r e
by radiation a n d conduction being a function of thickness, this factor
will be less great f o r thicker flows. The m a g n i t u d e of the two other
factors depend on the initial concentration of H20 in the m a g m a .
The cooling of a rhyolitic m a g m a by reversible, adiabatic expansion
is nearly linear with initial H20 concentration, on the average 20° C
per per cent H20. This condition of reversibility m a y be approached
in relatively quiescent eruptions of water-poor magma. But the cooling
is probably m u c h less than this calculated a m o u n t in violent eruptions
of water-rich magma, such as those of the ignimbritic type.
The permissible cooling decreases with increasing initial H~O
content (for magmas of eutectic composion), whereas the total cooling
during emplacement increases with the initial concentration of H.~O.
According to BOYD (i961, fig. 11 on p. 422) both curves intersect
at about 4 per cent of initial H~O. However, thicker sheets produced
by paroxysmal ignimbritic eruptions m a y have had a higher initial
H.~O content, or they may have retained after emplacement a temper-
ature well above the welding limit.
Darkening of the pumice fragments into a black perlitic glass is
a c o m m o n feature in the densely welded parts of ignimbrite sheets.
The end stage of the welding process is homogenization, producing
a dense black glass in which the pumiceous fragments and the matrix
are megascopically indistinguishable. Complete obliteration of shard
boundaries, if studied under the microscope, has not yet been observed
by SMITH, b u t he adds the remark, that it will no doubt be found.
In that case even the microscopic eutaxitic structure will no m o r e
be an infallible diagnostic feature of an ignimbritic rock.
MAUCHER (1960, p. 494) considers the vitrophyric slab of Tisens
to be a degassed lense of primary m a g m a at the base of the porphyry
of Castelruth. However, this vitrophyre as well as several others, found
at the base of the Bolzano ignimbrites (Ora, etc., personal commu-
nication by MITTEMPERGHER)represent the end stage of welding. Their
misinterpretation as primary obsidian flows is one of the reasons that
MAUCHER (1960) greatly restricted the volume of the ignimbrites in
Bolzano province.
ANDREATTA (1959) distinguished two m a i n cycles of volcanism in
this province. The first cycle produced quartzdioritic (trachy-andesitic)
vulcanites, which grade u p w a r d into quartzlatites. This series is 200-
 164

1000 m thick. It does not yet contain conspicuous ignimbrite deposits.

However, at the stage when the erupted magma had attained the
quartzlatific composition the second cycle of volcanism set in, which
has a pronouncedly ignimbritic character. It produced the huge
amount of ignimbrite deposits of quartz-latitic to rhyolitic compo-
sition. Presumably in a short time some few simple and composite
cooling units were deposited. The nonwelded tuff layers, which are
now found as intercalations between welded tufts, are not the result
of separated eruptions. They are the nonwelded top parts of cooling
units, thus being related with the welded tufts underneath.
The composition and appearance of the deposits of the second
cycle of volcanism in the Bolzano Province is not extremely complex,
as MAUCHER said (1960 p. 495, sub. 3 & 4). On the contrary, it is an
extremely homogeneous series, about 1000 m thick, composed of some
few cooling units produced by paroxysmal eruptions of ignimbrites in
a relatively short time. MITTEMPERGHER(1958) was the first author who
clearly recognized the ignimhritic character of this second cycle of vol-
canism in the Bolzano Province. This opinion has been confirmed by
field studies of the author and his students (DIETZEL, 1960 ; v a n HILTEN,
1960; AGTERaERG,1961).
The lower permian ignimbrites of Bolzano are deposits in a
volcano-tectonic cauldron with a diameter of about 65 kin. In this
cauldron the thickness of the ignimbrites amounts to more than 1 kin.
At the centre, situated about 15 km ESE of Bolzano, a holocrystalline
granitic rock is exposed at their base in the Carezza Valley (r). During
the alpine orogenesis this plate has been deformed. From this central
area tongues of ignimbrite deposits spread radially over distances of
more than 100 km.
The total volume of the Botzano ignimbrites amounts to the order
of several thousands of cubic kilometers. As a whole this volcanism o[
the Bolzano province can be considered as the volcanic aftermath of
the hercynian era of mountain building (AccogoI, 1959), rather than
as the initiation of the Alpine cycle of geosynclinal subsidence. It
was a period with considerable relief and coarsely detrital deposits
preceded as well as followed the ignimbritic volcanism.
The permian paleomagnetic pole of the Bolzano field, deviates

(~) This exposure was shown by Mittempergher to Rittmann and the author during
the excursion of the Gcologische Vereinigung in 1959. A closer study is needed, however,
to determine, whether this is a plutonlc rock (laccolithlc intrusion) or a recrystallized
granophyric part of an ignimbrite.
 165 m

strongly from the permian poles in those parts of Europe which are
not afflicted by alpine mountain building. The permian pole around
Bolzano shows an anticlockwise rotation of some tens of degrees with
respect to the other ones. This might be the result of continental
drifting movements (van HtLTEN, 1960, 1961), or of rotation of more
restricted crustal blocks during the formation of the Alpine Nappes
(van BEMMELEN, 1960, 1961).
At present the author conducts a research program by geology and
geophysics students of the University of Utrecht, which tries to delimit
this rotation of the permian pole in time and in area. The results of
these diagnostic observations have to be awaited before further con-
clusions can be drawn (J. DE BOER, 1963; R. GUICHERIT).

3. Relations between orogenesis and ignimbrite eruptions in the Cor.

dilleran system of North America

In the first part of 1961 the author made a lecture tour through
the U.S.A., organized by the American Geological Institute and
financed by the American Science Foundation. During this tour also
field excursions were made to three major ignimbrite deposits of the
Cordilleran System.
1) The Bishoptuffs in California, described by Ch. M. GILBERT
(1938). This excursion was arranged by the U.S. Geological Survey
(Menlo Park Division) and guided by R. L. Smith.
2) The Chiricahua National Monument in Arizona, described by
H. E. ENSLOW (1955) during an excursion with the Arizona Geological
Society, guided by Prof. E. B. Mayo (Tucson, Arizona).
3) The Superior ignimbrite field, visited with the Arizona Geo-
logical Society, guided by Donald W. Peterson of the U.S. Geol. Soc.
(Menlo Park Divison, California).
Moreover, the author could discuss ignimbrites with some experts
of the U.S. Geological Survey at Washington, D. C., at Denver (Col.),
and at Menlo Park (Cal.), and also with F. R. Boyd of the Geophysical
Laboratory of the Carnegie Institute at Washington, D.C.
The ignimbrites of the Cordilleran System have their greatest
distribution in the Great Basin District, where they range in age all
through the Cenozoic with a possible maximum in younger tertiary
time. The ignimbritic eruptions accompanied the block faulting of the
Great Basin District in post-laramide time (MACKIN, 1960).

16
 166

Like in Indonesia, there is a distinct relation between the upwarp-

ing of the crust and the eruption of these acid flood tufts. The oldest
ignimbrites overlie unconformably folded, faulted and eroded late Cre-
taceous and older rocks of the Great Basin District. They are asso-
ciated with the block faulting in that area. Their aggregate volume is
estimated to be at least 200,000 cb.km. (MACKIN, 1960, p. 83)(8).
The eruption of such huge abounts of acid m a g m a m u s t have been
volumetrically compensated by a comparable subsidence of the un-
derlying basement complex. Figure 2 is a schematic section across the
Cordilleran System between the Colorado Plateau and the Pacific,
somewhat south of 37° N latitude. It is about I000 kilometers long
and the vertical scale is exaggerated I0 times. The surface observations
indicate that the Cordilleran System can be considered as a gigantic
u p w a r p with a wave length of about 800 km, and an amplitude of
about 6 km. The central part of this geotumor, about 625 k m wide
in this section, collapsed and forms at present the Great Basin District.
The Basin and Range Structure in this district is partly the result of
real crustal stretching (THOMPSON, 1960), which caused a thinning of
the crust and a reduction of the average surface altitude. The corre-
lation between the convex side of the curved m a j o r faults and the
direction of the tilt of the fault blocks is also a strong argument for
real stretching (l. G. MOORE, 1960). Therefore, the altitude of this Cor-
diUeran g e o t u m o r never reached that of the dashed line indicated on
the section.
The basement complex subsided on the average an additional half
a kilometer, due to the eruption of the acid m a g m a f r o m underneath.
This subsidence will be concentrated in volcano-tectonic cauldrons
and graben. The huge a m o u n t of acid m a g m a erupted by the ignim-
britic eruptions excludes the possibility that this m a g m a is the product
of crystallization differentiation of a primary basaltic magma. It rep-
resents most probably the rheomorphic, partially molten lower part
of the sialic crust (~¢ Bathyderma ,,). Experiments by WINKLER (1960)
indicate that selective fusion of clays at temperatures above 720° C
and at 2000 atmospheres (in some cases with added NaC1 and CaCOs)
produced aplitic, granitic and granodioritic melts and a crystalline
residue of m o r e calcic and mafic composition. Such an anatectic melt

(') E. F. Cook, i n a paper, read at the Catania meeting, IA.V. 1961, estimates the
volume of the i g n i m b r i t e s in the Great B a s i n District of Nevada a n d Utah on the
o r d e r of 140,000 cb.km.
West F_ast

PACIFIC ), & CALIFORNIA NEVADA LJTAFI

~ E

-~ ~.o

I
3',

Fig. 2 - S c h e m a t i c s e c t i o n a c r o s s t h e Cordilleran S y s t e m ( a b o u t 37° N o r t h Lat.)

 168

is p r o b a b l y c o m p a r a b l e w i t h t h e r e b o r n ( p a l i n g e n i c ) a c i d m a g m a p r o -
duced by migmatization.
U n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s of c r u s t a l s t r e t c h i n g a n d B a s i n - R a n g e t e c t o -
nics this a n a t e c t i c m a g m a h a s b e e n e r u p t e d a l o n g t e n s i o n fissures,
f l o o d i n g t h e s u r f a c e w i t h i g n i m b r i t e s ( = ,, f l o o d tufts ,,).

Explanation of fig. 2.
The basic concept of this section is that the Cordilleran System represents
a crustal upwarp, about 1000 km wide, with an amplitude of about 6 km. This
geotumor spreads gravitationally oceanward, causing the collaps and block-
faulting (Basin-Range structures) in the crestaI part (The Great Basin District).
This upwarp was primarily the result of a buoyant magmatic blister, which
has a basaltic composition in its lower part and an acid anatectic character
in its upper part.
The long dashed lines, as in the asthenolith, represent movement lines, de-
formation by flow of initially straight imaginary vertical lines. These deforma-
tions indicate the outward flow or spreading of the magmatic blister during
and after its uplift. The long dashed lines in the mantle indicate the defor-
mations due to the counterflow of this mass-circuit.
The mass-circuit, thus indicated in this section, is the result of the buoyancy
of a cenozoic asthenolith. Its sideward (oceanward) spreading caused a lateral
injection into the adjacent Sierra Nevada belt, where it acted as a wedge. The
magmatic wedge pushed upward and westward the upper part of this belt
which has a sialic composition (the crystalline basement complex). This uplift
was accompanied by forceful emplacements of acid batholiths in the rear of
the Sierra Nevada block. Such intrusions occasionally reached the surface,
forming for instance the Bishop ignimbrites in the Owen Valley (GILBERT, 1938).
At the base of the injected magmatic wedge the heavier, more basic lower
part of the Sierra Nevada belt was pushed downward. This downward move-
ment has two reasons. Firsts, there is the strive for maintaining isostatic
balance under the load of the rising upper part of the Sierra block; second,
this lower part or ,, root ,, of the Sierra block forms a link in the above men-
tioned mass-circuit, which is a coherent hydraulic energy-system.
After such a phase of uplift and spreading of a buoyant magmatic blister
there will follow a time of cooling, differentiation and crystallization of the
blister.
During this cooling phase the basaltic lower part of the injection will split
up into an uitramafic (peridotitic) layer at its base and a less basic upper layer.
The granitic upper part of the injected wedge and the anatectic pyromagma
will produce metasomatic alterations, granitizations pneumatolytic and hydro-
thermal alterations of the country rocks.
After the acid upper part of the blister has crystallized, dike-swarms and
effusions of the still hot basaltic lower part are to be expected (post-orogenic
plateaubasalts, such as those of the Big Pine basaltfield in the Owen Valley in
this section, and the Little Lake plateaubasalts somewhat farther south).
The increasing density of the igneous rocks during this phase of cooling
 169

a n d crystallizations causes a general tendency for the subsidence a n d f o u n d e r i n g

of t h e t o p p a r t of the original t u m o r (van BEMMELEN, 1960).
During the orogenic h i s t o r y of the Cordilleran S y s t e m r e p e a t e d cycles of
b u o y a n c y and foundering of m a g m a t i c blisters in t h e geosynclinal belt occurred,
giving rise to u n d a t i o n systems (see for instance OSMOND'S paper, 1960).
During the upper-mesozoic p a r t of this h i s t o r y the S i e r r a N e v a d a belt
was s u b j e c t e d to successive b a t h o l i t h i c intrusions of quartz-diorites a n d g r a n ~
diorites in its u p p e r p a r t , whilst i n its lower p a r t an a l t e r a t i o n of l a y e r s of
basic to ultrabasic composition a c c u m u l a t e d . Thus a cross-section c a m e into
being, which m i g h t have a general s t r u c t u r e as i n d i c a t e d in this figure. This
s t r u c t u r e is also c o n f o r m to the seismic data, as analysed by F r a n k PRESS
(J. of Geoph. Research, 1960).
A c o m p l i c a t i o n in the Cordilleran cross section results f r o m the t r a n s c u r r e n t
m o v e m e n t s along the San Andreas lineament. The l a t t e r r e p r e s e n t s a geotectonic
m o v e m e n t i n d e p e n d a n t of the Cordilleran mass-circuits. Crustal slivers have
been d i s p l a c e d n o r t h w a r d m o r e o r less p a r a l l e l to the Pacific Coastline. More-
over, this lineament, w h i c h is p r o b a b l y the o u t c r o p of a deep m a n t l e fault
h a s b e e n p u s h e d o u t w a r d (oceanward) b y the s p r e a d i n g of the G r e a t Basin
District. The difference of o c e a n w a r d spreading between the Great Basin District
and the southern p a r t of the Cordilleran S y s t e m in South Azirona and Mexico,
p r o b a b l y caused the left lateral offset of the San Andreas l i n e a m e n t along the
Garlock F a u l t (_+ 64 km).
Though the San Andreas is called a deep m a n t l e fault, this does not impl~
t h a t m o v e m e n t s along the deeper p a r t s of this fault are always a c c o m p a n i e d
b y seismic shocks. The e a r t h q u a k e foci along this fault zone are s e l d o m deeper
t h a n 30-40 k m ; that is, they are m o r e r e s t r i c t e d to the crust above the Moho-
discontinuity.
This section is of course only a generalized model. I t does not i n t e n d to
solve local p r o b l e m s of tectonics and igneous history. I t tries only to p r o v i d e
a geotectonic setting, which shows a m e c h a n i c a l l y logical r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
the s t r u c t u r a l processes. This geotectonic setting is thought to be the r e s u l t of
a b u o y a n t mass-circuit b e n e a t h the crust caused b y a m a g m a t i c blister. The
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t u m o r caused gravitational reactions in the u p p e r b r a n c h of the
circuit, directed f r o m the top p a r t of the t u m o r t o w a r d the ocean (stretching
in the Great Basin District of Nevada and Utah, a n d c o m p r e s s i o n in CaIifornia),
a n d c o n c o m i t t a n t volcanic e r u p t i o n s in the t o p part. The volcanic o u t b u r s t s
a r e p a r t l y of the i g n i m b r i t i c type, derived f r o m the anatectic m a g m a in the
u p p e r p a r t of the blister, p a r t l y this volcanism h a d the c h a r a c t e r of m o r e quiet.
though voluminous outflows of the p l a t e a u basaltic type, derived from the lower
p a r t of the blister. The b a s a l t i c e r u p t i o n s are generally youngcr, as they could
occur only after the cooling a n d consolidation of t h e anatectic m a g m a on top
of it. In the n o r t h e r n p a r t of the Cordilleran S y s t e m of the U.S.A. the y o u n g e r
b a s a l t p l a t e a u flows are d o m i n a t i n g features (Columbia Plateau, S n a k e River
Basin).
Moreover, the section across the Great Basin District is grossly schematic.
Only the irregular rise of the t e m p e r a t u r e f r o n t and the e m a n a t i o n s f r o m the
underlying asthenolith is roughly indicated b y d a s h e d lines.
We should realize, however, that in such a situation, where a b a s e m e n t
 170

complex with rock densities in the order of 2.7-2.8 overlies an extensive sheet
of gasloaden anatectic magma with densities of 2.5-2.6, an inversion of the stable
crustal density stratification has developed. The roof of the blister became too
heavy; consequently large blocks of the roof began to sink down into the under-
lying magmatic basin. This is a process of major stoping by means of foundering
mass-circuits at the base of the crystalline basement complex, forming great
laccolithic to sill-like intrusions (van BmVxMELEN,1937, 1957, 1958). The acid pyro-
magma is sucked up into the potential voids at shallower levels at the top of
the foundering blocks. This process may repeat itself several times in quick
successions, and ultimately the pyromagma reaches the surface, causing vo-
luminous eruptions of ignimbrites. Such substages in the ascent of the anatectic
pyromagma are not indicated on this section.
Moreover, it is clear that the density of 2.5-2.6 assigned to the upper part
of the blister, will be realized only during the acme of its activity. Thereafter
its density will rise again due to cooling and crystallization. Probably the
lower part of the sialic crust has never been entirely molten, and the anatectic
pyromagma occupied layers and pockets amidst of denser parts.
The lower boundary of this zone of anatexis is indicated on the section
by an arbitrary line. Its position should be estimated according to analyses ot
gravimetric and seismic data, which has not been done by the author. Such
an analysis has recently been published by D ~ N T , S~WAt~T, and ROLLER(1961),
based on the seismic shocks caused by nuclear explosions at the Nevada
Test Site.
Acknowledgement: The author wants to thank Robert E. Wallace, Chief
Southwestern Branch of the U.S. Geological Survey (Menlo Park, Cal.) for
helpful criticism and suggestions concerning this section.

I n t h e Y e l l o w s t o n e P a r k Area a s i m i l a r p r o c e s s o f d o m i n g a n d
accompanying ignimbritic eruptions occurred, though at a smaller
scale t h a n in t h e G r e a t B a s i n District.
T h i s a r e a r e p r e s e n t s a c o l l a p s e d d o m e , c o m p a r a b l e in size w i t h
t h e B a t a k t u m o r o f N o r t h S u m a t r a , t h e t o p o f w h i c h is o c c u p i e d b y
the Toba cauldron.
I n t h e Y e l l o w s t o n e P a r k t h r e e cycles o f v o l c a n i s m c a n b e distin-
guished:
I. A first, e o - o l i g o c e n e c y c l e o f b a s a l t o - a n d e s i t i c v o l c a n i s m , w h i c h
p r o d u c e d t h e A b s a r o k a v o l c a n i c s . T h i s c y c l e is c o m p a r a b l e w i t h t h e
<, Old A n d e s i t e S e r i e s ~ o f S u m a t r a .
II. A f t e r e r o s i o n f o l l o w e d a s e c o n d , o l i g o - m i o c e n e cycle o f ande-
sitic v o l c a n i s m w h i c h i n c l u d e s t r a c h y - r h y o l i t e s (~ I n t e r m e d i a t e Ande-
site S e r i e s ~>).
I I I . A n o t h e r i n t e r v a l o f e r o s i o n s e p a r a t e s this s e c o n d cycle f r o m
a t h i r d o n e o f p l i o c e n e age, w h i c h p r o d u c e d t h e Y e l l o w s t o n e P a r k
volcanics sensu stricto.
 171 --

This third series can be subdivided into three substages (compare

table 1 in BOYD, 1961).
IIIa. Doming with initial explosions, producing pumice breccias
(Red Mountain rhyolite) and rhyolite flows (/nCKSON flows).
IIIb. Ignimbritic paroxism and collapse of the top part.
Initial explosions (pumice breccias of Purple Mountain), followed
by the main paroxysm, the eruption of the Yellowstone tufts. The
latter were produced by the ignimbritic type of eruptions. They have
an aggregate volume of about 2000 cb.km, that is the same order
of magnitude as the volume of the Toba tufts. The eruption of the
Yellowstone tufts was accompanied by the collapse of the top part
of the tumor.
IIIc. Post collapse volcanism.
This central basin or cauldron was then inundated by rhyolite
(and some basalt) flows. These flows now occupy the Yellowstone
Park plateau with an area of about 2500 sq.km. They have an aggre-
gate volume of about 800 cb.km. One of the largest separate units is
the Pitchstone Plateau flow, which occupies an area of c. 250 sq.km,
and has a volume of about 40 cb.km.

4. General conclusions

The foregoing discussion of the volcanology and geology of ignim-

brite deposits in Indonesia, North Italy and the United States of North
America may be summarized into the following general conclusion:
a) Ignimbrite eruptions accompany impulses of tectonic uplift
(doming up) (Table 1 and fig. 1).
b) Ignimbrite eruptions differ from those of the normal orogenic
volcanism (Table 2).
c) Ignimbrite eruptions may not be compared with the nu6e
ardente type of eruptions. They belong to different groups in the
viscosity-gascontent classification of volcanic eruptions (Table 3).
d) Ignimbrites are produced by rapid, voluminous eruptions of
anatectic magma, that is reborn magma, formed by partial melting o[
the lower part of the sialic crust during an orogenic cycle of evolution.
e) Ignimbrites can be called <<flood tufts ,,. They form the syn-
orogenic, acid counterpart of the post-orogenic, basic plateau basalts,
which were termed ,< flood basalts ,> by TYRREL.
 m 172B

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 173

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