Boiling and

Condensation
 Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Differentiate between evaporation and boiling, and gain
familiarity with different types of boiling,
• Develop a good understanding of the boiling curve, and the
different boiling regimes corresponding to different regions of
the boiling curve,
• Calculate the heat flux and its critical value associated with
nucleate boiling, and examine the methods of boiling heat
transfer enhancement,
• Derive a relation for the heat transfer coefficient in laminar
film condensation over a vertical plate,
• Calculate the heat flux associated with condensation on
inclined and horizontal plates, vertical and horizontal cylinders
or spheres, and tube bundles,
• Examine dropwise condensation and understand the
uncertainties associated with them.
 Boiling Heat Transfer
• Evaporation occurs at • Boiling occurs at the
the liquid–vapor solid–liquid interface
interface when the when a liquid is brought
vapor pressure is less into contact with a
than the saturation surface maintained at a
pressure of temperature sufficiently
the liquid above the saturation
at a given temperature of the
liquid
temperature.
 Classification of boiling
Pool Boiling Flow Boiling
• Boiling is called pool • Boiling is called flow
boiling in the absence boiling in the presence
of bulk fluid flow. of bulk fluid flow.
• Any motion of the fluid • In flow boiling, the fluid
is due to natural is forced to move in a
convection currents and heated pipe
the motion of the
bubbles or over a
under the surface by
influence external
of buoyancy. means such
as a pump.
 Classification of boiling

Subcooled Boiling Saturated Boiling

• When the temperature • When the temperature
of the main body of the of the liquid is equal to
liquid is below the the saturation
saturation temperature. temperature.
 Pool Boiling
Boiling takes different forms, depending on the DTexcess=Ts-Tsat
 Natural Convection (to Point A on the
Boiling Curve)
• Bubbles do not form on the heating surface until the
liquid is heated a few degrees above the saturation
temperature (about 2 to 6°C for water)
the liquid is slightly superheated in this
case (metastable state).
• The fluid motion in this mode of boiling is governed
by natural convection currents.
• Heat transfer from the heating surface to the fluid is
by natural convection.
 Nucleate Boiling
• The bubbles form at an increasing rate at an
increasing number of nucleation sites as we
move along the boiling curve toward point C.
• Region A–B ─isolated bubbles.
• Region B–C ─ numerous continuous columns
of vapor in the liquid.
 Nucleate Boiling
• In region A–B the stirring and agitation caused by the
entrainment of the liquid to the heater surface is
primarily responsible for the increased heat transfer
coefficient.
• In region A–B the large heat fluxes obtainable in this
region are caused by the combined effect of liquid
entrainment and evaporation.
• After point B the heat flux increases at a lower rate
with increasing DTexcess, and reaches a maximum at
point C.
• The heat flux at this point is called the critical (or
maximum) heat flux, and is of prime engineering
importance.
 Transition Boiling
• When DTexcess is increased past point C, the heat flux
decreases.
• This is because a large fraction of the heater surface is
covered by a vapor film, which acts as an insulation.
• In the transition boiling regime, both nucleate and film
boiling partially occur.
 Film Boiling
• Beyond Point D the heater surface is completely covered
by a continuous stable vapor film.
• Point D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum is called
the Leidenfrost point.
• The presence of a vapor film between the heater surface
and the liquid is responsible for the low heat transfer
rates in the film boiling region.
• The heat transfer rate increases with increasing excess
temperature due to radiation to the liquid.
 Burnout Phenomenon
• A typical boiling process does not follow the boiling
curve beyond point C. C E
• When the power applied to the
heated surface exceeded the
value at point C even slightly,
the surface temperature
increased suddenly to point E. D
• When the power is reduced
gradually starting from point E
the cooling curve follows Fig. 10–8 with a sudden
drop in excess temperature when point D is reached.
 Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool
Boiling
• Boiling regimes differ considerably in their
character
different heat transfer relations need
to be used for different boiling regimes.
• In the natural convection boiling regime heat
transfer rates can be accurately determined using
natural convection relations.
 Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool
Boiling ─ Nucleate Boiling
• No general theoretical relations for heat transfer in
the nucleate boiling regime is available.
• Experimental based correlations are used.
• The rate of heat transfer strongly depends on the
nature of nucleation and the type and the condition of
the heated surface.
• A widely used correlation proposed in 1952 by
Rohsenow:
( ) ⎤⎥
1/2 3
⎡g ρ −ρ ⎛ c p,l ΔTe ⎞
qs = µl hfg
"
⎢ l v
⎜ n⎟
⎢⎣ σ ⎥⎦ ⎝ C s , f hfg Prl ⎠
 Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool
Boiling ─ Nucleate Boiling
• The values in Rohsenow equation can be used for any
geometry since it is found that the rate of heat transfer
during nucleate boiling is essentially independent of
the geometry and orientation of the heated surface.
• The correlation is applicable to clean and relatively
smooth surfaces.
• Error for the heat transfer rate for a given excess
temperature: 100%.
• Error for the excess temperature for a given heat
transfer rate for the heat transfer rate and by 30%.
 Critical Heat Flux (CHF)
• The maximum (or critical) heat flux in nucleate pool boiling was
determined theoretically by S. S. Kutateladze in Russia in 1948
and N. Zuber in the United States in 1958 to be:
⎡σ g ( ρl − ρv ) ⎤
1
4
"
qmax = Ch fg ρ v ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ρv2
⎥⎦
C is a constant whose value depends on the heater geometry, but
generally is about 0.15.
• The CHF is independent of the fluid–heating surface
combination, as well as the viscosity, thermal conductivity, and
the specific heat of the liquid.
• The CHF increases with pressure up to about one-third of the
critical pressure, and then starts to decrease and becomes zero at
the critical pressure.
• The CHF is proportional to hfg, and large maximum heat fluxes
can be obtained using fluids with a large enthalpy of vaporization,
such as water.
 Minimum Heat Flux
• Minimum heat flux, which occurs at the Leidenfrost
point, is of practical interest since it represents the
lower limit for the heat flux in the film boiling
regime.
• Zuber derived the following expression for the
minimum heat flux for a large horizontal plate
1
⎡σ g ( ρ − ρ ) ⎤ 4
"
qmin = 0.09 ρ v h fg ⎢ l v ⎥

⎢ ( ρ + ρ )2 ⎥
⎣ l v ⎦
• the relation above can be in error by
50% or more.
 Film Boiling
• The Nusselt number for film boiling on a
horizontal cylinder or sphere of diameter D is given by

⎡ g ( ρl − ρv ) h D
1/4
hconv D
' 3
⎤ C = 0.62 (cylinder)
NuD = =C⎢ fg
⎥ ,
kv ⎢⎣ vv kv (Ts − Tsat ) ⎥⎦ C = 0.67 (sphere)

• At high surface temperatures (typically above 300°C), heat

transfer across the vapor film by radiation becomes significant
and needs to be considered.
• The two mechanisms of heat transfer (radiation and
convection) adversely affect each other, causing the total heat
transfer to be less than their sum.

h 4/3
=h 4/3
+ hrad h ,
1/3
hrad =
(
εσ Ts4 − Tsat4 )
conv
Ts − Tsat
Enhancement of Heat Transfer in Pool Boiling
• The rate of heat transfer in the nucleate boiling regime
strongly depends on the number of active nucleation sites on
the surface, and the rate of bubble formation at each site.
• Therefore, modification that enhances nucleation on the
heating surface will also enhance heat transfer in nucleate
boiling.
• Irregularities on the heating surface, including roughness and
dirt, serve as additional nucleation
sites during boiling.
• The effect of surface roughness is
observed to decay with time.
Enhancement of Heat Transfer in Pool Boiling
• Surfaces that provide enhanced heat transfer in
nucleate boiling permanently are being manufactured
and are available in the market.
• Heat transfer can be enhanced by a factor of up to 10
during nucleate boiling, and the
critical heat flux by a factor of 3.

Thermoexcel-E
 External Forced Convection Boiling
(Flow Boiling)
• In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move by an
external source such as a pump as it undergoes a
phase-change process.
• The boiling in this case exhibits the combined effects
of convection and pool boiling.
• Flow boiling is classified as either
external and internal flow boiling.
• External flow ─ the higher the
velocity, the higher the nucleate
boiling heat flux and the critical
heat flux.
 Flow Boiling ─ Internal Flow
• The two-phase flow in a
tube exhibits different flow
boiling regimes, depending
on the relative amounts of
the liquid and the vapor
phases.
• Typical flow regimes:
Axial position in the tube

– Liquid single-phase flow,

– Bubbly flow,
– Slug flow,
– Annular flow,
– Mist flow,
– Vapor single-phase flow.
 Flow Boiling ─ Internal Flow
• Liquid single-phase flow
– In the inlet region the liquid is subcooled and heat transfer to the liquid is
by forced convection (assuming no subcooled boiling).
• Bubbly flow
– Individual bubbles
– Low mass qualities
• Slug flow
– Bubbles coalesce into slugs of vapor.
– Moderate mass qualities
• Annular flow
– Core of the flow consists of vapor only, and liquid adjacent to the walls.
– Very high heat transfer coefficients
• Mist flow
– a sharp decrease in the heat transfer coefficient
• Vapor single-phase flow
– The liquid phase is completely evaporated and vapor is superheated.
 Condensation
• Condensation occurs when the temperature of
a vapor is reduced below its saturation
temperature.
• Only condensation on solid surfaces is
considered in this chapter.
• Two forms of condensation:
– Film condensation,
– Dropwise condensation.
 Condensation: Physical Mechanisms
Film condensation Dropwise condensation
• The condensate wets the • The condensed vapor forms
surface and forms a liquid droplets on the surface.
film. • The droplets slide down
• The surface is blanketed by when they reach a certain
a liquid film which serves size.
as a resistance to heat • No liquid film to resist heat
transfer. transfer.
• As a result, heat
transfer rates that
are more than 10
times larger than with
film condensation
can be achieved.
 Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate
• liquid film starts forming at the top
of the plate and flows downward
under the influence of gravity.
• d increases in the flow direction x
• Heat in the amount hfg is released
during condensation and is
transferred through the film to the
plate surface.
• Ts must be below the saturation
temperature for condensation.
• The temperature of the condensate
is Tsat at the interface and decreases
gradually to Ts at the wall.
 Vertical Plate ─ Flow Regimes
• The dimensionless parameter
controlling the transition between
regimes is the Reynolds number
defined as:
! ( )
hydraulic diameter Dh

Re x =
( 4δ ) ρlum
µl

• Three prime flow regimes:

– Re<30 ─ Laminar (wave-free),
– 30<Re<1800 ─ Wavy-laminar,
– Re>1800 ─ Turbulent.
• The Reynolds number increases in the
flow direction.
 Heat Transfer Correlations for Film
Condensation ─ Vertical wall
Assumptions:
1. Both the plate and the vapor are
maintained at constant temperatures of Ts
and Tsat, respectively, and the temperature
across the liquid film varies linearly.
2. Heat transfer across the liquid film is by
pure conduction.
3. The velocity of the vapor is low (or zero)
so that it exerts no drag on the condensate
(no viscous shear on the liquid–vapor
interface).
4. The flow of the condensate is laminar
(Re<30) and the properties of the liquid
are constant.
5. The acceleration of the condensate layer is Height L and width b
negligible.
 Hydrodynamics
• Netwon’s second law of motion
Weight=Viscous shear force +Buoyancy force
or du
ρl g (δ − y )(bdx ) = µl (bdx ) + ρv g (δ − y )(bdx )
dy
• Canceling the plate width b and solving for du/dy
du g ( ρl − ρv )(δ − y )
=
dy µl

• Integrating from y=0 (u =0) to y (u =u(y))

g ( ρ l − ρ v )δ 2 ⎛ y 1 ⎛ y ⎞ ⎞
2

u( y) = ⎜ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ (10-18)
µl ⎝δ 2⎝δ ⎠ ⎠
• The mass flow rate of the condensate at a location
x is determined from
δ (x)
!
m(x) = ∫ ρ l u( y) dA = b ∫ ρ l u( y) dy = Γ(x) (10-19)
A y=0

Substituting u(y) from Eq. 10–18, we get

g ρ l ( ρ l − ρ v )δ 3
Γ(x) = (10-20)
3µl

whose derivative with respect to x is

dΓ g ρ l ( ρ l − ρ v )δ dδ
2

= (10-25)
dx µl dx
 Thermal Considerations
• The rate of heat transfer from the vapor to the plate
through the liquid film

Tsat − Ts
dq = h fg dm! = kl ( bdx )
δ
1 dm! dΓ kl Tsat − Ts (10-24)
→ = =
b dx dx h fg δ
• Equating Eqs. 10–24 and 10–25 and separating
the variables give
µl kl (Tsat − Ts )
δ dδ =
3
dx
g ρl ( ρl − ρv ) h fg

• Integrating from x =0 (d = 0) to x (d = d(x)), the

liquid film thickness at x is determined to be
⎡ 4 µl kl (Tsat − Ts ) x ⎤
14

δ (x) = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ g ρ l ( ρ l − ρ v ) h fg ⎥⎦
(10-26)

• Rohsenow recommended using the modified

latent heat
• Rohsenow recommended using the modified
latent heat
h'fg = h fg + 0.68c p,l (Tsat − Ts ) = h fg (1+ 0.68Ja)

Where the Jacob number is defined as

c p (Ts − Tsat )
Ja =
h fg
• Thus

⎡ 4 µl kl (Tsat − Ts ) x ⎤
14

δ (x) = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ g ρ l ( ρ l − ρ v ) h fg ⎥⎦
' (10-26)
• Since the heat transfer across the liquid film is assumed to be by
pure conduction, the heat transfer coefficient can be expressed
through Newton’s law of cooling and Fourier law as
Tsat − Ts kl
q!x = hx (Tsat − Ts ) = kl → hx = (10-29)
δ δ
• Substituting d (x) from Eq. 10–26, the local heat transfer coefficient
is determined to be
⎡ gρl ( ρl − ρv ) h k
14
' 3
⎤
hx = ⎢ fg l
⎥
⎢⎣ 4 µl (Tsat − Ts ) x
(10-30)
⎥⎦
• The average heat transfer coefficient over the entire plate is

⎡ gρl ( ρl − ρv ) h k
14
1 L 4
' 3
⎤
hL = ∫ hx dx = hx= L = 0.943 ⎢ fg l
⎥
⎢⎣ µl (Tsat − Ts ) L
(10-32)
L 0 3 ⎥⎦
• The Nusselt number:
⎡ gρl ( ρl − ρv ) h L
14
hL L
' 3
⎤
NuL = = 0.943 ⎢ fg
⎥
⎢⎣ µl kl (Tsat − Ts )
kl (10-32)
⎥⎦

• The liquid properties are evaluated at the film

temperature Tf = (Tsat + Ts)/2.
• The vapor density and latent heat of
vaporization hfg are evaluated at Tsat.
 Turbulent Flow on Vertical Plates
• Define the Reynolds number
4Γ 4 m! 4 ρ l umδ
Reδ ≡ = = (10-36)
µl bµl µl
• Flow regimes are:

– Laminar wave-free flow: Reδ ≤ 30

– Laminar wavy flow: 30 < Reδ ≤ 1800

– Turbulent flow: Reδ > 1800

 Turbulent Flow on Vertical Plates
• Laminar waver-free regime:
hL (ν l2 / g)1/3
NuL = = 1.46 Reδ−1/3 , Reδ ≤ 30 (10-38)
kl
• Laminar wavy regime:
hL (ν l2 / g)1/3 Reδ
NuL = = , 30 < Reδ ≤ 1800 (10-39)
kl 1.08Reδ − 5.2
1.22

• Turbulent regime:
hL (ν l2 / g)1/3 Reδ
NuL = = −0.5
, (10-39)
kl 8750 + 58Prl (Reδ − 253)
0.75

Reδ > 1800 and Prl ≥ 1

 Nondimensionalized Heat Transfer
Coefficients

Eq. 10.38

( )
1/3 Eq. 10.39
hL ν / g
2
l

kl

Eq. 10.40

Reδ
Figure 10.13: Modified Nusselt number for condensation
on a vertical plate.
 Dropwise Condensation
• One of the most effective mechanisms of heat
transfer, and extremely large heat transfer coefficients
can be achieved.
• Small droplets grow as a result of continued
condensation, coalesce into large droplets, and slide
down when they reach a certain size.
• Large heat transfer
coefficients enable designers
to achieve a specified heat
transfer rate with a smaller
surface area.
 Dropwise Condensation
• The challenge in dropwise condensation is not to
achieve it, but rather, to sustain it for prolonged
periods of time.
• Dropwise condensation has been studied
experimentally for a number of surface–fluid
combinations.
• Griffith (1983) recommends these simple
correlations for dropwise condensation of steam on
copper surfaces:
⎧⎪51,104 + 2044Tsat 22 0C < Tsat < 100 0C
hdropwise = ⎨
⎪⎩255,310 Tsat > 100 0C
 Wavy Laminar Flow on Vertical
Plates
• The waves at the liquid–vapor interface tend to
increase heat transfer.
• Knowledge is based on experimental studies.
• The increase in heat transfer due to the wave effect is,
on average, about 20 percent, but it can exceed 50
percent.
• Based on his experimental studies, Kutateladze (1963)
recommended the following relation
1/ 3
Re kl ⎛ g ⎞
havg ,wavy = ⎜ ⎟ ; ρ v = ρl
1.08Re1.22 − 5.2 ⎝ ν l2 ⎠
Film Condensation: Radial Systems

Film Condensation on Radial Systems

• A single smooth tube or smooth sphere:

( )
1/4
hD D ⎡ ρ g ρ − ρ h' D3 ⎤
(10.46)
NuD = =C⎢ l l v fg
⎥
kl ( )
⎢⎣ µl kl Tsat −Ts ⎥⎦

Tube: C = 0.729 Sphere: C = 0.826

Film Condensation: Radial Systems (cont.)

• A single finned or ribbed tube :

• Small fins or ribs lead to curvature of the liquid surface, inducing circulation
in the liquid driven by surface tension, enhancing heat transfer rates.
The minimum enhancement associated with the finned tube (ft) relative to
the unfinned tubed (uft) is given by Eq. 48-49
1/ 4
q tr ⎡ r σ r1 ⎤
ε ft ,min = ft ,min = 2 ⎢ 1 + 1.02
quft Sr1 ⎣ r2 ( ρl − ρυ ) gt 3 ⎥⎦

2 < ε ft < 4
% %
 Review Questions on Boiling and Condensation

1. What is boiling? What mechanisms are responsible for the very high heat transfer coefficients in nucleate boiling?

2. What is the difference between evaporation and boiling?

3. What is the difference between pool boiling and flow boiling?

4. What is the difference between subcooled and saturated boiling?

5. Draw the boiling curve and identify the different boiling regimes. Also, explain the characteristics of each regime.

6. How does film boiling differ from nucleate boiling? Is the boiling heat flux necessarily higher in the stable film boiling regime
than it is in the nucleate boiling regime?

7. Draw the boiling curve and identify the burnout point on the curve. Explain how burnout is caused. Why is the burnout point
avoided in the design of boilers?

8. Discuss some methods of enhancing pool boiling heat transfer permanently.

9. Name the different boiling regimes in the order they occur in a vertical tube during flow boiling.

10. What is condensation? How does it occur?

11. What is the difference between film and dropwise condensation? Which is a more effective mechanism of heat transfer?