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■ lor a proper understanding of the history of South India

in general, the important sources that draw our attention are

\

of four categories viz.. Epigraphy, Numismatics, Literature and

Monuments. Epigraphical sources are by far the largest and

most important source than the literary sources which give

meagre information for the reconstruction of history. The

inscriptions in the Peninsular India are numerous and informa­

tive for tracing the sequence of events of a period in the

region. They are also helpful in understanding the society

and culture of the respective periods ahdregions. Their value

is more enhanced than those of literary works as is well known

because of their contemporaenity andcomparatively greater

authenticity.

So far as the history of Cbittoor is concerned, the first

and the foremost and also by far the biggest among the sources

are the epigraphical which are prolific, valuable and authentic.

The present study is, by necessity, mainly based on the

veritable information contained in the numerous stone and copper­

plate inscriptions copied from this district and its adjacent

territory. >

The Epigraphical branch of the Archaeological Survey of

i

15
India have first copied the inscriptions of Chandragiri and
Kalahasti taluks in 1889 and 1892 respectively and this branch
continued its survey following this, in the years between
1903-06, 1907, 1911 and 1913. Finally they have been reported
with remartrs in the Annual Reports on South Indian Epigraphy.
They have'also been listed in the Appendices later in the
Annual Reports Of 1922, 1928, 1931-32 and 1933-34. Thus the
survey yielded large number of inscriptions numbering about
1750, which supply a fund of information for the reconstruction
of history* Since 1945-46 the Annual Reports on South Indian
Epigraphy have been replaced by Annual Reports on Indian Epi­
graphy and they contain many inscriptions copied in this region
in the later years. The field worts: undertaken by the author has
helped to examine a few known inscriptions and some new ones
in situ. Some of them are pointed out below.

The Epigraphical branch of Andhra Pradesh government has

i

also done considerable woik in this field. They have copied

about fifty inscriptions relating to our study. They are
listed in'the Annual Reports of 1965 and 1966.

About 12 Telugu, Tamil and Kannada inscriptions have

been edited in EPieraPhla Indies. andXMias, JLoiiqmEy Volumfs.
\ The six volumes published by Tirumala-Tirupati Devasthanams
and editedby Sadhu Subrahmanya Sastry contain about 1167
inscriptions copied from the temples of Tirumala, Tirupati and
TiruehehaQur enable us to give a fairly detailedaceount of the
 \

16

activities of the various kings and local ruling families

and the different institutions prevailed in these places and
the areas around them. Many more important epigraphs of the
present Chittoor district, which will supply new information
and a connected account of the events in the different reign
periods, remain unpublished. The study of some of the un­
published texts in the Bpigrapbical branch by me in connection
with this study has really yielded good results and it has
been possible -to bring much new information to light on the
political, social and cultural history of the region. Simi­
larly the unpublished inscriptions from the adjacent places
of Chittoor district have also yielded good results fOr the
above dtudy. All these epigraphs have been utilized in full
in the present study. Some of the more important Inscriptions
which materially help us in reconstructing the history of
Chittoor region are recounted here.

Texts of some of the inscriptions copied by the Epigra-

phical branch of the Archaeological Survey of India are published
t

in their series of South Indian Inscriptions Volumes (Volumes

IV, VIII, IX, part I and part II, X, XII, XVI and XVII). Of
these volumes, Volume IV edited by H. Krishna Sastri covering
places of TIrumala, TIrupatl and Kalahasti in Chandragiri and
Kalahasti taluks contain texts of Tamil, Telugu and Kannada
inscriptions, while Volume VIII edited by K.V. Subramania Ayyar
 17

has Tamil and Telugu inscriptions from Kalahasti, Gugimallam

and Tirnpati. While Volume IX, part I edited by N. Lakshmi-
narayan Rao and R. Shama Sastry of the same series contain
texts of some Kannada inscriptions of the early period from
Punganur and Madanapalle taluks, Volume IX, part II edited
by them deal with Kannada texts of the Vijayanagara period.
Telugu. inscriptions of the Cholas of Renanjiu and Vaidumbas
copied from Madanapalle taluk prior to 1922 have been pub­
lished in Volume X edited by JV Ramayya Pantulu and revised by
N. Lakshminarayana Rao. Some of the Pallava records in
Tamil are In Volume XII edited by V. Venkatasubba Ayyar.
H.K. Narasimhaswami with the assistance of late K.H.V. Sarma,
B.R. Gopal, V.S. Subrahmanyam and S.S. Ramachandramurthy edited
21 Telugu inscriptions of the Vijayanagara kings collected
between the years 1904 and 1928 in the taluks of Chandragiri,
Madanapalle, Palmaner, Punganur and Pattur in Volume XVI.
Volume XVII edited by K.G. Krishnan with the assistance of
K.D. Swaminathan, J. Sundaram and V.S. Subrahmanyam contains
71 Tamil inscriptions of Puttur, Kalahasti, Madanapalle, Chit-
toor and Chandragiri taluks copied during the years 1903-04.

graphical gg.vs&<?.a N

The examination of the following inscriptions had

yielded results substantially adding more information on
the history of this regions
 18

The Machinayakanapalle record from Dharmapuri district

reveals the fact that the earliest Vaidumba ruler was Ramarija-
arasan under the Western Ganga king §ivamara II. Of the two

records from Indukurupalle and Bguvabandapalle mention this

Rama-maharaja as belonging to the Vaidumba family. The later
epigraph ascribes to him the title Ganflatrinetra. hitherto
unknown. i

The Pullagan$ivaripalle epigraph is another important

inscription found in Madanapalle taluk. It reveals the name
Kaligatrinetra Sri Sivamara, who was the son and successor of
Rama-mahari^a. J. Ramayya Pantulu and others read the name as

idshajaalkala. Siaipaii. /But the correct reading obtained on an

examination of the impressions of the record is §ri Chivamaru-

[1-elan] and this is confiitned by the variant reading of the

text in Vandafli inscription. This seems to indicate that Rama-
maharaja named his son after his master and hence described
as Kaligatrinetra §ri Sivaraara. -The Vandadi record helps us

to fix the last date of this king. This inscription speaks of

his death in a battle at JFbdanruru in Retaandu territory.

The Dharmapuri inscription of a Bana king Mahavall

Vanaraya refers to the death of this king at the hands of a
Nolamba, who played a treachery against the foamier and captured
Dharmapuri. It would show that hfts queen soon after the death
of this Bana king gave birth to a child and finally one of the
heroes of Bana side proceeded against the No^amba defeated and
regained the territory back. But it was rot known who this
prince was. It is possible to identify him with the Bana
Vikramaditya of the Tiruvallam epigraph of Pallava Nandi-
varman II dated 863 A.D. The genuiness of the Mugiyanur plates
dated §aka 261 which refers to Vadhuvallabha Malladeva was
questioned by scholars. But this has been re-examined and it
has been taken as authentic on the basis of palaeography and
contents though the details of date given in the record are
irregular. In the light of Dharmapuri record referring to
his death by c. 846 A.D. it is difficult to suggest a correction
for the date as Saka 800, even If all other details of date '
are taken as correct. This seems to indicate that Malladeva*s
/

reign period is very short.

The Pxoddatur epigraph is another important inscription

found in the former Chittoor district. It reveals the title
Kulantanelva Perumanar borne by Malladeva, for he produced
a worthy son who could continue the Bana family.

The Kapalle inscription of Kannaradeva helps us to trace

the genealogy of the Bana kings and the family of engravers who
served the Banas.

A record of Tirukka].attideva found at Kalahasti Is dated

in his 11th year, the other details being Valkasi, 2[3], ba. 2,
Mula, Monday corresponding to 117? A.D., May 16. In this record
 20

he is mentioned as Narasingan Tirukkalattidevan alias

Rajadarija (Rajidhiraja) Yadavariyag. This inscription is
useful for fixing the genealogy and chronology of this king and
his father Narasingadeva I.

A 9lose study of the records from Devara-vemuru and

Nigigallu has enabled me to solve the problem of the identi­
ties of Allun-Tikka alias Gan$agopala and Vijayaganflagopala.
The former dated §aka 1169 (1247-48 A.D.) describes Yijaya-
dityadeva-cbogamaharaja as the younger brother of Alutiru-
ka^adeva-cbojlamaharaja. The latter record refers to the
roga-santi performed by Tikkaya-maraya, the son of Allun-
Tikka for the recovery of the latter from ill-health. This
is obviously connected, as shown by me, with the joint rule
r

of Allun-Tikka and his brother Vijayaditya otherwise called

Yijaya’gan^agopala commencing in 1250-51 A.D. The death of
Allun-Tikka m the hands of Sundarapan^ya is also discussed
on the basis of a fresh analysis of the latter's nrasasti.

The Kilahasti inscription of Achyutaraya is very

important in as much as it enables us to fix the correct date
of his coronation. This record in Telugu language 'and charac­
ters is dated §aka 1454 (= 1532 A.D.) The record states that
the king had his coronation in the presence of god Kalahastis-
vara on the 5th day in 'the dark fortnight in the month of
Karttika in the year1 Virodhi. This date may correspond to
 2t

November 20, 1529 A.D. The two Tamil records from Kanchlpuram
that mention his campaign after his coronation in Virodhi,
Vrgchika, ba 5 and Virodhi, Karttika ba 5 do not specify the
place of his coronation. Scholars have considered these
dates as different, while really they all refer to the same
'date. The lunar name and solar name of the same month have
been used. This indicates that there was only one coronation.
The reference in Achvutaravibhvudavan about his coronation
at Tlrupati is proved to be a reference to his visit to
Tirupati to offer arekanai with his own hands as recorded
in his inscription there dated in §aka 1454 (= 1533 A.D.).
i

We receive confirmation from the account of Nuniz that he was

away from his capital when his predecessor KyishipSadevaraya died.
Moreover the inscriptions belonging to the reign-period of
Achyuta from Eilahasti referring to his coronation at this
place for away from the capital show that there was some
confusion at the capital for obvious reasons which necessitated
him to have his coronation at Ealahasti on 20th November
1529 A.D.

Literary Sources

Literature has been examined to the extent to which it

throws light on a few important problems of political and
religious history. Early Tamil literature of the Sangam period
 22

such as IsliiPPlyaffi, Ahananpyu. furananuru ana SllaPnaailtaram

help us to fix the importance of Vengaflam i.g,., Tirupati as
the northern boundary of t he Tamil country in the early times
and also gives an account of the spread of linguistic regions
and also of Pulli the chieftain living on the border. The
references to this chief in the Tamil literature point to the
Chittoor district as the early home of the Kalabhras. The
few references in the Sangam Tamil literature to the use of a
, different language associated with the Vaguear point to the
linguistic frontiers and in the course of history traced here,
we find the attenuation of these borders on account ofthe
migratory movements of people from the north.
i
This has con-
verted this district into an area where the three languages
viz.. Tamil, Telugu and Kannada meet. CThe reference to
Tirupati and Ka^ahasti in the early Vhisbnavite (.Dlwanrabandham
and Saivite Tamil (Tevaram') literature give us a vivid picture
i

of the preponderance of religious activities in those two

places.*) The great Saivite bagiology in poetry Tlruttondar-
i

puranam called also Perivapuranam of the 12th century gives

the life history of a hunter chief called Kannappar, who belongs
to Pottappi, and who in the course of his hunting expedition
came upon the Sivalinga at Ka].ahasti and started offering
worship accepted by the godJ? This worship is referred to in a
Sanskrit inscription in Grantha characters on the right of
entrance into the gppura of the same temple in characters of
about the 13th century. ,
 23
Coming to the later times, we get a number of Sanskrit
l

and Telugu works, so'me of which throw some light on the life
and times of Saluva ITaraslmha Cgaluvabhvudavam). of Achyutaraya
(Achvutaravabhyudayam) etc. A few passages from the Saluva-
bhvudavam and Achvutaravibhvudavam have been re-examined,
especially the latter has enabled us to evaluate the evidence
regarding the coronation of Achyutarlya more precisely.

A field study undertaken by the author in the year 1973,

January-Februaiy has led to a thorough consideration of the
surviving monuments, their architecture, iconography portrait
sculptures, bronzes, paintings and hero-stones. In some cases
it has been possible to fix the dates of the items mentioned
above. Detailed description has been attempted in respecu of
the temples from the point of view of their architecture? of the
icons in respect of their basic characteristics leading to
their identifications? of the paintings in respect of their
identifications and the techniques; and of the portrait-
sculptures and hero-stones in respect of their representation of
the dignataries, saintly persons and the common man. About six
hundred photographs of these object were taken in the course
of the field work. 51 photographs were selected for presentation.

A. A critical analysis from the point of view of chronology

and their artistic quality has been attempted. The beraples
 24

studied for this purpose have been classified into six types
on the basis of the architecture of the central shrine.
Some temples not studied so far have been described and
classified. They are:

1 Irugisvara temple at Yatavakili

2 Yaradarajaperumil temple at Yavilito|:a
3 Agastyesvara temple at Yavilltota
4 Nilakanthesvara temple at Kalahasti
5 Manikan£hesvara temple at Kapipikkam
6 Kasivisvesvara temple at Kalahasti

B. A comparative study of the images of Chapgesvara,

Subrahmapya, noticed in some of the temples has been attempted.
A comparison of the images of Chappesvara has led to a correct
placement of the images chronologically based on their
characteristic features. The identification of Subrahmapya
on the vimana of the temples at YStavakili, La$$igam and
?avilito$a and in the gateway at La$pigam has been postulated
on the basis of the agamic texts. A reappraisal of the
features of the Linga at Gugimallam has also been made on the
basis of agamic texts.