CHAPTER SIX

6. Unsteady flow

In this chapter, student should be able to: -

➢ Differentiate the difference between steady and unsteady flow
➢ Understand the analysis of unsteady flow and rapidly varied unsteady flow
➢ Develop St. Venant equation

6.1. Introduction

Unsteady open channel flow is a flow at which the depth of flow changes with time under
consideration (i.e.). The flow of water in rivers, canals, reservoirs, lakes, pools, and free surface
flow in stormwater drains, conduits, pipes, galleries, tunnels and culverts, in which the
velocities change with time, is defined as unsteady flow (non-permanent, non-stationary, or time-
variable free-surface water flow). Flow in natural channel is always unsteady.

When the discharge changes slowly with time is unsteady flow and is approximated by steady
flow. Unsteady flow in open channels differs from that in closed conduits in that the existence of
a free surface allows the flow cross section to freely change, a factor which has an important
influence on the rate of transient change propagation. Unsteady open channel flow is encountered
in flood flow in rivers, in headrace canals supplying hydropower stations, in river estuaries, and
so on. Unsteady flow occurs where flow parameters vary with time at fixed point. Examples are
oscillatory sea waves, predicting waver levels in rivers in flood, dam break flood waves, and surges
due to gate operation.

A wave is defined as a temporal variation in the water surface which is propagated through a
fluid medium. The celerity of a wave is the speed of propagation of the disturbance relative to
the fluid.

Activity 6.1

➢ What is unsteady flow?

➢ Differentiate steady and unsteady flow of water in open channel flow?
➢ Define wave? and discuss wave classification?
6.2. Categories of waves

Capillary, elastic and gravity waves are due to surface tension, fluid compression and gravity,
respectively.
A. Oscillatory wave (e.g. sea waves): zero net mass transport

B. Translatory waves (e.g. flood waves): net transport of fluid in direction of wave

Solitary wave is raising limp, single peak followed and preceded by steady flow. Wave train is
created by sequences of several waves. Downstream and upstream wave moves down and up
channel slope, respectively. Increase and decrease in level from steady flow for positive and
negative wave, respectively. Monoclonal is single faced, whereas symmetrical or asymmetrical

is two faced.

Deep water waves ~ only surface layers distributed.

6.3. Basic equations of unsteady flow

As in the case of closed conduits the basic equations are derived from continuity and momentum
considerations. In deriving unsteady flow equations, the following assumptions are made:

1. Hydrostatic pressure prevails at every point in the channel

2. Velocity is uniformly distributed over each cross-section
3. Slope of the channel bed is small and uniform
 4. Frictional resistance is the same as for steady flow
Figure 6.1 defines a control volume and the dimensional parameters used to develop the
continuity equation.

The continuity equation balances mass inflow and mass outflow with the rate of change of the
contained mass within the control volume:
The terms of the momentum equation have the dimension of acceleration or force per unit mass.
The first two terms on the left-hand side are the fluid acceleration terms, represents the
pressure force component, gSf and gSo represent the friction and gravity force components,
respectively. The forms of the continuity and momentum equations, represented in the above
equations respectively, are known as the St.Venant equations; they relate the dependent
variables y and v to the independent space and time variables x and t, respectively.
6.4. Characteristics computation method

For the solution of the corresponding pair of equations for unsteady flow in pipes is applied here.
Multiplying the continuity equation by the factor l and adding to the momentum equation.

This partial differential equation can be converted to a total differential equation provided that;
6.5. Numerical computation method

The foregoing finite difference formulation of the characteristic form of the unsteady flow
equations can be used where there are no abrupt changes in the water surface profile and where
conditions are subcritical. The channel length is divided into N reaches, each of length Δx. The
corresponding value of the time step Δt is set by the so-called Courant condition:

This ensures that the characteristic curves plotted on the x-t plane (Figure 6.2) remain within a
single x-t grid. At time zero the values of y and v are known at each channel node point. Thei
values at internal nodes, at one time interval Δt later, are found by the following equations:

which is typically in the form of a defined variation of either y or Q with time. Solution of
equation and the boundary condition equation yield the required values for vP and yP.
The new values for vP and yP at the downstream end of the channel are found in the same
manner as their corresponding values at the upstream end, the defining equations being the
positive characteristic equation and the prevailing downstream boundary condition equation.
The foregoing analysis relates to conditions of tranquil flow only, that is, where the Froude
number Fr is less than unity. As the flow depth approaches the critical value (Fr = 1), the
numerical computation becomes unstable. At critical depth, v = c and hence the negative
characteristic on the x-t plane becomes vertical, that is, points S and Dare coincident.
The Saint Venant equations can be made more amenable to solution by omitting selected terms
from the momentum equation. It may be written in the form;
Henderson has pointed out that the acceleration terms (3rd and 4th on the right-hand side) are
usually two orders of magnitude less than the gravity (So) and friction (Sf) terms and one or two
orders of magnitude less than the remaining term . This suggests that the solution of the simplified
equation obtained by dropping the acceleration terms may provide a good approximation to the
solution based on the full equations. The resulting simplified momentum equation becomes as
follows;
6.6. Unsteady rapidly varied flow

Rapidly varied unsteady flow gives rise to a surge or wave front, which moves as a step-change
in water depth along the channel. A positive surge is defined as one which leaves an increased
water depth in its wake as the wave front passes, while a negative surge is one which leaves a
shallower depth in its wake as the wave front passes. In the following simplified analysis of surge
front movement, the effect of frictional resistance is neglected.

6.6.1. Upstream positive surge

An upstream positive surge may be created in channel flow, for example, by the rapid closure of
a gate, resulting in a step reduction in flow rate. The effect of this on the upstream side of the
gate is the development of a wave front, which travels upstream, as illustrated on Figure 6.3.
From Figure 6.3, the surge front is seen to leave in its wake an increased depth y2, hence the
description 'positive'. By superimposing a downstream velocity c on the flow system, the flow
regime is converted to an equivalent steady state, in which the wave front is now stationary.
Applying the continuity and momentum principles to the control volume between sections 1 and
2, under the transformed steady state conditions:
If c is assumed equal to zero the resulting relation between y1 and y2 is that for a hydraulic jump.
Thus, the hydraulic jump can be considered to be a stationary surge. It should be noted that the
continuity and momentum equations are not sufficient on their own to define the flow regime
since there are three unknowns, c, y2, v2, Q2. One of these must therefore be known to enable
computation of the remaining two parameters.

6.6.2. Downstream positive surge

A downstream positive surge is caused, for example, by the sudden opening of a gate, which
results in an instantaneous increase in discharge and flow depth downstream of the gate, as
illustrated on Figure 6.4. Applying the same analytical approach as used for the analysis of the
upstream positive surge, the flow regime is transformed to an equivalent steady state by
superimposing a backward velocity of magnitude c on the system.
6.6.3. Upstream negative surge

A negative surge is seen by the observer as a wave front movement which leaves a lowered
water surface level in its wake. An upstream negative surge may be caused, for example,
upstream of a rapidly opened gate, as shown on Figure 6.5. The wave front flattens as it travels
along the channel, due to the top of the wave having a greater velocity than the bottom. It is
necessary, therefore, to calculate two wave speeds, one for the wave crest and the second for the
wave trough.

Consider a small rapid disturbance, giving rise to a small negative surge, moving upstream as
illustrated on Figure 6.5. Applying the continuity and momentum principles as before:
Continuity:
6.6.4. Downstream negative surge

A downstream negative surge is propagated downstream of a rapidly closed gate. It is illustrated

on Figure 6.6.