Sewerage system Dr. Akepati S. Reddy School of Energy and Environment Thapar University Patiala (PUNJAB) — 147 004Present and design peak flows * Sanitary sewage generation can be assessed by using the water supply information * Population and per capita water supply (135 or 200 LPCD!) * Return factor of the sewage (typically taken as 0.8) For arid regions as it may be as low as 0.4, and for well developed area it may be 0.9 Use of other than municipal water supply (industries, commercial buildings, etc.!) can upset the return factor . Forecasting sewage generation at the end of the design period may require * Sewers are designed for a minimum of 100 LPCD sewage * Land use pattern (contained in the master plan) and zoning regulations * Land ofa typical city may be 56% - residential area 20% - roads, 15% - gardens 5% - institutions (schools) 2% - hospitals and dispensaries, 2 % - markets Industrial area - ?Present and design peak flows Ultimate (saturation) population densities are often used for anticipating the population + Floor Space Index (ratio of total floor area to plot area) can be used in finding out the ultimate population densities basis. * Per capita floor area is also needed in the assessment (9 m? per capita !) * Population densities depend on the size of the town/city <5000 75-150/ha. 5000-20000 150-250/ha. 20000-50000 250-300/ha. 50000-100000 300-350/ha. >100000 350-1000/ha. Design period — Length of time upto which the sewerage system will prove adequate — Depends on the life of the structures and equipment to be used, anticipated rate of population growth and economic justification — Recommended design period is 30 yearsInfiltration of ground water * Ground water infiltrates through sewer joints — Depends on the workmanship in laying the sewers and the level of ground water table — For sewers laid above the ground water table sewage may lost from the sewers — Sewers require hydraulic testing after laying + Suggested infiltration rates for sewers laid below the groundwater table — 5-50 m3/ha/day or = 0.5-5 m3/km.day or — 0.25 to 0.5 m3/manhole/dayINFLOW SOURCES INFILTRATION SOURCES CONNECTION a , FOUNDATION DRAIN FAULTY LATERAL CONNE® FAULTY MANHOLE COVER OR FRANE Fe \ SANITARY Ww “I q * CRACKED OR BROKEN PIPE DETERIORATED MANHOLEManning’s Equation Rese V V= velocity (m/sec) = Q= flow rate (m3/sec.) n R = hydraulic radius (m) 23 ell? S= slope of the energy grade line AR*S ee ie O= n= Manning’s roughness coefficient n D= Diameter of the pipe * ‘n’ is reported to reduce with increasing pipe diameter and also vary with the depth flow + Manning’s n of 0.013 is used for new and existing well constructed sewers, and for older sewers it is taken as 0.015 * Typically applied for open-channel flow conditions * Design of sewers involves finding slope and diameter of the sewer with peak design flow capacity * Flow velocity should be 0.6 to 3.0 m/sec. during (present and design) peak flowProperties of circular sewer section Flow through sewer is open channel flow Parameters of interest are Angle of flow=@= au * Breadth of flow (b) * Depth of flow (d) @ =2cos (1-23) * Diameter of the sewer (D) D Breadth of flow is needed for the calculation .f@ of the risk of H,S generation b= psn( Derived parameters * Angle of flow (6) in radians a= p20) * Area of flow (a) + Wetted perimeter (P) p= Escritt’s definition of hydraulic radius (a/p)A few important terms ‘a’ is area of flow ‘b' is breadth of flow ‘d' is depth of flow > D ‘D’ is sewer diameter a ‘p’ is wetted perimeter ‘0’ is angle of flow in radians a (2m radians = 360°) ‘a/p’ is hydraulic radius ‘r’ —> > Here, ‘d/D’ is proportional depth of flow 2 p=D% b= Dsin(4) *~ coi) a=k,p? =p? O29) r=k,D=(%)-(m 9) @_(9-sin@) r_ sind A 2a RR 0. Tables are available in sewerage design manuals for reading ka, kr, a/A, r/R, and also v/V and q/Q for different d/D valuesProperties of circular sewer section Hydraulic radius (r) = area of flow / wetted P= 0%, perimeter d/D for simplified sewerage is 0.2-0.8 re D [ Sind <0.2 do not ensure sufficient velocity for preventing 4 e solids deposition in the sewer ae e >0.8 do not allow sufficient ventilation a=K,D For any known d/D, angle of flow can be found ned: From angle of flow, area of flow, hydraulic radius and breadth of flow can be found 1 . K, =—(0-Sin0) For d/D=0.2, Ka and Kr values are 0.1118 and 8 0.1206 respectively 1 Sind For d/D=0.8, Ka and Kr values are 0.6736 and K,=—|1- 0.3042 respectively 4 0Manning’s equation ‘n’ is Manning’s roughness coefficient ‘r’ is hydraulic radius xy ‘j' is sewer gradient uv ‘a’ is flow cross sectional area (m2) ‘g’ is flow rate (m3/s) 2 ‘V’ is velocity (m/s) val Ais n geaveaty n Flow velocity is proportional to hydraulic radius which in turn to d/D From writing Manning's equation for partial flow and full flow taking ratio one can obtain v/V and q/Q as real xoewAload [ese ney Ois a function of d/D v/V and q/Q vary with d/D v=V for d/D=0.5 v/V is maximum (1.14) when d/D is around 0.81 q/Qis maximum (1.07) when d/D is around 0.94Gauckler-Manning equation v=-r Vis flow velocity (m/sec.) nis roughness coefficient, taken as 0.013 for PVC, vitrified clay and even for concrete sewers The bacterial slime layer makes the roughness almost same for all the materials ‘i’ is sewer slope or gradient ‘q’ is sewage flow rate (m3/sec.) 0=2cos (1-28) D Air q= a been n a=K,D? =; (0-sino)D* r=K p=+{1-5”8 |p 4 @Sanitary Sewerage SystemTractive Tension (boundary shear stress) Tangential force exerted by the flowing W.Sing pgaLSing sewage per unit wetted boundary = ——_ aed PL PL Denoted by t and units are N/m? or T = perSing = pgk, Di Pascals, Pa Obtained by dividing weight component _| 7 1 of the flowing sewage in the flow D= o | Ki direction by the wetted boundary Ps A area of the sewer ¥ Wis weight of sewage q= i K «(= . Lis sewer length n “" \ pg pis density of sewage Y i ffl __({1 2 V8( 2 \ 9, ais area of flow = te K? o qh is sewer inclination angle “ pg since ¢ is very small sin b=tan 1 oe tan is the sewer slope (i) 4-7 KD (KDADesign of the sewer Find initial and final (at the start and at the end of the design period) peak sewage flow rates q=kk,PW If the flow is <1.5 L/Sec., then use 1.5 L/Sec. as peak flow Using the initial peak sewage flow rate, for the minimum tractive tension required, find minimum slope required Yaf ¢ \%3 4 tere n Pe K, and K, should correspond to d/D = 0.2 at which tractive tension is minimum Required tractive tension for simplified sewers is 1 Pa For sanitary sewers it is 1-2 Pa and for storm sewers and combined sewers it is 3-4 PaDesign of the sewer Find sewer diameter using the Gauckler-Manning equation i? Here final peak sewage flow rate is taken as q Dan®KAKM 4 Ka and Kr values corresponding to d/D=0.8 are considered The sewer diameters calculated may not be always commercially available — then chose the next larger diameter sewer commercially available Minimum sewer diameter considered in simplified sewerage is 100 mmSurface Material Asbestos cement Asphalt Clay tile Concrete - steel forms Concrete - finished Concrete - wooden forms. Concrete - centrifugally spun Galvanized iron Glass Gravel Masonry Metal — corrugated. Plastic Polyethylene PE - Corrugated with smooth inner walls Polyethylene PE - Corrugated with corrugated inner walls Polyviny! Chloride PVC - with smooth inner walls Steel - Coal-tar enamel Steel - smooth Manning's - n - 0.011 0.016 0.011 0.015 0.012 0.014 0.011 0.012 0.015 0.013 0.016 0.010 0.029 0.025 0,022 0.009 0.009 - 0.015 0.018 - 0.025 0,009 - 0.011 0.010 0.012£ woh ret 24 “26 28 30 32 34 36 VAWES OF 7 w 12 ee 20 fom of 62 03 O04 05 06 07 O8 Of Ww Ta Myéreulic olements ¥, | A. AN R wi Op ag Re Hydraulic elements graph for circular sewersHYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF CIRCULAR SECTIONS FOR MANNING'S FORMULA Constant én) Variable (ny dD vv qa nn vv ga 1.0 1.000 1,000 1.00 1.000 1.000 09 1.124 1.066 1.07 1.056 1.020 08 1.140 0.968 14 1.003 0.890 07 4.120 0.838 1.18 952 o7i2 06 1.072 0.671 1.21 0.890 0.557 0s 1.000 0.500 124 0.810 0.405 04 0.902 0.337 1.27 0.713 0.266 03 0.776 0.196 1.28 0.605 0.153 02 9.615 0.088 1.27 0.486 0.070 O14 0.401 0.021 1.22 0.329 0.017 Where, D = Full Depth of fiow {intemal dia) V = Velocity at full depth n= Manning's coefficient at full depth Q = Discharge at full depth d= Actual depth of flow v = Velocity at depth “d? n, = Manning's coefficient at depth ‘d’ q = Discharge al depth ‘a’Self cleansing velocity In a sewer sufficient velocity (self cleansing velocity) should be developed onaregular basis ensuring self cleansing Self-cleansing velocity can be found by Camp’s formula I oT 4 V= oR“ IK, (sG-na, 2 * SG is specific gravity of the particle * d, is particle size + K, is constant and its value is taken as 0.8 Recommended self-cleansing velocity is 0.6 m/sec. + Ensures transport of sand particles of 0.09 mm size and 2.65 specific gravity without allowing settling + For preventing deposition of sand and gravel 0.75 m/sec. velocity is recommended * Self-cleansing velocity of 0.8 m/sec. at design peak flow and 0.6 m/sec. at present peak flow are often suggested Velocity in the sewer is recommended not to exceed 3 m/sec. for avoiding damage to sewers from erosion Flow velocity for the present peak flow should be >0.6 m/sec. and for the design peak flow it should be <3.0 m/sec.Slope and diameter of sewers * For sewers running partially full for a given flow and slope, flow velocity is little influenced by pipe diameter * Slope of sewer is first fixed for the present peak flow, then pipe diameter is decided on the basis of design peak flow and permissible depth of flow * For ensuring a minimum velocity of 0.6 m/sec., slope of the sewer can be ES a; 2 6 in 1000 2. 3 4in 1000 Bh: 5 3.1 in 1000 4. 10 2 in 1000 5 15 1.3 in 1000 6. 20 1.2 in 1000 Fie 30 1.0in 1000 * Minimum practical slope considered for construction is 1 in 1250Sewer ventilation * Sewers are preferably run partially full (d/D <0.8) for facilitating ventilation * Sewer ventilation is needed to avoid — Dangers of asphyxiation of maintenance personnel — Buildup of odorous gases — Development of explosive mixture of sewer gases (methane and oxygen) * Hydrogen sulfide can be generated in the sewer specially when laid at minimum slope — H2S can cause odour problems, precipitates trace metals as sulfides, and deteriorates cement containing materialsDesign computations * Accurate and detailed map of the area to be covered by the sewerage system — Scale of the map can be 25 m = 1cm (maps of 5m=1 cmare also often needed — Location of streets, alleys, highways, railroads, public buildings, parks, streams/drains, ditches, etc., features should be identified on the map — Accurate elevations of street center lines at every 15 m distance and elevation at all locations of abrupt surface slope changes * Decide on the layout of the sewer line — Draw the sewer map — Identify, locate and number the manholes on the sewer map and code the sewers * Locations of change of direction, sewer junctions, and upper ends of the sewers can have manholes + Manholes can be provided at regular distances (30 m -120 m)Sewerage system Sewage — sewer — sewerage Sewage: municipal wastewater (domestic sewage, storm water and infiltrated ground water) Sewerage: system for the collection and conveyance of municipal wastewater to the STP or the point of disposal Sewer: conduit carrying the sewage — Sanitary sewers, storm sewers and combined sewers — Sanitary sewers carry sewage + Residential, commercial and institutional sewage + Industrial wastewater + Infiltration water and some storm waterDesign computations — Find surface elevation of the upstream and downstream ends of each of the sewer — Identify the local tributary area for each of the sewer — Find the present and the design population equivalents of the local tributary areas — Find present and design average and peak sewage flow for the local tributary area Collect additional information for the right of the way of the sewer line — Profiles of all existing and proposed streets, alleys and potential right-of-ways — Location of surface and subsurface utilities like water mains, electrical conduits, communication lines, and other underground structures — Soil data upto 1.5 m below the bottom of proposed sewer Prepare sewer design computation tableSewer design computation table This can be an excel worksheet and include Columns identifying the sewers and summerizing basic data — Sewer code and upstream and downstream manhole numbers. — Sewer length — Local (tributary) area, its present and design population, and its present and design average and peak sewage flow — Present and design average and peak flows from commercial, institutional and industrial activities of the local (tributary) area — Infiltration allowance for the sewer length — Surface elevation at the upstream and downstream sewer ends Columns showing cumulative present average flow and peak flow and average and peak flow at the end of design period Columns showing computed slope and diameter of the sewer and Qe,Sewer design computation table Columns showing hydraulic elements for the present and the design peak flows when Manning’s n is variable — d/D corresponding to the qprp and to the dprp — Flow velocity at qp-p and at pep Columns showing sewer layout data (invert elevations at the upstream and at the downstream ends of the sewer) Corrected invert elevations of the sewer on the basis of — Sewer pipe thickness and crown cover required — In case of a sewer junction, invert elevation of the outlet sewer is fixed by the lowest inlet sewer’s invert elevation — If sewer size increases crowns of the sewer in question should be matched with that of the upstream sewer at the manholeUrban Storm Water Drainage SystemUrban Storm-water Drainage System Urban Drainage Design Manual; National Highway Institute, 3 rd edition (2009) — revision (2013) — Determine runoff — Gutters, inlets and catch basins — Storm water drains — Outfalls Determine runoff. * Watershed characteristics and their changes with future developments — Urban development increases both peak runoff and total runoff * Land use of the catchments — residential , commercial, industrial, agricultural, parks and undeveloped lands — Streets, parking lots, bridges * Rainfall and runoff calculationsDeveloped area oe 0.2 b¢ Meee een een, Discharge (a°/s) 1300-0100 1300 100 1300 0600 1300 = 0100 1300 Nour HourUrban Stormwater Drainage System Urban development fragments watersheds and disturbs natural drainage — Necessitates development of new drainage system to collect storm water from each of the fragments and convey out Gutters, inlets and catch basins from each of the fragments Storm sewer map and storm sewers (may also include culverts) mostly with gravity flow — Underground conduits or open surface drains designed for flow velocities 0.6 to 3.6 m/sec. — Only a few rainfall events can result in self-cleansing velocities in the storm sewer All sized to collect and convey peak flows (probability of local ponding is usually limited to <50%) - Combined sewers and storm sewers also collecting and conveying grey waterPeak flows of storm water + Forms basis for the design of storm water drainage system — Design storm events with 2 year return period — Catchments characteristics after the planned development * Rational method is usually used to assess the peak flows — Considered appropriate for catchments of <80 hectares size Q peak flow in m3/sec. C runoff coefficient Q= CA | Rainfall intensity in mm/hr A drainage area in hectares K, units conversion factor (360) — Peak flow is believed to occur when entire catchment contributes (time of concentration) — Rainfall intensity is taken as same for the entire area over the time of concentration (t,)Runoff Coefficient (C) Composite Runoff Coefficient should be used GA weighted SA, Runoff coefficient taken should be for the design storm event (2 year return period! C q ; Senet Pec io i Baringo curveHousehold Urine => Dish Bath: Clothes washer shower washer Ol =Runoff coefficients Runoff cosfficionts, , for use in the Rational Equation (Erie and Niagara Counties Regional Planning Board. 1 Hydrologic Range : ‘Soll Group and Slop c Land Use ams 02% 26% 6% edustral 0.68 0.69 0.69 86 086 0.87 Commercial 0.72 072 0.72 0.89 0.89 0.80 High Density? 0.50 051 0.54 Resigental ost 062 0.66 Medium Density* ost 0.33 0.38 Residentiat 0.40 O42 0.49 Low Density* 0.22 0.28 0.31 Residential 0.29 032 0.40 ‘Agricultural 0.18 0.19 0.26 0.22 025 0.34 Open Seacet ona 017 0.28 (Grass/Fovest) 0.20 023 0.32 Freeways and 0.60 0.63 Expressway 0.72 0.76 ome 0.70 Lower runatt coetficients for use with storm recurrence intervals less then 25 years, 2. Higher runoft coetficients for use with storm recurvence intervals of 25 years or mare. 3. High density residential areas have more than 15 dwelling units per acre. 4. Medium density residential areas have 4 to 15 dweling units per acre. 5. Low density residential areas have 1 to 4 dwelling units per sere. 6. For pastures and forests we recommend using the lower runoff coefficients which sre listed for open spaces (our addition to original sourced.Rain fall intensity Usually read from the regional RDF curves * Intensity corresponding to the time of concentration for the catchment/watershed for a specified return period is used Regional IDF (intensity-duration-frequency) curves * Developed through frequency analysis of rainfall events monitored at multitude of rain gages * Relate storm duration and exceedence probability (frequency) with the rainfall intensity er ga eee i line indicates the toca for this frequency ai— Duration - Frequency) Curve Regional RDF (Rainfall intensityTime of concentration (t,) Time required for the entire catchment to contribute to runoff at the point of interest for hydraulic design + time taken for the most hydraulically remote point of the catchment to contribute storm water to the outlet t, of 10 to 300 minutes is acceptable for application in the rational method * fort, <10 min., the rainfall intensity is unacceptably high * fort. >300, the assumption of steady rainfall is less valid Factors affecting the t, * Ponding, surface roughness and catchment slope * Fraction of impervious area and fraction of area directly connected to flow * Flow path length, channel slope, channel shape and flow pattern Urbanization decreases t,Time of concentration (t,) * Methods of estimation of Tc + Kinematic wave method * Kirpich and Kerby methods and Kerby-Kirpich method + NRCS (National Resources Conservation Service) lag method and NRCS travel time method + Both NRCS and Kerby-Kirpich methods estimate t, as the sum of travel times for discrete flow regimes. * Stormwater is considered to move first as sheet flow, then as shallow concentrated flow and finally as open channel flow * t, is taken as sum of travel time of all the three types of flows.Estimation of time of concentration Morgali and Lisely method Used for planar small urban areas of drainage area <10-20 acres iis intensity of rainfall (inch/hr) _ 0.94(n.L)”* nis Mannings surface roughness factor co 45% Lis length of flow (ft) S is slope and tc is time of concentration Calculation involves iteration Adhoc method for time of concentration : - t, isin hours and t= ¥ drainage area drainage area is in square miles Kerby-Hatheway method Used for small watersheds with overland flow predominance ie 0.67NL c VS 0.467 | N is Kerby roughness factor (0.02-0.8)Estimation of time of concentration Kirpich method (1940) Used for <200 acres size basins with channel flow predomination BY” Lis length of the main channel (ft) t, = 0.0078 | —- his relief along the main channel (ft) Hatheway formula t, is time of concentration (min.) 0.47 Lis flow path length (ft.) Pies 2nk S is mean slope of the basin i WS n is Manning’s roughness coefficient (taken as 0.02 for smooth surface & 0.8 for grass overland)The Kerby method for t, Dimensionless retardance Generalized terrain description coefficient (N) Pavement 0.02 Smooth, bare, packed soil 0.10 Poor grass, cultivated row crops, or 0.20 moderately rough packed surfaces Pasture, average grass 0.40 Deciduous forest 0.60 Dense grass, iferous forest, or lense grass, coniferous forest, or 0.80 deciduous forest with deep litterEstimation of time of concentration (t,) Kerby method for t, Useful for smaller watersheds with overland flow predominance Kis units conversion coefficient (1.44 for SI units) = 0.467 ¢-0.235 Lis overland flow length in meters (<366 ty = K(LNY'“"S soveriane et {<366) N is dimensionless retardance coefficient Sis slope Kirpich method: Used for channel flow component K: units conversion coefficient (0.0195 for S! units) ty, is in minutes — R077 60.385 th Con = KL™'S Lis channel length in meters Sis slope The Kerby-Kirpich method: Applicable to watersheds of 0.25 to 150 square mile area, main channel lengths of 1 to 50 miles and main channel slopes of 0.002 to 0.02 ty, is in minutes as per Kirpich method t= La +1, t, is in in minutes as per Kerby method Main channel slope: Change in elevation from watershed divide to watershed outlet divided by the channels curvi-lenier lengthSewerage system Sewers Conduit carrying the sewage mostly by gravity Asbestos cement, ductile iron, reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, PVC, vitrified clay material are used in sewer manufacturing Sewerage is converging network of sewers (building connections, lateral sewers, main sewers, trunk sewers and intercepting sewers) — Building sewers/building connections — begins beyond a building foundation conveying sewage from the building to (lateral) sewer — Lateral/branch sewer — first element of the sewerage system — receives sewage from buildings and conveys to main sewers — Main sewer - receives sewage from lateral sewers and conveys to trunk sewers or intercepting sewers — Trunk sewers —large sewers conveying sewage from main sewers to STP or disposal facilities or to large intercepting sewers — Intercepting sewers —large sewers used to intercept a number of main or trunk sewers and convey sewage to STP/disposal facilitiesTime of Concentration * Time of Concentration (t,) is taken as sum of the following: — Sheet flow travel time — Shallow concentrated flow travel time (flow in rills then in gullies) = Open channel flow/pipe flow travel time * Storm water flow in the catchments/drainage basins — In acatchment surface runoff starts as a sheet flow — after relatively a short distance travel, the sheet flow transforms into shallow concentrated flow = The shallow concentrated flow enters open channels/sewers and conveyed out Sheet flow travel time K,{ ab T.= ti pos JS T,,is sheet flow travel time in minutes K, is empirical coefficient (its value is 6.92) lis rainfall intensity in mm/hr (depends on the t, to be calculated) Lis flow length in meters Sis slope (catchment slope) Nis roughness coefficient‘Surface Description Table 3.2. Manning's Roughness Coefficient (n) for Overland Sheet Flow.©) ‘Smooth concrete ‘Smooth asphalt 0.011 0.012 (Ordinary concrete lining Good wood Brick with cement mortar Vitrified clay Cast iron Corrugated metal pipe (Cement rubble surface Fallow (no residue) Cultivated soils. Residue cover # 20% Residue cover > 20% Range (natural) Grass Short grass prairie Dense grasses Woods" Light underbrush Bermuda grass o4t 0.40 Dense underbrush 0.80 the plant cover that will obstruct sheet “When selecting n.conaider cove Toa height of about 30 rem. Tis oly part ofTime of Concentration (t,) + Shallow concentrated flow — Shallow concentrated flow velocity is estimated first and used for estimating the shallow concentrated flow travel time velocity in m/sec. V= K, Ks» Ku is taken as 1.0 ans ‘LD Sp is slope percent T, =— Tti is shallow concentrated flow travel time (in minutes.) Lis flow length intercept coefficient (depends on land cover/ flow Table 3-3. intercept Coefficients for Velocity vs. Slope Relationship of Equation 3-4 © Land Cover'Flow Regime k Forest with heavy ground litter, hay meadow (overland flow) 0.076 Trash fallow or minimum tillage cultivation; contour or strip cropped, woodland 0.152 (overtand flow) Short grass pasture (overland flow) 0213 Cultivated straight row (overland flow) 0274 Nearly bare and untilled (overiond flow), alluvial fans in western mountain regions | 0.05 Grassed waterway (shallow concentrated flow) 0.457 Unpaved (shallow concentrated flow) 0491 Paved area (shallow concentrated flow), small upland gullies 0619Time of Concentration (t,) * Open channel/pipe flow — Here also flow velocity is estimated first and used for estimating the open channel/pipe flow travel time ‘n’ is roughness coefficient x V= Ky RAS? 5 R is hydraulic radius (for open channels with n width >10 times depth taken as depth) K,, is unit conversion factor (taken as 1.0) S is slope L V is velocity in m/sec. fi = Lis flow length in meters 60V T,, is travel time in i segment in minutes = if sheet flow T, shallow concentraed flow iT openchannel or pipe flowTable 3-4. Typical Range of Manning's Coefficient (n) for Channels and Pipes. Conduit Material Manning's n* Closed Conduits Concrete pipe 0.010-0.015 MP 0.011 -0.037 Plastic pipe (smooth) 0.009 -0.015 Plastic pipe (corrugated) 0.018 -0.025 Pavementigutter sections 0.012-0.016 ‘Small Open Channels ‘Concrete 0.011-0.015 Rubble or riprap 0.020 - 0.035 Vegetation 0.020 - 0.150 Bare Soil 0.016 - 0.025 Rock Cut 0.025 - 0.045 Natural channels (minor streams, top width at flood stage <30 m (100 ft)) Fairly regular section 0.025 - 0.050 Irregular section with pools 0.040 - 0.150 “Lower values are usually for well-constructed and maintained (smoother) pipes: and channelsUSGS Regression Equations for Peak Flow Assessments * Used in ungauged sites for estimating peak flows + US geological survey has developed and compiled these regression equations (for the return periods 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 500 years) * Developed from the urban run off data obtined from 269 basins in 56 cities of 31 states UQ, =2.35A2" SI" (RI2+3)™ (87 +8)"* (13-BDF)"” ae? ROM * These regrassion equations include the following 7 parameters 1. AS is the contributing drainage area in square miles 2. SLis the main channel slope in ft/mile (measured between 10% and 85% of the main channel upstream of the outlet) 3. R12 is rainfall amount in inches in 2 hours for a rainfall event of 2 years return period 4. STis basin storage as percent of the total area occupied by lakes, reservoirs, swamps and wetlands.USGS Regression Equations for Peak Flow Assessments 5. BDF is basin development factor (a measure of hydraulic efficiency of the basin) - estimated through atyision of the basin into upper, middle and lower thirds, an rating each of the third on 0-1 scale against the following four parameters a) Channel improvements b) Channel lining (prevalence of impervious surface lining) c) Storm drains/ sewers d) Curb and gutter streets IA is percent area of the basin occupied by impervious surfaces RQ2 is 2-year rural peak flow — calculated by using the following regression equationTable 3-5. Nationwide Urban Equations Developed by USGS." UO2 = 2.35 A, *SL™(RI2 + 3F "(ST + 8) "(13 - BDF) “IA, "RO2™ (3-8) UQ5 = 270A, =SL™RI2 + 3)(ST + 8) (13 - BDF) 1A, "ROS (3-9) UQ10 = 2.99 A, “SL“(RI2 + 3)" "(ST + 8) (13 - BDF) IA, =RO10™ (3-10) UQ25 = 2.78 A, *SL™(RI2 + 3)'"*(ST + 8 8(13 - BDFY IA, "RQ25© (3-11) UQS50 = 2.67 A, >SL“(RI2 + 3) “(ST + 8) "(13 - BDF) IA, =ROS0™ (3-12) UQ100 = 2.50 A, “SL "(R12 + 3)'(ST + 8y (13 - BDFY 1A, "RQ100% (3-13) UQ500 = 2.27 Ap *SL*(RI2 + 3)" “(ST + 8) (13 - BDF) "IAs =RO500™ (3-14) where: UQy = Urban peak discharge for T-year recurrence interval, ft/s As = Contributing drainage area, sq mi SL = Main channel slope (measured between points which are 10 and 85% of main channel length upstream of site), fmi RI2 = Rainfall amount for 2-h, 2-year recurrence, inches ST = Basin storage (percentage of basin occupied by lakes, reservoirs, swamps, and wetlands), percent BDF = Basin development factor (provides a measure of the hydraulic efficiency of the basin - see description below 1A = Percentage of basin occupied by impervious surfaces RQ; = _T-year rural peak flow Even after the necessary verifications, magnititude of error in the assessment is 35-50% of the actual field measurementsSCS (NRCS) Peak Flow Method Peak flow is estimated as Q, is peak flow in m3/sec. _ q, is unit peak flow in m3/sec./km2 WAcQn A, is basin area in km2 Q, is runoff depth in mm Unit peak flow is calculated by G= =k, 10%*S log(¢, }+€5(log(t,))P “a, is unit peak flow in m3/sec./km2 k, is units conversion factor and its value is 0.000431 C,, C, and C, are coefficients whose value depends on Rainfall distribution type |,/p (I, is initial abstraction in mm and given as |,=0.2S,) The coefficients values are read from the table available t, is time of concentrationSCS (NRCS) Peak Flow Method Direct runoff depth (Q)) QD is direct runoff depth in mm , pis depth of 24 hr precipitation in mm O,= (p -0.25, yf SR is retention inmm ep +088, Ku is units conversion factor (value is 25.4) CN is runoff Curve Number SR (retention) is obtained from Its value depends on 100 Soil type Sp =k, (~ - 10} Land cover cN Antecedent moisture its value is read from tables For multiple land use/soil type combinations within a basin, area weighted CN is usedSewerage system Sewer * Lateral sewers are sized larger than the building sewers — Building sewers are either 100 or 150 mm size and 150 mm is the recommended minimum size for a gravity sewer * Flow in sewers is considered as steady and uniform * A functioning sewer has to — carry peak flow — Transport suspended solids with minimum of deposition in sewers * Curved sewers are not usually preferred — Can be used if compatible cleaning equipment is available — Curved sewers do not allow use of laser type survey equipment during construction to maintain sewer slopeSCS (NRCS) Peak Flow Method If ponding/swampy areas occur in the basin and retain considerable runoff (as temporary storage), then the peak flow requires adjustment as q, is adjusted peak flow qa = qf, Op is calculated peak flow / F, is adjustment factor (values are given below) The method is acceptable if the basin is fairly homogenousand has CN >40 the basin has a single main channel or branches with nearly equal t, tcis within 0.1 to 10 hrs range la/p is within 0.1 to 0.5 range The ponds/swamps are not in the t, flow path Table 3-9. Adjustment Factor (F,) for Pond and Swamp Areas that are Spread Throughout the Watershed. Area of Pond or Swamp (%) Fp 0.0 1.00 0.2 0.97 4.0 0.87 3.0 0.75 5.0 0.72Table 3-6. Runoff Curve Numbers for Urban Areas: (Average Watershed Condition. = 0.2.52)" Carve Nunibers for Land Use Deseription Soil eee Ei uri areas Sabicea i Open spaces, parks. gof courses, cemeteries. fc "Good conciaon: grass cover on 75% o more of the area Fav condisan, gaia cover oh 50m TEM, the aren Foor condition: PSE Tee SE wee | Faves or rt oF- Faves wit open ctches [Fel TghtemAay) Des | Average imeervious ‘Commerc and business SES = Bere s. Industral districts 7 of be er es Row Pouses, tun houses, and eacanea 65 ae wih tot sizes 0.05 ha (1/8 ac) or less Resental average tse Oh (14 ac) ES St rm trans (12 32) 3 ae 0.20 ina (1/2 ae) et oo os [tata aay 2 pe ear [astha eet 2 ae ee : LTT ST a Nise dese lancsceong beivous 52a So Sse ‘Aeticial desert landscaping (r ‘weed barrier, ee) ae) ‘desert shrub with 25 t2 80 mm {1 %0 ? im] sand or gravel _muich and basin borders Cumestes Tan ow Towor Bare sol Te a ation 75-8 [00 | 88 wpe [0 Conservation tilage Good Tecarta at = 0 Omran i i i a A epee aL? «0 ere twTable 3-7. Coefficients for SCS Peak Discharge Method (Equation 3-18)" 230550 223537 2.16219 0.09100 0.61512 O.62257Types of Sewerage SystemsSewerage Types Based on collection * Combined sewerage * Separate sewerage — Sanitary sewerage — Storm water sewerage Based on transport * Conventional sewerage * Simplified sewerage + Solids free sewerage * Pressurized sewerage * Vacuum sewerage + Sewerage of open channels and drainsCombined Sewerage Underground network of pipes collecting and conveying domestic sewage, industrial wastewater and storm water Requires no on-site pre-treatment and storage Sewers are laid beneath roads at >1.0 to 3 m depth (avoids damage from traffic loads on roads) Manholes at regular intervals Designed for gravity flow Designed to maintain self cleansing velocity (0.6 to 0.75 m/sec.) during peak flows Pumping stations are used when sewers become too deep Higher capital cost (higher than simplified sewerage) Maintenance is costly and requires trained personnel and involves inspection, unblocking and repair Extension is both costly and difficultSeparate Sewerage Sewage (by sanitary sewerage) and storm water (by storm water sewerage) are collected and conveyed separately Good for areas of irregular heavy rainfall Capital cost is higher than that of combined sewerage Operational costs are moderate Can provide higher level of hygiene and comfort Facilitates separate management of sewage and storm water, and reuse of storm water Defects in pipes and manholes and illegal connections can result in storm water flow into sanitary sewerageSimplified (Condominal) Sewerage Uses smaller diameter pipes (min. dia. 100mm not 150 mm) Laid at shallower depths (crown cover reduced to 0.4-0.5 m) — Sewers are not beneath the central roads, but within the property boundaries and beneath the sidewalks Laid at flatter gradient than conventional sewerage — slope is determined by tractive tension (not by minimum velocity) Expensive manholes are replaced by simple inspection chambers or flushing points Needs more periodical removal of blockages and flushing — To avoid frequent clogging, scum and heavier solids and garbage are often removed prior to entry into the sewer Capital cost is lower (50-80% lesser than conventional sewerage) and operating costs are lower Easily extendable Suitable if interceptor tanks/ septic tanks/ other on-site pretreatment systems already existSolids Free Sewerage Wastewater is settled for solids removal prior to entry into sewer Pre-settling units (interceptor tanks) require maintenance and frequent emptying — Removed sludge may require proper treatment and disposal Very small sewer diameter - lower gradient (even negative slope), fewer pumps, and pipes at shallower depth — Self cleansing velocity may not be needed — May require fewer inspection points or manholes — but requires more frequent repairs and removal of blockages than conventional systems — may also require annual flushing Capital investment is lower and operating cost is lower Appropriate for areas where soak pits are inappropriate (lack of space, ground water being sensitive) Easily extendable as the community changes and growsDesign of sewers Design involves finding slope and diameter of the sewer — Slope for ensuring self-cleaning velocity for present peak flows — Diameter to run partially full (d/D=0.8!) at the design peak flow Manning’s formula used in the design of sewers Nomographs for the use of manning’s equation are available for the sewer design — These relate discharge (Q) and flow velocity (V) with the sewer diameter (D) and slope for different Manning’s n values when circular sewer is flowing full Hydraulic elements curves developed from Manning’s equation for circular sewers are used for obtaining the following when the sewer is not flowing full for the known flow (q) — velocity (v), depth of flow (d), hydraulic radius (R), flow cross sectional area (a) and even the Manning’s n valuePressurized Sewerage Pumps rather than gravity is used to transport sewage = Electrical power input is must for these systems Sewage is collected into a collection tank and ground prior to allowing into the sewer — May require lesser water for the excreta transportation Relatively smaller diameter pipes built in shallow trenches are used System is independent of the topography All system components require regular servicing Appropriate for rocky and hilly areas and for areas with high ground water tables Cost is comparable to a gravity sewerage or lesserVacuum Sewerage Itis a high tech system and requires well instructed workers for its operation and maintenance — Unsuitable for self-help. Acentral vacuum source is used to convey sewage from individual points of generation to a central collection station Wastewater is carried by gravity first to a collection chamber Once water level in the chamber reaches a set value, a valve will open to create vacuum and suck out the wastewater — Power (constant energy) is required to create the vacuum — Flexible pipelines are used Pumping costs are lower Large amounts of flushing water can be saved May be appropriate for the areas short of water supply and for areas with obstacles for gravity flowOpen channels and drains Have free water surface Less expensive, but land requirements are reasonably high — Locally available materials can be used in the construction May prove a simple solution for storm water drainage Often, in steep terrains, provisions are made to slow down the flow Bear many risks to health and environment = Illegal discharge of wastewater and solid waste is a risk — Can be breeding grounds for pests and insects — Can have spillover and flooding risks, and may require regular cleaning May be used as a secondary drainage systemchannel with a composite section in flat low-lying areas Baffles, steps and check walls to retard flow in steep terrainsgacsge ghhidd gd GbHGGd Gil ay ul peg Looe LY) nti jo sByouiONG |p SER SFIGARSES SS a tek nies mmmeeg (2) puntos aed yas) Dena ul “aMlnaeC (9) oa ap sad suri voural 'aueyeeag (mp Pa 3B Annes Cian ak Foy Par MarmionPeak factor, and present & design peak flows Flow in sewers vary from hour to hour and also seasonally Peak factor is defined as the ratio of maximum hourly flow to average hourly flaw Peak factors depend on population density, topography of the site and hours of water supply Peaking factor is taken as <20000 3.00 20000-50000 2.50 50000-750000 2.25 >750000 2.00 * Peak factor for commercia institutional and industrial areas are taken as 1.8, 4.0 and 2.1 respectively * Minimum flow may be 1/3" to % of average flow * Sewers are designed for the peak flows * Slope of sewers is based on the present peak flow Diameter of the sewer is based on the design peak flow