Final Disaster Notes

DISASTER BACKGROUND:
Disasters are as old as human history but the dramatic increase and the damage caused by them in
the recent past have become a cause of national and international concern. Over the past decade,
the number of natural and man‐made disasters has climbed inexorably. From 1994 to 1998, reported
disasters average was 428 per year but from 1999 to 2003, this figure went up to an average of 707
disaster events per year showing an increase of about 60 per cent over the previous years. The
biggest rise was in countries of low human development, which suffered an increase of 142 per cent.
Disasters are not new to mankind. They have been the constant, though inconvenient, companions of
the human beings since time immemorial. Disasters can be natural or human‐made.
Earthquake, cyclone, hailstorm, cloud‐burst, landslide, soil erosion, snow avalanche, flood etc. are the
examples of natural disasters while fire, epidemics, road, air, rail accidents and leakages of chemicals/
nuclear installations etc. fall under the category of human‐made disasters.
WHAT IS A DISASTER?
 A disaster can be defined as “A serious disruption in the functioning of the community or a

society causing wide spread material, economic, social or environmental losses which exceed the
ability of the affected society to cope using its own resources”.
 The Disaster Management Act, 2005 defines disaster as “a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave
occurrence in any area, arising from natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence
which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of,
property or damage to, or degradation of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as
to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area”.
 The United Nations defines disaster as “the occurrence of sudden or major misfortune which
disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of the society or community”.
 For a disaster to be entered into the database at least one of the following criteria must be fulfilled:
 Ten (10) or more people reported killed
 Hundred (100) or more people reported affected
 Declaration of a state of emergency
 Call for international assistance
A disaster is a result from the combination of hazard, vulnerability and insufficient capacity or
measures to reduce the potential chances of risk. A disaster happens when a hazard impacts on the
vulnerable population and causes damage, casualties and disruption.
For a better illustration of disaster is any hazard – flood, earthquake or cyclone which is a triggering
event along with greater vulnerability (inadequate access to resources, sick and old people, lack of
awareness etc) would lead to disaster causing greater loss to life and property
For example: an earthquake in an uninhabited desert cannot be considered a disaster, no matter how
strong the intensities produced.
An earthquake is disastrous only when it affects people, their properties and activities. Thus, disaster
occurs only when hazards and vulnerability meet. But it is also to be noted that with greater capacity
of the individual/community and environment to face these disasters, the impact of a hazard
reduces. Therefore, we need to understand the three major components namely hazard, vulnerability
and capacity with suitable examples to have a basic understanding of disaster management.
Disaster is an event or series of events, which gives rise to casualties and damage or loss of
properties, infrastructures, environment, essential services or means of livelihood on such a scale
which is beyond the normal capacity of the affected community to cope with. Disaster is also
sometimes described as a “catastrophic situation in which the normal pattern of life or eco‐system
has been disrupted and extra‐ordinary emergency interventions are required to save and preserve
lives and or the environment”.
DISASTERS – GLOBAL SCENARIO
Disasters ‐ natural or human‐made are common throughout the world. Disasters continue to occur
without warning and are perceived to be on an increase in their magnitude, complexity, frequency
and economic impact. Hazards pose threats to people and assume serious proportions in the under
developed countries with dense population. During the second half of the 20th century, more than
200 worst natural disasters occurred in the different parts of the world and claimed lives of around
1.4 million people. Losses due to natural disasters are 20 times greater (as % of GDP) in the
developing countries than in industrialized one. Asia tops the list of casualties due to natural
disasters. Figure shows the Regional distribution of disasters by type, as prepared by Centre for
Research on Epidemiology of Disaster.
There have been when the Typhus epidemic was reported in Athens. Ten
several natural, as deadliest natural disasters recorded in the world are dated back
well as, man‐made to 1556 when an earthquake in Shaanxi province of China
disasters. Records occurred on 23rd January, 1556 and 8,30,000 casualties were
of natural disasters recorded. List of ten deadliest disasters which have occurred
can be traced way across the world and in India in the known history and in the
back to 430 B.C. last century may be seen from the respectively.
Project Disaster: This is any implementation process within the project phases that is considered to
have not actualized as planned and led to derailment of the project and its acceptance
Disaster Management: The body of policy and administrative decisions and operational activities which
pertain to the various stages of a disaster at all levels.
Risk: The expected losses (lives lost, persons injured, damage to property and disruption of economic
activity) due to a particular hazard. Risk is the product of hazard and vulnerability.
Vulnerability: Degree of loss (for example, from 0 percent to 100 percent) resulting from a potentially
damaging phenomenon. The following terms are key to understanding slow onset disasters and their
impact on populations.
Disaster Population: Usually associated with crisis-induced mass migration in which large numbers of
people are forced to leave their homes to seek alternative means of survival. Such mass movements
normally result from the effects of conflict, severe food shortages or collapse of economic support
systems.
Disaster risk: The potential disaster losses, in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services, which
could occur to a particular community or a society over some specified future time period. Disaster risk
management: The systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations, and operational
skills and capacities to implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen
the adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster.
Disaster risk reduction: The concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts,
to analyse and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards,
lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and the environment, and
improved preparedness for adverse events.
Early warning system: The set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate timely and meaningful
warning information to enable individuals, communities and organizations threatened by a hazard to
prepare and to act appropriately and in sufficient time to reduce the possibility of harm or loss.
Emergency management: The organization and management of resources and responsibilities for
addressing all aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and initial recovery steps.
Emergency services: The set of specialized agencies that have specific responsibilities and objectives in
serving and protecting people and property in emergency situations.
Characteristics of Disasters
In order to be able to identify that a situation is a disaster, the following characteristics must be eminent
and must seem to resonate with the events leading to the situation:
 It is an extra-ordinary event
 Usually occurs because of one of the danger sources, whether caused by nature or human
action.
 Seriously and substantially impact the most vulnerable groups
 Results in serious imbalance in the community functions
 Results in significant losses in human lives, materials and environment
 Exceeds the ability of an affected community to cope with using its own resources
In reporting disasters and recording the same, the word disaster size comes into mind and the disaster
size takes into considerations the following aspects:
 Scope can be thought of as a measure of the breadth of damage caused by a disaster. It
describes how extensively the larger community is impacted, including the rescue and support
infrastructure, which in turn predicts how much help is available and how quickly recovery can
proceed. In an event with a large scope, survivors may be unable to turn to their normal support
systems of friends, family, and neighbors as they would after a smaller scale traumatic event,
since those people may be dealing with their own recovery needs. Very large scope events, like
Hurricanes Katrina and Sandy, or the 2010 earthquakes in Haiti and Chile, may leave survivors
without a place to shop, work, go to school, or pray. Many may be forced to relocate in order to
find housing, work, and schools, which adds the emotional stress of resettling and losing one’s
community on top of the direct disaster losses.
 Intensity refers to level of damage in terms of injuries and deaths—the event’s human cost. Of
course, any serious injury or loss of life will feel tragic for those directly affected, but disasters
that cause multiple losses can compound distress for everyone involved, including professional
responders who may suffer secondary trauma from exposure to many injured people or dead
bodies. The effect of losing multiple loved ones goes beyond pure addition: Someone whose
child and spouse were both killed in a disaster is not only grieving two deaths at once, but he or
she may have lost what would have been the main source of comfort in grappling with the
death of a child, as well as a chief reason to keep on going in coming to terms with the sudden
loss of a partner. As a result, people who experienced multiple losses are at the highest risk of a
difficult bereavement process and readjustment and should be a focus of early mental health
attention.
Scope and intensity are often linked, but not always. An event may be large in both, or large in
one measure and small in the other. For example, a hurricane or ice storm may cause extensive
property damage, but if warnings were provided and complied with, the human cost may be
minimal. In contrast, an event like a fire in a nightclub can cause extensive casualties but affect
only one building, leaving the rest of the community’s physical infrastructure intact as it copes
with the human loss.
 Duration may be thought of in multiple ways. First, it can refer to the length of the disaster
itself, which could range from seconds for an earthquake or explosion, to hours or days for a
hurricane or blizzard, and even to weeks for a slowly advancing and receding flood. Or we can
think of duration as the length of time people are affected by a disaster, including the recovery
period as physical damage is repaired and losses are adjusted to emotionally. In the case of very
large scope events that could take years, or could never be fully completed.
“It is the people who matter most, and without the people we have no disaster”
Types of Disasters
Disasters can be classified as:
• Natural disaster
• Human-Made disaster
• Incidences of Mass Trauma
Natural Disasters
These events are recognized as unpreventable and not anyone’s responsibility. There is no one to
blame, except possibly God or a higher power, so adjustment is often facilitated because survivors don’t
typically have anger or a desire for revenge compounding their losses.
Natural disasters are large-scale geological or meteorological events that have the potential to cause
loss of life or property. These types of disasters include:
 Tornadoes and Severe Storms
 Hurricanes and Tropical Storms
 Floods
 Wildfires
 Earthquakes
 Drought
Severe storms and floods are the most common types of natural disasters reported in the United States.
These meteorological events are occasionally preceded by presidential “emergency declarations”
requiring state and local planning prior to the event, such as evacuations and protection of public assets.
Disaster Distress Helpline staff are available to speak to those who call or text before, during, and after a
natural disaster.
Human-Made Disasters
Examples include industrial accidents, shootings, acts of terrorism, and incidents of mass violence. As
with natural disasters, these types of traumatic events may also cause loss of life and property. They
may also prompt evacuations from certain areas and overwhelm behavioral health resources in the
affected communities.
In the aftermath of the tragic loss of life that occurred on September 11, 2001, the feelings of loss of
security and well-being—arguably the most crucial ingredients for leading a happy, healthy life—
dramatically affected the citizens of the United States. Disaster Distress Helpline staff are also trained to
respond to calls or texts related to these types of disasters.
Incidences of Mass Trauma
Infectious disease outbreaks, incidents of community unrest, and other types of traumatic events can
also bring out strong emotions in people.
The outbreak of Ebola affecting several countries in West Africa, with limited reported cases in the
United States and other countries, may lead to feelings of anxiety and confusion, even to the point
where it can interfere with one’s regular routine. Community upheaval, such as that seen in Ferguson,
Mo., can also impact emotional health. News reports and the 24-hour news cycle can make people even
more anxious when these kinds of events occur.
Differences between Emergencies and Disasters
• A situation in which community is CAPABLE of coping is EMERGENCY.

• Emergency situations are generated by a real occurrence of events that require immediate
attention of emergency resources.
• A situation in which community is INCAPABLE of coping is DISASATER.
• Disaster situations are natural or human-caused events which causes severe negative impact on
community.
An emergency is an unforeseen incidence that can be responded to using available resources. They
occur more regularly than disasters and are therefore more anticipated by a community. These may
include medical crises, vehicular accidents, and neighborhood fires. As such, the availability of
emergency medical services, fire departments, police departments, and other such public services
ensure the proper response to such unfortunate events.
A disaster, however, is a critical event much wider in scope. It is the sudden occurrence of an
unfavorable situation that causes serious disruption to the social routine. It endangers a larger social
space, and while it occurs much less frequently than emergencies, the effects are graver, often causing
multiple casualties and/or property damage. Such a greater impact can disrupt and incapacitate
emergency responders, leading to the need for assistance outside of the locality. Resources may very
well become choked.
While its effects are much greater than an emergency, a disaster is unlike a calamity in that it affects
only a single community. As such, neighboring communities with ample resources and responders are
able to offer support to usher the affected community towards its recovery. Disaster types include
natural hazards (earthquakes, tsunamis, wildfire, disease outbreaks), accidents (nuclear power plant
accidents, widescale equipment failure), and terrorism (cyber attacks, bombings, use of chemical
weapons).
Emergency Characteristics
• Lack of financial and human resources
• Disorder and lack of clarity of tasks and responsibilities
• Difficulty in determining priorities
• Lack of coordination between different agencies
• Lack of information
• Lack of security
• Spread of rumors and exaggerations
• Heavy presence of mass media
How to Deal with Emergencies

Evaluation; Response; Speaking on behalf of the affected; Distribute Aids; Supply Needs; Organize
Works; Manage Resources; Deal with the Media; Advocate.
Disaster Management Life Cycle
The Disaster management cycle illustrates the ongoing process by which governments, businesses, and
civil society plan for and reduce the impact of disasters, react during and immediately following a
disaster, and take steps to recover after a disaster has occurred. Appropriate actions at all points in the
cycle lead to greater preparedness, better warnings, reduced vulnerability or the prevention of disasters
during the next iteration of the cycle. The complete disaster management cycle includes the shaping of
public policies and plans that either modify the causes of disasters or mitigate their effects on people,
property, and infrastructure.
Figure 1.1: Disaster Management Life Cycle (source: CDP)
The disaster life cycle includes several phases:
1. Mitigation: Disaster mitigation work involves directly preventing future emergencies
and/or minimizing their negative effects. It requires hazard risk analysis and the application
of strategies to reduce the likelihood that hazards will become disasters, such as flood-
proofing homes or buying insurance.
2. Disaster preparedness: Disaster preparedness efforts include plans or preparations made

in advance of an emergency that help individuals and communities get ready. Such
preparations might include the stocking of food and water or the gathering and screening
of willing volunteers, ready to mobilize post-disaster.
3. Disaster response: Disaster response work includes any actions taken during or
immediately following an emergency, including efforts to save lives and to prevent further
property damage. Ideally, disaster response involves putting already established disaster
preparedness plans into motion. Typically, this phase of the disaster life cycle draws the
most attention. It is also known as “disaster relief.”
4. Disaster recovery: Disaster recovery happens after damages have been assessed and
involves actions to return the affected community to its pre-disaster state or better – and
ideally, to make it less vulnerable to future risk. Risk identification includes understanding
the nature of hazards as well as understanding the nature of vulnerabilities. Subsequent
efforts may range from physical upgrades to education, training and public awareness
campaigns.
Most people give financially immediately after a crisis, in response to clear emotional appeals. Yet
donors who allocate funds across the disaster life cycle have an opportunity to help ensure that
each dollar given reaches its full potential. Investing in mitigation saves money. Research estimates
that for every $1 spent by federal mitigation grant programs (Federal Emergency Management
Agency, Housing and Urban Development or Economic Development Administration) at least $6 is
saved in casualties, property damage and the like. On an international scale, it is more challenging
to determine savings as each country faces different risks and mitigation needs.
EARTHQUAKES
Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard. They may occur at any time of the year, day
or night, with sudden impact and little warning. They can destroy buildings and infrastructure in
seconds, killing or injuring the inhabitants. Earthquakes not only destroy the entire habitation but
may de-stabilize the government, economy and social structure of the country.
Definition: It is the sudden shaking of the earth crust. The impact of an earthquake is sudden and
there is hardly any warning, making it impossible to predict.
Globally, earthquakes result in a loss of about 50,000 lives every year. Earthquakes over 5.5
magnitude on the Richter scale are progressively damaging to property and human life. However,
there are many other factors that influences the damage pattern. Massive earthquakes generally
occur near the junction of two tectonic plates, e.g., along the Himalayan range, where the Indian
plate goes below Eurasian plate. The Indian sub- continent situated on the boundaries of two
continental plates is very prone to earthquakes. Some of the most intense earthquakes of the world
have occurred in India. Fortunately, none of these have occurred in any of the major cities. According
to latest seismic zoning map brought out by the Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS), over 65 percent of
the country is prone to earthquake of intensity Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MSK) VII or more.
India has been divided into four seismic zones according to the maximum intensity of earthquake
expected (Figure below). Of these, zone V is the most active which comprises of whole of Northeast
India, the northern portion of Bihar, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Gujarat and Andaman &
Nicobar Islands. India has highly populous cities and the constructions in these cities are not
earthquake resistant. Regulatory mechanisms are weak, thus any earthquake striking in one of these
cities would turn into a major disaster. Six major earthquakes have struck different parts of India over
a span of the last 15 years.
The entire Himalayan Region is considered to be vulnerable to high intensity earthquakes of a
magnitude exceeding 8.0 on the Richter scale, and in a relatively short span of about 50 years, four
such major earthquakes have occurred in the region
Some significant earthquakes in India
THE CIRCULATIONS INSIDE EARTH
– Convection currents develop in the viscous Mantle, because of prevailing high temperature and
pressure gradients between the Crust and the Core, like the
convective flow of water when heated in a beaker.
– These convection currents result in a circulation of the
earth’s mass; hot molten lava comes out and the cold rock
mass goes into the Earth. The mass absorbed eventually
melts under high temperature and pressure and becomes a
part of the Mantle
– Many such local circulations are taking place at different
regions underneath the Earth’s surface, leading to different
portions of the Earth undergoing different directions of
movements along the surface.
PLATE TECTONICS
– German scientist Alfred Wegener, in 1915 proposed that, 200 million years ago the earth had
only one continent called Pangaea.
– Pangaea broke into pieces that slowly drifted into the present configuration of continents.
– The convective flows of Mantle material cause the Crust and some portion of the Mantle, to slide
on the hot molten outer core.
– This sliding of Earth’s mass takes place in pieces called Tectonic Plates.
– The surface of the Earth consists of seven major tectonic plates and many smaller ones
(a) Eurasian Plate
(b) Indo – Australian plate
(c) Pacific plate
(d) North – American Plate
(e) South – American Plate
(f) African Plate
(g) Antarctic Plate
Major Tectonic Plates
– These plates move in different directions and at different speeds from those of the neighbouring
ones.
(a) Convergent Boundaries: Sometimes, the plate
in the front is slower; then, the plate behind it
comes and collides (and mountains are
formed).
(b) Divergent Boundaries: sometimes two plates
move away from one another (and rifts are
created).
(c) Transform Boundaries: Two plates move side-
by-side, along the same direction or in
opposite directions.
– The convergent boundary has a peculiarity (like at the Himalayas) that sometimes neither of the
colliding plates wants to sink.
ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
– Tectonic plates are made of elastic but brittle rocky material.
– Hence, elastic strain energy is stored in them during the relative deformations that occur due to
the gigantic tectonic plate actions taking place in the Earth.
– When the rocky material along the interface of the plates in the Earth’s Crust reaches its strength,
it fractures and a sudden movement takes place there
– The interface between the plates where the movement has taken place (called the fault)
suddenly slips and releases the large elastic strain energy stored in the rocks at the interface.
– The sudden slip at the fault causes the earthquake - a violent shaking of the Earth during which
large elastic strain energy released spreads out in the form of seismic waves that travel through
the body and along the surface of the Earth.
– After the earthquake is over, the process of strain build-up at this modified interface between the
tectonic plates starts all over again.
– Earth scientists know this as the Elastic Rebound Theory.
SEISMIC WAVES
Large strain energy released during an earthquake travels as seismic waves in all directions through
the Earth’s layers, reflecting and refracting at each interface.
These waves are of two types - body waves and surface waves
The surface waves are restricted to near the Earth’s surface (See Fig. below). Body waves consist of
Primary Waves (P-waves) and Secondary Waves (S-waves), and surface waves consist of Love
waves (L-waves).
Arrival of Seismic Waves at a Site

(a) The P-waves
– These are also called primary waves, push and pull waves.
– These are the fastest waves in which the particles vibrate in the direction of propagation.
– The velocity of P - wave is related to the rigidity of the medium and its density.
(b) The S- waves
– These are also called secondary waves.
– In these waves particles vibrate right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave.
(c) The L-waves
– These waves also called Long waves or surface waves.
– These waves are sluggish and recorded only after the arrival of the P and S waves.
– S-waves do not travel through liquids.
– S-waves in association with effects of Love waves cause maximum damage to structures
RECORDING OF EARTHQUAKES
– The instrument used to record the motion of seismic waves is called seismograph
– The record produced by the instrument is called Seismogram
– A seismograph is designed for recording either the horizontal or the vertical component of
ground motion
– A seismograph, has three components – the sensor, the recorder and the timer.
(a) The Sensor: The pendulum mass, string, magnet and support
(b) The Recorder: The drum, pen and chart paper constitute the recorder; and
(c) The Timer: the motor that rotates the drum at constant speed forms the timer.
– Pendulum type seismographs are generally used.
– Principle of Seismograph
 A pen attached at the tip of an oscillating simple pendulum (a mass hung by a string from a
support) marks on a chart paper that is held on a drum rotating at a constant speed.
 A magnet around the string provides required damping to control the amplitude of
oscillations.
– One such instrument is required in each of the two orthogonal horizontal directions.
– For measuring vertical oscillations, the string pendulum is replaced with a spring pendulum
oscillating about a fulcrum.
– Today, digital instruments using modern computer technology are more commonly used.
– The digital instrument records the ground motion on the memory of the microprocessor that is
in- built in the instrument.
TERMINOLOGY
The point on the fault where slip starts is the Focus or Hypocenter, and the point vertically above this
on the surface of the Earth is the Epicenter (See fig. below). The depth of focus from the epicenter,
called as Focal Depth. Most of the damaging earthquakes have shallow focus with focal depths less
than about 70km. Distance from epicenter to any point of interest is called epicentral distance.
MAGNITUDE OF EARTHQUAKE
– Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the actual Size of the earthquake.

– Magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of its size
– Professor Charles Richter noticed that,
(a) At the same distance, seismograms of larger earthquakes have bigger wave amplitude than
those of smaller earthquakes; and
(b) For a given earthquake, seismograms at farther distances have smaller wave amplitude
than those at close distances.
– These prompted him to propose the now commonly used magnitude scale, the Richter scale.
– It is obtained from the seismograms and accounts for the dependence of waveform amplitude on
epicentral distance. This scale is also called Local Magnitude scale.
– Earthquakes are classified based on magnitude as
Group Magnitude
Great 8 and higher
Major 7 – 7.9
Strong 6 – 6.6
Moderate 5 – 5.9
Light 4 – 4.9
Minor 3 – 3.9
Very Minor < 3.0
INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKE
– Intensity is an indicator of the severity of shaking generated at a given location

– Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a location during an earthquake, and is
assigned as Roman Capital Numerals.
– There are many intensity scales. Two commonly used ones are the Modified Mercalli Intensity
(MMI) Scale and the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik (MSK) Scale.
– Both scales are quite similar and range from I (least perceptive) to XII (most severe).
– The intensity scales are based on three features of shaking,
(a) Perception by people and animals,
(b) performance of buildings, and
(c) Changes to natural surroundings.
– The distribution of intensity at different places during an earthquake is shown graphically using
isoseismals, lines joining places with equal seismic intensity
CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES
(a) Depth of focus as basis:

i. Shallow : Depth of focus lies up to 60km below the surface
ii. Intermediate : Depth of focus lies between 60-300km below the surface
iii. Deep seated : Depth of focus lies between 300-700km below the surface
(b) Magnitude as basis (See classification above in Magnitude)
(c) Cause of origin as basis:
i. Tectonic earthquakes: Caused due to relative displacements of blocks of the crust of the
earth along the rupture planes
ii. Non-tectonic earthquake: Caused due to volcanic eruptions, atomic explosions
landslides and subsidence.
CHAPTER 2
RISKS AND VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT
Introduction
Disaster risk reduction: The concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts,
to analyse and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards,
lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and the environment, and
improved preparedness for adverse events.
Early warning system: The set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate timely and meaningful
warning information to enable individuals, communities and organizations threatened by a hazard to
prepare and to act appropriately and in sufficient time to reduce the possibility of harm or loss.
Emergency management: The organization and management of resources and responsibilities for
addressing all aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and initial recovery steps.
Mitigation: The lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters.
Preparedness: The knowledge and capacities developed by governments, professional response and
recovery organizations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover
from, the impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions.
Prevention: The outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters.
Public awareness: The extent of common knowledge about disaster risks, the factors that lead to
disasters and the actions that can be taken individually and collectively to reduce exposure and
vulnerability to hazards.
Recovery: The restoration, and improvement where appropriate, of facilities, livelihoods and living
conditions of disaster-affected communities, including efforts to reduce disaster risk factors.
Response: The provision of emergency services and public assistance during or immediately
Risk: The combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences.
Sustainable development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Vulnerability: The characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.
Hazards and Hazard Assessment
A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or
other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption,
or environmental damage.
Before beginning the hazard evaluation and risk assessment process, a researcher must define the scope
of work. What are the tasks that must be evaluated? A well-defined scope of work is a key starting
point for all steps in the risk assessment and hazard analysis.
The next step after identifying the scope of work is to identify the hazard. A HAZARD IS A POTENTIAL
FOR HARM. Hazards can be identified as an agent, condition, or activity that has the potential to cause
injury, illness, loss of property, or damage to the environment. The table below has been adapted from
Identifying and Evaluating Hazards in Research Laboratories, which you can find in the Resource tab to
the right.
Common Types of Hazards
Hazard
Examples
Types
Carcinogenic, teratogenic, corrosive, pyrophoric, toxic, mutagenic, reproductive
hazard, explosive, nonionizing radiation, biological hazard/pathogenic,
Agent
flammable, oxidizing, self-reactive or unstable, potentially explosive, reducing,
water-reactive, sensitizing, peroxide-forming, catalytic, or chemical asphyxiate
High pressure, low pressure, electrical, uneven surfaces, pinch points,
suspended weight, hot surfaces, extreme cold, steam, noise, clutter, magnetic
Condition
fields, simple asphyxiant, oxygen-deficient spaces, ultraviolet radiation, or laser
light
Creation of secondary products, lifting, chemical mixing, long-term use of dry
boxes, repetitive pipetting, scale up, handling waste, transportation of
Activity
hazardous materials, handling glassware and other sharp objects, heating
chemicals, recrystallizations, extractions, or centrifuging
Hazard Control
When evaluating the risks associated with specific hazards, the results of this evaluation should guide in
the selection of risk management techniques including elimination, substitution, engineering controls,
administrative controls, and personal protective equipment. This is known as the Hierarchy of Controls.
Image courtesy: Wikipedia
Elimination and Substitution
The most preferred method of controlling risk is to eliminate the hazard altogether. In most cases,
elimination is not feasible and when possible, substitution is the best approach to hazard mitigation.
When possible, substitute less hazardous agents in place of their more hazardous counterparts. This
also applies to conditions and activities. Examples include substituting toluene for benzene, non-lead-
based paints for lead-based ones, or SawStop table saws for existing traditional table saws.
Engineering Controls
Engineering controls consist of a variety of methods for minimizing hazards, including process control,
enclosure and isolation, and ventilation.
Process controls involve changing the way that a job activity is performed in order to reduce risk.
Examples of this include using wet methods when drilling or grinding or using temperature controls to
minimize vapor generation.
Enclosure and isolation are targeted at keeping the chemical in and the researcher out, or visa versa.
Glove boxes are a good example of enclosure and isolation. Interlock systems for lasers and machinery
are other good examples of isolating processes.
The most common method for ventilation in research laboratories is localized exhaust systems.
Administrative Controls
Administrative controls are controls which alter the way work is performed. They may consists of
policies, training, standard operating procedures/guidelines, personal hygiene practices, work
scheduling, etc. These controls are meant to minimize the exposure to the hazard and should only be
used when the exposure cannot be completely mitigated through elimination/substitution or
engineering controls.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

PPE should always be used as a last line of defense and is an acceptable control method when
engineering or administrative controls cannot provide sufficient protection. PPE may also be used on a
temporary basis while engineering controls are being developed.
Hazard Classification
1) Dormant Mode:
• The situation that has the potential to be hazardous, but no people, or environment is currently
affected by this.
For example:
• An unstable hillside, has a potential for a landslide but there is nothing below or on the hillside
that could be affected.
2) Active Mode:
• An incident in which hazard has actually occurred, creating an Emergency situations or Disasters.
Classification of Hazards:
Hazard can also be classified as:
• Natural Hazard
• Man-Made Hazard
A. Natural Hazard: These hazards are caused by a natural process.

Examples of some Natural hazards are:
 Volcanic Eruptions: Ashes and different toxic gases are expelled through volcanoes from deep
inside the earth
 Droughts: A part of a land suffers from lack of rain during specific period of time which causes
severe damage to the crops, soil, animals and people also.
 Tsunamis: Very large waves which caused by an Earthquake, Volcanic eruptions smashes into a
shore.
B. Man-made Hazard:
These hazards are created by humans.
Examples of some Man-Made hazards are:
• Global Warming: Projected increases in the Earth’s atmosphere’s average temperature. In the
20th century the Earth’s average temperature rose about 0.6 degree Celsius.
• Crime: It is a kind of Sociological hazard. Crime is a breach of laws and rules. For example Breach
of contract.
• Industrial Hazard: It is a kind of Technological hazard. Industrial hazards often have an
environmental impact. For example Bhopal Disaster ( worst industrial disaster to date).
Vulnerability, Capacity and Risk
Vulnerability:
Susceptibility of a person, group or society to physical or emotional injury.

OR
Person or group liable to injury.
As far as Hazards and Disasters are concern, the concept of Vulnerability is to link the relationship that
people have with their environment to social forces and institutions and the cultural values that sustain
them.
Capacity:
Within a community all the available resources, that can reduce risk level and disaster effects.
Frequent term used in Disaster is ‘Capacity building’.
Capacity building is the efforts to develop human skills within a community to reduce risk levels.
Risk:
Occurrence probability of a hazard that trigger a disaster with an undesirable outcome
Risk involves an exposure to a chance injury or loss.
Risk generally described in terms of probability.
Risk can also be defined as the probability of a loss, risk depends on three elements:
• Hazard
• Vulnerability
• Exposure
Vulnerability Types
Vulnerability varies significantly within a community and over time. This definition identifies
vulnerability as a characteristic of the element of interest (community, system or asset) which is
independent of its exposure. However, in common use the word is often used more broadly to include
the element’s exposure.
There are four (4) main types of vulnerability:
 Physical Vulnerability: may be determined by aspects such as population density levels,

remoteness of a settlement, the site, design and materials used for critical infrastructure and for
housing (UNISDR).
Example: Wooden homes are less likely to collapse in an earthquake, but are more
vulnerable to fire.
 Social Vulnerability refers to the inability of people, organizations and societies to withstand
adverse impacts to hazards due to characteristics inherent in social interactions, institutions and
systems of cultural values. It is linked to the level of well-being of individuals, communities and
society. It includes aspects related to levels of literacy and education, the existence of peace and
security, access to basic human rights, systems of good governance, social equity, positive
traditional values, customs and ideological beliefs and overall collective organizational systems.
Example: When flooding occurs some citizens, such as children, elderly and differently-able,
may be unable to protect themselves or evacuate if necessary.
 Economic Vulnerability. The level of vulnerability is highly dependent upon the economic status
of individuals, communities and nations The poor are usually more vulnerable to disasters
because they lack the resources to build sturdy structures and put other engineering measures
in place to protect themselves from being negatively impacted by disasters.
Example: Poorer families may live in squatter settlements because they cannot afford to live
in safer (more expensive) areas.
 Environmental Vulnerability. Natural resource depletion and resource degradation are key
aspects of environmental vulnerability.
Example: Wetlands, such as the Caroni Swamp, are sensitive to increasing salinity from
sea water, and pollution from stormwater runoff containing agricultural chemicals,
eroded soils, etc.
Risk Analysis and Rating

It considers the probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths, injuries, property,
livelihoods, economic activity disrupted or environmentally damaged) resulting from interactions
between natural or human induced hazards and vulnerable conditions.
Risk can be calculated using the following equation:

Risk = Probability of Hazard x Degree of Vulnerability.
There are different ways of dealing with risk, such as:

 Risk Acceptance: an informed decision to accept the possible consequences and likelihood of a
particular risk.
 Risk Avoidance: an informed decision to avoid involvement in activities leading to risk
realization.
 Risk Reduction refers to the application of appropriate techniques to reduce the likelihood of
risk occurrence and its consequences.
 Risk Transfer involves shifting of the burden of risk to another party. One of the most common
forms of risk transfer is Insurance.
The rating depends upon the likelihood of an event occurring (from most unlikely to most likely) and the
severity of the injuries that might arise if the event does occur (from trivial injuries to major injuries).
To calculate a Quantitative Risk Rating, begin by allocating a number to the Likelihood of the risk arising
and Severity of Injury and then multiply the Likelihood by the Severity to arrive at the Rating. The
number to be allocated is set out in the table below.
Inter-relationship between Disasters and Development
Disaster Challenges Development
Disasters and development are closely linked. Disasters can both destroy development initiatives and
create development opportunities. Development schemes can both increase and decrease
vulnerability. In the traditional approach to disasters, the attitude was that the disasters, especially
natural ones, were an act of god and as such were beyond human control; accepting death and
damage to property was part of the costs. With such an attitude, most development plans were
designed without consideration for the effect disasters would have on community plans and vice versa.
When a disaster did occur, the response was directed at meeting emergency needs and cleaning up.
In the current approach, it has been realized that much more can and need to be done to reduce the
severity of hazards and disasters. A growing body of knowledge on the relationships between
disasters and development indicates four basic themes as follows:
Disasters set back development programming, destroying years of development initiatives. Rebuilding
after a disaster provides opportunities to initiate development programs.
Development Results into Disaster
Development programs can increase an area’s susceptibility to disasters. Development programs can
be designed to decrease the susceptibility to disasters and their negative consequences.
Thus, the policy makers cannot ignore the relationship between the disaster and development. Projects
are thus being designed to include disaster recovery programs and with long term development needs
in mind. Disasters can significantly impede the effectiveness of development resource allocation.
The unplanned and excessive development to build facilities for human-beings leads to the
Disaster Management Plan aimed at identifying the different potential disasters that could impact the
development.
Here we understand the disaster/development interface. Disasters and development are linked closely
in that disasters can both destroy development initiatives and create development opportunities, and
that development schemes can both increase and decrease vulnerability.
How disasters can vary from one type of hazard to another, as well as from one type of economic
condition to another.
Analyze the mitigational benefits of development alternatives in both the pre- and post-disaster context.
The role of UN agencies, NGOs, and the affected communities in promoting development based on the
concepts discussed in the module. Disasters and Development, initially was designed to introduce this
Disaster Management 30
aspect of disaster management to an audience of UN organization professionals who form disaster
management teams, as well as to government counterpart agencies, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), and donors.
The educational process has been designed to increase the audience’s awareness of the nature and
management of disasters, in order to lead to better performance in disaster preparedness and
response.
To ensure that NDMP achieves effective risk reduction, response and recovery, this COBIT principle
could be applied to balance the needs of various stakeholders with respect to benefits, risk and
resources. It is interesting to note that, Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), an important aspect of NDMP is
defined in the broad context of sustainable development
Factors affecting vulnerabilities
A powerful earthquake measuring 6.6 at the Richter scale struck SOUTHEASTERN

IRAN on 26th December, 2003 at 5:26:52 AM (local time) and caused enormous loss of life, and near
total destruction of physical assets, killing 30,000 people and injured another 30,000. The health and
education infrastructure was severely damaged and over 85% houses collapsed.
A super cyclone slammed the state of Orissa on October 29, 1999 with a wind speed of 270-300 kmph,
accompanied by torrential rains ranging from 400 mm to 867 mm continuously for three days. Over 7
lakh buildings were completely damaged and 13 lakh buildings were partially damaged.
Biodiversity – the diversity of life on Earth – is the provider of all services the human well-being
depends on: For example, plants and animals provide food, ecosystems ensure water provision,
carbon sequestration and climate regulation. With the increasing pressure by humans to access these
services by intensive land use, conflicts arise between the more direct and potentially profitable
services like food and fiber provision and the more long-term and less visible services which are mainly
maintained by less intensive forms of use.
Within this context, research on biodiversity and land use has to look at the political and societal
context of these conflicts as well as the underlying consequences for ecosystems – and last not least,
single species and the pressures we put on them, either by direct use (for example in fisheries) or by
the destruction of their natural habitats. Especially in Europe, the latter one has lead to long lists of
endangered species, but also to EU legislation like the Flora-Fauna-Habitat and the Birds-Directive.
This European and even global perspective links more directly as in other fields to local decisions on
land use management, thus leading to the need of a highly integrated approach for the according
research.
Societal impact and strategic research objectives
With increasing population across the globe, more integrative approaches which sustain the services
provided by ecosystems are urgently needed. To provide options for such a management is the major
challenge for the research. For this, also the basic knowledge on biodiversity and its functional role
within ecosystems, either unused or intensively use by man, has to be studied.
Political and administrative frame
With its integrative nature, the field links different policy fields: With environmental and especially
nature conservation policy at its center, it tackles agricultural (CAP). Forestry and fisheries and urban
development policies.
Main sub-fields and areas

 Impacts of climate change & land use change on biodiversity
 Maintaining the land’s capacity to provide ecosystem services for human well-being
 Effective monitoring of status and trends of biodiversity
 Functional role of biodiversity in providing ecosystem services
 Management of conflicts between land use and biodiversity conservations)
Approach
As a broad range of disciplines between natural and social sciences are involved in the field, he
approaches and methods used within the field are diverse. On the basic science side this includes
inventories of species’ abundances and their trends over time, including the analysis of underlying
drivers and the measurement of processes in ecosystems (like nutrient fluxes, water use and
productivity). On the social science side this includes the analysis of policies and management of land
use; in order to make these results relevant for society, the integration of disciplinary work is of high
relevance.
Climate Change Adaption

Global surface temperature increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C during the last century. The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that most of the observed temperature increase since the
middle of the 20th century is caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases resulting from
human activity such as fossil fuel burning and deforestation.
Global average temperature is predicted to increase over this century, with a probable increase in
frequency of some extreme weather events, and changes in rainfall patterns. Some of the physical
impacts of climate change are irreversible at continental and global scales. Sea level is expected to
rise. Climate change will likely result in reduced diversity of ecosystems and the extinction of many
species.
The impacts on human systems of climate change will probably be distributed unevenly. Some regions
and sectors are expected to experience benefits while others will experience costs. With human
systems, adaptation potential for climate change impacts is considerable, although the costs of
adaptation are largely unknown and potentially large.
Societal impact and strategic research objectives
Climate change has a growing priority in society and politics. Time, energy and money is required not
only for stabilizing or reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases, but also for adapting to the warmer
and more extreme climate. To ensure that the emission of greenhouse gases is reduced, research is
needed into alternatives for fossil fuels, such as wind energy or solar energy.
In addition, research is needed into new technologies to make existing energy sources more climate-
friendly and methods to reduce emissions from the transport sector. Researchers are also studying
how greenhouse gases can be sequestered by means of forestry or agriculture.
We need to determine whether our cities can still expand without risking flooding. Researchers are
involved with estimating flooding risks in specific areas and designing scenarios for an evacuation in
case of a disaster. Nature must also adapt, and the question here is how land development can take
place so that plants and animals can survive the new climatological conditions. Agriculture is also faced
with adaptational strategies.
Political and administrative frame

In 1992 the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was signed asking for
a stabilizing of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interferences with the climate system.
As a first step towards this goal the Kyoto Protocol was signed in 1997, which asks the developed
world to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2 % between 1990 and 2010.
The European Union has ratified the Kyoto Protocol, i.e. it has agreed to reduce its emissions by 8%, in
order to contribute to the overall reduction of 5.2 %. The Protocol became international law on 16
February 2005.
European policies to implement the Kyoto Protocol are developed under the European Climate Change
Programme of the European Commission’s DG Environment. So far they have led to the adoption by
the European Council of ambitions plans to cut EU greenhouse gas emissions by 20% by 2020
compared to 1990.
Unit 2
DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE
The concept of Disaster Management Cycle integrates isolated attempts on the part of different actors, government
and nongovernment, towards vulnerability reduction or disaster mitigation, within the enveloping domain of disaster
management, as phases occurring in different time periods in disaster management continuum. This has facilitated a
planned approach to disaster management in that post- disaster recovery and pre -disaster mitigation planning are
Stages in Disaster Management

perceived as integrated/related activities.
Disaster Management efforts are geared towards disaster risk management. Disaster Risk Management “implies the
systematic process of using administrative decisions, organisation, operational skills, and capacities to implement
policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society and communities to lessen the impact of natural hazards and
related environmental and technological disasters. These comprise all forms all activities including structural and non-
structural measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) adverse effects to hazards”.
There are three key stages of activities in disaster management:

1. Before a disaster: to reduce the potential for human, material, or environmental losses caused by hazards and
to ensure that these losses are minimised when disaster strikes
2. During a disaster: to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met to alleviate and minimise
suffering
3. After a disaster: to achieve rapid and durable recovery.
Common perception of disaster management is limited to emergency relief and post- disaster rehabilitation. This is so
because these 2 elements are by far and not separate.
Thus, prevention, mitigation and preparedness form pre-disaster activities in the Disaster management Cycle and
response, comprising relief, recovery and rehabilitation are post-disaster activities. Whilst emergency relief and
rehabilitation are vital activities, successful disaster management planning must encompass the complete realm of
activities and situations that occur before, during and after disasters.
These phases can best be represented as a cycle, which if followed through public policy can obstruct future
development of disasters by impeding the vicious cycle of cause and effect. One of the key issues in disaster
management planning is the allocation of resources at all stages of the disaster cycle, which optimises the total
effectiveness of risk reduction activity and maximises the overall impact of disaster management.
This approach has imparted a more holistic perception to disaster management and has served to integrate disaster
management with development planning in that most predisaster activities, involve activities for vulnerability reduction
like poverty reduction, employment provision etc. which are also mainstream development concerns.
Thus, disaster management cycle implies development is essentially/conceptually related to disaster management.
Not
Disaster and Development
Another significant consequence/effect of this concept relates to understanding the inherent correlation between disasters
and development. Development had proceeded with relative unconcern for environmental issues. The result has been newer
vulnerabilities/risks arising as a result of indirect/direct consequences of development strategies.
For example, air pollution has been caused due to uncontrolled emission of green house gases, water pollution due to
unregulated working of industrial enterprises as also agriculture, leading to adverse impacts on the environment.
The concept of disaster management cycle is expected to impart the much needed long-term perspective / viability to
developmental policy since vulnerability reduction would be factored in mainstream planning to reduce costs on
response efforts when disasters strike. Also, the process preceding policy formulation, that is deliberation with
involved stakeholders and citizen groups, is likely to get more participatory and inclusive of disaster related concerns.
There is increasing realisation, as also explained earlier, of a cause-effect relation between disasters and development
in that development has not factored environmental concerns sufficiently in mainstream policy and has been
predominantly productivity centred.
The World Disasters Report, 2002 categorically states that; International development targets set for the year 2015, such as
reducing world poverty and hunger by one half, will not be reached unless the heavy toll of disasters on the poor is
reduced through effective measures.
In its 10th year, the report published by the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, calls for
disaster risk reduction targets to be added to the international development goals for 2015 and beyond. These targets
include reducing by one half, the number of people killed and affected by disasters and increasing the number of
governments with dedicated plans and resources for risk reduction programmes.
The Disaster Cycle
Not
The different phases of disaster management are represented in the disaster cycle
diagram.
1. The Disaster Event
This refers to the real-time event of a hazard occurring and affecting the ‘elements at risk’. The duration of the event
will depend on the type of threat, for example, ground shaking may only occur for a few seconds during an earthquake
while flooding may take place over a longer period of time. Disasters have tremendous modifying impact on the
physical landscape. Within a few minutes, an entire region is reduced to rubble in the event of an earthquake. The
impact leads to loss of life and property in affected areas; losses being directly correlated to the vulnerability of the
region, physical and socio-economic. Vulnerability is also socio-economic. Weaker sections of society, viz. women,
children, aged and handicapped, mentally infirm, etc., suffer a lot more than their stronger counterparts. Studies have
also unearthed positive correlation between poverty and vulnerability. The poor inhabit the most hazardous physical
areas because they are easier to procure and offer added advantages, like proximity to sea for fishermen or fertile soil for
farmers near flood prone areas etc., that makes them prone to losses, both of assets and life. The poor also lack the
resilience to recover from shock in the aftermath of a disaster.
This brings to light the need for multi-faceted response to disasters, which takes account of all social political and
economic ramifications. Issues to be addressed range from physical to social and economic vulnerability of weaker
sections that suffer more relative to other, better placed.
2. Disaster Response
A Disaster is a cataclysmic event that has severe modifying impact. Consequences are both physical and social/ human.
Disaster Response has to tackle all aforesaid challenges. Disaster response entails restoring physical facilities,
rehabilitation of affected populations, restoration of lost livelihoods and reconstruction efforts to restore the
infrastructure lost or damaged. There are inherent important lessons to be learnt from disaster response.
Retrospectively, it brings to light flaws in efforts pertaining to policy and planning with respect to location and type of
infrastructure and social schemes to improve the social positioning of the under privileged, particularly with respect to
access to resources of the underprivileged. Disaster aftermath is evaluation time for the administrative set up in that
disaster response exposes system weaknesses. Disaster is the ultimate test of administrative efficiency, in the sense of
positive impact on the environment, preparedness, procedural simplicity, logistics, speed and expertise. There are
inherent important lessons to be learnt with regard to administrative reforms by way of policy interventions to
ensure:
• Better institutional preparedness
• Countering contrary pulls such as lack of social cohesion owing to irrational differentiations that effectively impede
response, in the sense of self- help and ‘communitarianism’
• Long- term mitigation policy to counter vulnerabilities, structural and non- structural by enabling legal
provisions and honest implementation of the same.
3. Recovery
The recovery phase involves implementation of actions to promote sustainable redevelopment (reconstruction,
rehabilitation) following a disaster. It covers long-term measures like, rebuilding of houses, assets, infrastructure, school
building, hospital buildings, and other public buildings. It is a process undertaken by a disaster-affected community to fully
restore itself to pre-disaster level. Recovery is the activity that returns infrastructure systems to minimum operating
standards and guides long-term efforts designed to return life to normal or improved levels after a disaster. Recovery is
also sometimes used to describe the activities that encompass the three overlapping phases of emergency relief,
rehabilitation and reconstruction.

Not
• Emergency Relief
Emergency relief refers to the period immediately following the disaster when steps are taken to meet the needs of
survivors with regard to shelter, water, food and medical care. Activities undertaken during and immediately following
a disaster, include, immediate relief, rescue, damage and needs assessment and debris clearance.
Rescue and relief are critical elements of response. This would necessitate institutional/organisational improvements
by way of better delegation to field agencies, improvements in decision-making and communication processes,
incorporation of indigenous traditional knowledge on warning signs, a cartographic knowledge of safe and unsafe areas,
survival methods, and traditional forms of insurance built around kinship and families.
The most crucial aspect in relief and rescue is communication across involved agencies. Disaster zone is often
equated with a war zone, where communication is the critical factor, often, crucial, in fact, the deciding factor
between success and failure.
• Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation implies activities that are undertaken to support the victims’ return to of temporary housing and public
utilities as interim measures to assist longer-term recovery through permanent housing and infrastructure. Besides physical
elements, rehabilitation programmes also include economic rehabilitation through livelihood recovery and support actions
and finding alternate employment options for those who cannot get back to their original occupations due to irreparable
damage. Rehabilitation also includes psycho-social rehabilitation for those who are badly traumatised and need support
in terms of psychosocial counseling or even medication in some cases.
• Reconstruction
Reconstruction attempts to return communities to improved pre-disaster functioning. It includes the replacement of
buildings, infrastructure and lifeline facilities such as roads, bridges and communication links, so that long- term
development prospects are enhanced rather than reproducing the same conditions which made an area or a
population vulnerable in the first place.
4. Development
The inclusion of development as a phase in the disaster cycle is intended to ensure the natural disaster, societies
factor hazard and vulnerability considerations into their development policies and plans in the interest of overall
progress. The rationale behind the use of the expression ‘disaster management cycle’ is that disaster and its management
is a continuum of inter-linked activities. It is sometimes also referred to as the ‘disaster- development cycle’, implying that
disasters are periodic phenomena and occur regularly in such a way that there is development, followed by a
disaster, then back to development till the next disaster.
Sustainable development is another term that is useful in this context, implying development that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it 2
key concepts of ‘needs’ in particular, to the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be
given and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation on the environment’s
Risk Reduction: Mitigation and Preparedness

ability to meet the present and the future needs.
The Risk Reduction is chronologically the latest paradigm for mitigating the impact of disasters. The disaster risk
management process is a process for good decision-making and for ensuring the best use of limited resources. It
applies standard principles, process and techniques of risk management to disaster management.
Not
Risk reduction can take place in 2 ways i.e. Long-term Mitigation and Short-term Preparedness.
This protective process embraces measures, which enable governments, communities and individuals to
respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with them effectively.
Thus disaster risk reduction strategy includes:
1. Legal and institutional framework - Creating appropriate legal and organizational framework is the
first step towards Disaster Risk Reduction
2. Vulnerability Analysis and Risk Awareness - Appraisal of likelihood and intensity of hazards and
analysis of vulnerabilities thereto of the community with making government organizations, local
bodies, communities/groups and individuals at all levels aware of the risk of potential natural and
man-made hazards.
3. Planning - Building of institutional capabilities and meticulous long and short term planning with
effective implementation of plans and enforcement measures.
4. Implementation of Plan and Community Resilience - Community preparedness is the next step.
Building resilience of the communities to face crises and ensuring their full participation through
inputs like education, training and urban planning, infrastructure building and logistics. Crucial to all
these efforts, however, is the existence of a ‘safety culture’ in societies.
5. Knowledge Creation and Dissemination - Knowledge plays an important role in disaster reduction.
The traditional knowledge available with the community has to be used along with knowledge acquired
through research and past experiences. Research in the field of disaster management has contributed in
predictions with a fair degree of accuracy (earthquakes are an exception), and this has led to
establishment of efficient Early Warning Systems. The information is growing at a rapid rate, which,
calls for its processing and sharing. The challenge is to ensure that the community and the decision
makers are empowered with this knowledge. Therefore, disseminating it to the larger population is
the final element in effective Disaster
World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, Yokohama, 1994
Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World includes:
• Risk assessment
• Disaster prevention and preparedness
• Prevention and preparedness

Profile should be considered integral aspects of development
of the Department
• Early warnings and their effective dissemination
The Department of Panchayat Raj and Rural Development (PR&RD) is responsible for the
• Preventive measures
planning and execution of programs for rural development. The Department is headed by
the Commissioner of Panchayat Raj.
• Application of proper design and patterns of development focused on target groups
• Key functions
Share the necessary of the
technology Department:
to prevent, reduce and mitigate disaster.
The main functions of the Department are as follows:
 Implement schemes for rural development

 Improve the coverage and quality of infrastructure facilities in rural areas
 Make provision to provide clean drinking water
Not
 Execute minor irrigation and poverty alleviation programs
The Department is implementing several schemes to improve living conditions of people in
rural areas and to create economic awareness in rural areas. Some of these schemes include
 Rural Water Supply

 Rural Sanitation
 Jawahar Gram Samrudhi Yojana (J. G. S. Y)
 Community Development
 Construction of Mandal Buildings
 Construction and maintenance of rural roads
 Employment Assurance Scheme (E. A. S.)
Objective and Scope
Objective of the Plan
a. To mitigate the impact of natural and man-made disasters through

preparedness at various levels
b. The Disaster Management Plan (DMP) helps to bring together the

information related to equipment, skilled manpower and critical supplies
available in the affected area
c. It helps to know the standard operating procedures of the department at the
time of disaster. The role and responsibility of each and every officer can be
detected at the time of disaster
d. It helps the Department to assess its own capacity in terms of available

resources and get ready to mitigate any unexpected disaster effectively and
to prevent the loss of human lives and property through preparedness,
prevention & mitigation of disasters
e. To assist the line departments, block administration, communities in

developing compatible skills for disaster preparedness and management
f. To disseminate information in a timely, accurate and tactful manner while

maintaining necessary confidentiality.
g. To develop immediate and long-term support plans for vulnerable people

in/during disasters
h. To have response system in place to face any eventuality.
Scope of Plan (DMP)
The disaster management plan of the Department shall lay down the following details:
i) Types of disasters to which different parts of the State are hazard prone and
vulnerable,
ii) Assess the existing capacities and comprehensiveness of Department, in

terms of multi hazard risk management, operational efficiency and
appropriateness in the aftermath of disaster,
iii) Integration of strategies for prevention and mitigation of disasters, its

interlinking with development plans and programmes by the department,
iv) Roles & responsibilities of Department in the event of any disaster or

threatening situation and the emergency support functions in response,
v) Capacity building and preparedness measures proposed to be put into effect

for disaster risk reduction, its financial provisioning, implementation &
periodic review.
2. Hazard, Vulnerability and Risk Assessment
Hazards Profile:
Andhra Pradesh (A.P.) is highly prone to natural disasters. Cyclones, floods and drought are a
recurrent phenomenon in Andhra Pradesh. Susceptibility to disasters is compounded by
frequent occurrences of manmade disasters such as fire, industrial accidents, oil spills etc.
Frequent disasters lead to erosion of development gains and restricted options for the disaster
victims. Physical safety, especially of the vulnerable groups, is routinely threatened by natural
hazards. The state has 9 coastal districts and also has the 2nd longest coastline in the country
(aprox 974 kms). Cyclones in recent years (Phailin – 2013, Hudhud – 2014 and Vardah – 2016)
in A.P. have very clearly illustrated the need for multi-hazard prevention, response and recovery
plans for natural hazards so that threat to human life and property is minimized. The State is
primarily responsible for the management of natural and human-caused disasters identified
above at the state level and has a shared responsibility with the Government of India for
preparedness and for identified catastrophic disasters.
PR&RD Department will assess and review the impact of different hazards on rural
development work, and subsequently devise risk mapping methodology and
institutionalize appropriate hazard specific control strategies with support from
Panchayat Raj platform.
Seasonality Calendar:
Hazards
Decembe
Septemb
February
Intensity
Novemb
October
January
Vs
August
March
April
June
Months
May
July
Cyclone Very
High
Flood High
Earth Mediu
Quake m
Drought High
Chem. High
Industrial
Heat Very
Wave High
Fire High
Epidemic Mediu
s m
Vulnerability Profile
The Andhra Pradesh is exposed to cyclones, storm surges, floods and droughts. Every two to
three years, Andhra Pradesh experiences a moderate to severe intensity cyclone or landfall.
Similarly, drought is recognized as one of the most crippling hazards that impact the state. The
Departments of Agriculture and Disaster Management of Government of Andhra Pradesh have
detailed procedures of declaring droughts based on several factors.
Andhra Pradesh has 84 Major Accident Hazard Units and thousands of minor industries mostly
spread in and around urban conglomerations such as Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada and Tirupati.
The vulnerability due to industrial hazards, fires and accidents is high due to higher density of
population in urban areas.
Fig: 1 District Headquarters
Source: Andhra Pradesh State Remote Sensing Application Centre (APSRAC)
a) Cyclone vulnerability
The Bay of Bengal accounts for seven percent of the annual tropical cyclone activity worldwide;
the recorded frequency of cyclones per year along the Bay of Bengal is four and inevitably one of
the four transforms into a severe cyclone causing human and property losses. Although the
percentage of cyclonic activity along the coast is relatively low, the level of human and property
loss that cyclones cause around the Bay is very high. Cyclonic landfall usually leads to very heavy
rains accompanied with high speed winds and eventually translates into floods. While the entire
coast of Andhra Pradesh is vulnerable to Cyclones, nine coastal districts are most vulnerable and
have recorded ample amount of landfall in the last century. When cyclones and resulting floods
occur, the loss of crops, PR&RD infrastructure due to severe inundation and cyclonic damages
is significant in the coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh.
Source: Andhra Pradesh State Remote Sensing Application Centre (APSRAC)
b) Flood vulnerability
Floods in Andhra Pradesh have caused widespread loss to the human lives, livestock, damaged
homes and caused crop destruction over the decades. Infrastructure damage due floods is well
recorded. The Godavari and the Krishna rivers have well-defined stable courses; their natural
and manmade banks are capable of carrying flood discharges with the exception of their delta
areas. Because of lackluster attitude of the community, unplanned growth, lack of maintenance
of natural tanks and improper upkeep of drainage systems, floods have been construed as
natural although in reality they are human-caused. Traditionally, flood problem in AP had been
confined to the spilling of
concerned about the huge
impacts that natural disasters
Early Warning system Countries have long been
have on society in de- Three phases of early warning systems
veloped and especially in developing
countries. Unfortunately, societies
Measurement of Measurement of
have not adapted their frameworks of precursors precursors
development to the natural
environment sur- rounding them and In Sri Lanka, over 34,000 people
the losses and costs associated with lost their lives due to the lack
disasters of natural origin. On the of a tsunami early warning
contrary societal catastro- phes are system. No
WhileForecast
there would
indicates time to No
Forecast
indicates
growing by the decade; global annual have been sufficient
catastrophic catastrophic
disaster costs of fifty billion US warn some of the coastal
event? event?
dollars are common. Between 1960 population, the lack of
and 1990 the economic losses of awareness regarding Yes
tsunamis,
Yes
disasters increased five times due to the lack of an early warning
rising vulnerability (MunichRe, system, and the lack of
NatCatSERVICE; Geo Risks training to Warningrespond to a Warning
Research, 2005). Our vulnerability to warning inhibited the
natural hazards is growing, because pop- authorities and the local
ulation increases and more people population from executing the
are living in risky places. proper measures which would
Onset of
Nearly a million people have been have significantly reduced the Antipated Response
killed loss of lives.
over the last decade by disasters The traditional framework of early
caused by storms, droughts, floods. warn-
While some material losses seem to ing systems is composed of
be unavoidable, especially in the case three phases: monitoring of
of very large and infrequent events, in precursors, forecasting of a
some cases the loss of human lives could probable event, and the
have been avoided if the proper notification of a warning or an
precautions and measures had been in alert should an event of
place. This would have been the case catastrophic proportions take
for the December 26, 2004 Indian place. An improved four-step
Ocean tsunami, which provoked framework being promoted by
fatalities surpassing a quarter of a national emergency agencies
million people. and risk management
institutions includes the
additional fourth phase: the
onset of emergency response
activities once the warning has
been issued. The purpose of
this fourth element is to rec-
ognize the fact that there
needs to be a response to the
warning, where the initial
responsibility relies on
emergency response agencies
(see figure).
Effective early warning systems
require
strong technical foundations
and good knowledge of the
risks. But they must be
Risk knowledge. Risks arise from Challenges facing
both the hazards and the
vulnerabilities that are present. Early Warning Systems
What are the patterns and trends
in these factors? Risk assessment In January 2004 the UN Secretary-
and mapping will help to set General called for global early
priorities among early warning warning systems (EWS)
system needs and to guide addressing all natural hazards. In
preparations for response and his 21 March 2005 Report on the
disaster prevention activities. Risk implementation of the
e TSUnAMI
assessment could be based on Millennium Declaration,

historic experience and human, «In Larger Freedom: towards
social, economic and environmen- develop- ment, security and human
tal vulnerabilities. rights for all», he requested the
secretariat for the Inter- national
Warning service. A sound Strategy for Disaster Reduction
F R O M TH
strongly «people centred» – scientific basis for predicting (ISDR secretariat) to coordinate a
with clear messages, potentially catastrophic events is survey of the world’s early
dissemination systems that reach required. Constant monitoring of warning capacities and gaps. The
those at risk, and practiced and possible disaster precursors is complete results of the survey will
D I S A S T e RS – Le AR n I n G
knowledgeable responses by risk necessary to generate accurate be published some time in 2006
managers and the public. Public warnings on time. Approaches but preliminary findings highlight
awareness and education are that address many hazards and some of the shortcomings of
critical; in addition, many sectors involve various monitoring EWS (UN/ISDR 2005).
must be involved. Effective early agencies are most effective.
warning systems must be embed-  Different hazards require different early
warning systems: the needs for the
ded in an understandable manner Communication and dissemination. warning of a drought or a tsunami, for
and relevant to the Clear understandable warnings example, are very different. Experiences
communities which they serve. must reach those at risk. For people gathered around the world show that
to understand the warnings they some hazards are difficult to predict.
must contain clear, useful For example, the forecast of catastroph-
The four elements of people- ic eruptions or tsunamis in any part of
information that enables proper the world is still facing major difficul-
centred Early Warning Systems responses. Regional, national ties due to the lack of adequate meas-
WITH
and community level uring techniques to capture the true

A complete and effective, people- communication channels must be magnitude and timing regarding these
centred early warning system – potentially catastrophic events. Never-
identified in advance and one
De ALI n G
theless, efforts are underway to

EWS – comprises four inter- authorita- tive voice established. advance such knowledge and improve
related elements, spanning the precision of such forecasts.
knowledge of hazards and Response capability. It is essential
vulnerabilities through to that communities understand their  At present, many systems that are able
preparedness and capacity to to issue warnings for a number of nat-
risks; they must respect the ural hazards are in place. A frequent
respond. A weakness or failure in warning service and should know problem, however, is the weak linkage
any one of these elements could how to react. Building up a
result in failure of the whole prepared community requires the
system. Best practice EWS also participation of formal and
have strong inter-linkages between informal education sectors,
all elements in the chain. While addressing the broader concept of
good governance and appropriate risk and vulnerability.
institutional arrangements are
not specifically represented on the
«four element diagram», they are
critical to the development of
effective early warning systems.
Good governance is encouraged by
robust legal and regulatory
frameworks and supported by
long term political commitment
and integrated institutional
arrangements. Major players con-
cerned with the different elements
should meet regularly to ensure
that they understand all of the
other components and what
other parties need from them.
Centralization and decentralization of EWS
When analyzing who executes the two initial phases of the early warning systems, namely, monitoring and
forecasting, one can see two trends, centralized systems where a national-type agency carries out these
functions, and decentralised systems where these tasks are carried out by other agencies, municipal workers and
volunteers at the more local level. For example, in Central America, the national meteorological agencies
operate early warning systems for hurricanes and for floods, including the emission of the warning to the media.
Such systems are set up and operated by these institutions. In contrast, national disaster reduction
agencies, international organizations, and non-governmental organisations have been
implementing decentralized systems in small basins, where communities carry out all phases,
including the response. In such systems, city halls are coordinating most of the activities, and
are connected to the national emergency agency via a radio network that is used to
communicate all information within the system.
While decentralized systems operate using much simpler equipment and are thus less precise, such
systems rely on a network of people-operated radios to transmit information regarding precursors to
events or warnings. The trade off gained from losing precision to monitor and forecast events is gained by
being able to transmit other very useful information, generally related to social issues, such as medical needs,
information regarding rela- tives or processes, or the solution of such problems as the fixing of power lines
when they fail, or acquiring heavy machinery to re- open a road which might be blocked by a landslide. So far,
community-operated systems have been mostly applied in the case of
The four elements of people-centred early warning systems
tions of their risk and vulnerabilities is often lacking. Therefore, preparedness programmes as well as land use and
urban planning, public education and awareness programmes are needed.
 Different hazards are handled widely differently. Weather-related hazards are generally well covered worldwide through the national
meteorological and hydrological services of the WMO system, and forecast accuracy has improved greatly over recent decades. These
capacities still need to be extended to other hazards and complemented by other risk reduction measures that are sorely missing, as was well
illustrated by the Indian Ocean tsunami tragedy.
 Many developing countries, in particular the least developed among them, have limited capacities for effective early warning systems, and
in some cases they are virtually non-existent. Key requirements appear to be the development of national integrated risk reduction and risk
management capabilities, and improved technical equipment and training.
 By considering hazards and vulnerabilities together with a view to reducing risk, it should be possible to increase the effectiveness within
institutions, the efficiency of outgoing actions, and public preparedness for early warning systems to be effective.
Unit 3
Post disaster Management
THE VULNERABILITY OF DISASTERS IN INDIA
According to the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), Brussels, Belgium, India is
the worst disaster-affected country in South Asia. CRED studies show that between 1987 and 1996, on an
annual average, disasters killed 5,063 people and affected 56,563,631 people in India. 2540 people died
and 392,690 people were affected by disasters in 1997 alone. Estimation of the economic impact of
natural disasters (Average 1985-1995) is 1,645,507 million US dollars. CRED cautions that data on the
financial cost of disasters is extremely difficult to gather and verify. Lack of standards, accepted
definitions, documentation mechanisms make disaster data collection and collation a researcher’s
nightmare in India.
The National Center for Disaster Management, New Delhi reports that the number of disasters in India
has increased 5 to 6 times in three decades and that the relief provided after disasters was Rs.61.5
millions in the second finance commission and rose up to Rs.14, 000 millions during the 10th finance
commission.
Due to globalization and consequent structural adjustment programmes, poverty, urbanization,

environmental degradation, social disintegration, terrorism,
*
Programme Manager, ATMA Consultancy Services, TF2, Aasha Apartments, Loyola Gardens, Vijayawada –
520 008 A.P., INDIA
communalism, deforestation, global warming, pollution, industrial disasters, etc., the human made
disasters are also expected to increase in the near future.
Andhra Pradesh: The most Disaster Prone State in India
Andhra Pradesh is the most Disaster prone area in terms of drought, floods, cyclones and fire. It is
the fifth largest state in India, in terms of both population and area. Spread over 2.75 lakh sq km, it
comprises 8.4 per cent of the country's total geographic area. It has a long coastline stretching
approximately 1,030 km, and an equally long history of cyclones. It is battered by at least one
cyclone per year. The coastline districts are normally affected by cyclones and floods, whereas the
western and northern parts of Andhra Pradesh often experience severe drought conditions
Disaster Management
Disasters are both natural and human made – a battery of floods, droughts, cyclones, land slides,
earthquakes, communal riots, armed conflicts, fires, volcanic eruptions and epidemics and industrial
disasters (Bhopal Gas Tragedy). The magnitude of disasters is documented by reference to the
degree of vulnerability of the affected population.
Disaster Management should not be seen in isolation but various phases of management in
addressing this particular issue i.e. in the form of preparedness, relief, rehabilitation mitigation and
reconstruction.
Many organizations are involved in relief and rehabilitation. Most often the focus on preparedness,
mitigation and reconstruction remain neglected. It is necessary for organizations, which are
concerned about disaster to address various stages of disaster management.
Different phases of Disaster Management
Preparedness Disaster Event Relief
Mitigation Reconstruction Rehabilitation

Disaster Mitigation
Mitigation means, “actions taken to reduce risks”. It means a pro-active and a preventive measure. It
is cost effective, long-term result oriented. It contributes to protecting lives, property and the
development process. The mitigation measures taken in advance can reduce the impact of disaster
on people and the environment. Strengthening of unsafe building may be considered as physical
mitigation. Legislation, training, educational measures for public awareness, soil conservation,
reforestation, etc., are some of the ways to reduce the disasters by anticipatory actions and this may
be termed as non-structural mitigation. Introducing appropriate crops and breeds of livestock’s,
drought resistance practices, etc., which are aimed to withstand the impact of disaster may be
measured as agricultural mitigation measures.
It is necessary to mention here that after the cyclone of November 1996 in Andhra Pradesh. The
technical expert team made the on-the-spot assessment and made eight recommendations to
mitigate the extent of damage caused to the buildings in the cyclone prone areas and they are
available on request.
Disaster Preparedness
Disaster preparedness means predicting, responding to and coping with the effects of a disaster
through planning and preparation, such as training in evacuation and setting up systems to operate
in emergencies. There is a close relation between mitigation and preparedness. However, the broad
distinction between the two relates to the essential difference between short and long term
factors. Preparedness planning deals more with the short term and is concerned with the
development of an orderly and systematic approach to deal with disaster in such a way as to
minimize casualties and further damage. This covers a number of specific tasks, such as establishing
an emergency operations center, stockpiling of emergency supplies, making an evacuation plan for a
community living near a possible source of flooding, etc.
Rehabilitation
The rehabilitation phase follows next and involves actions taken in the weeks and months following
a disaster to restore basic services to enable the affected population to return to pre disaster
conditions.
Relief in Disaster Management
As many NGOs, institutions, etc., are involved in relief operation, it is felt necessary to deal with this
subject appropriately, based on the past experiences.
The role of relief though is short term, and is one of the most important humanitarian acts during
disasters. But it requires trained, dedicated team with lot of discipline, dedication, determination
and duty-bound in directing the relief operations and if it is not managed effectively, this itself ends
up in disaster. Usually there is tremendous response to a disaster within the community,
neighborhood, philanthropic organizations, NGOs, their networks and also at the national and
international levels depending on the nature and magnitude of the disaster. If the relief that comes
out of such a response is not properly handled to ensure that it reaches the deserving and needy, it
results in embezzlement, disappointment, frustration, distress, etc. Division of work, time
management and teamwork are very crucial during rescue and relief operations. It is necessary to
see that the following unhealthy practices are not performed during relief:
 More than needed relief reaches the easily accessible areas, those areas which receive
good press /TV coverage and the far-flung villages across bodies of water get little
or no relief material.
 Political leaders with vested interest divert the material to their areas and misuse them.
 Local leaders - those who are concerned about their communities - mismanage the
work.
 More remote inaccessible and marginalized areas which don’t have any resources, and
who cannot articulate their feelings, are often worst affected but they are neglected,
uncared for and taken for granted.
 During immediate relief, when medical care and the enumeration process occur, it is
the economically better off and assertive sections that benefit most.
 Initially, most of the organizations involved follow a populist approach and make most
emotional promises without a matching performance
 Government resources are usually meager to meet the needs and they do not follow
equity principles but distribute relief equally. The staff is most often untrained,
unprofessional, not sensitive to issue, gives importance to press coverage and succumbs
to political pressures.
Some of the tips that deserve to be followed during relief operations are out lined below:
 Education of the public regarding the government relief available, through pamphlets
giving information regarding the various relief measures announced by the
government.
 Document complaints for presentation to the authorities. A volunteer team to register
complaints that are represented in person, through post or by phone and follow it up.
 Organize volunteers’ task force in important government offices like the RDO office,
MRO office, Panchayat office, Government hospital, where people come with
complaints and help them with guidance, assistance and organize protests to achieve
results.
 Run a mobile cell, which visits the villages to enquire if people are getting the relief,
medical care, basic needs etc.
 Motivate NGOs with information, material and expertise to be efficient and effective in
their interventions.
 Ensure proper enumeration of families, who need relief and rehabilitation.
 Organize public hearings for addressing issues of that need public attention,
support and solidarity actions.
 Organize and coordinate the relief operations.
 Prevent out break of epidemics etc.
Post Disaster Reconstruction
Following on the rehabilitation phase is the reconstruction phase. This phase provides an
opportunity to introduce new modes of organizing a community and reducing vulnerability to
hazards.
The reconstruction is a rebuilding measure and that is applicable after certain disasters. The
reconstruction involves building the confidence, self-respect, self- esteem, self-dependency, mutual
support, and mutual trust and rebuilding of communities. This is a long-term process and it focuses
more on human and material resource development, coordinated effort towards independence,
sustainability and empowerment. In this “Reconstruction” the most vulnerable and marginalized
sections like women, children, poorest section of society, etc., are the primary stakeholders and
partners in the empowering process.
Based on the experiences of ATMA Consultancy Services in the reconstruction work, several
principles and best practices in Post Disaster Reconstruction Work have been identified and they are
listed below.
 The reconstruction work should be community managed, controlled and owned, socially
and culturally acceptable. It should promote mutual support of the communities, enlist
self-help and ensure voluntary labor.
 The locally existing ecologically friendly, low cost materials should be made use of. All
the available local resources, local talents, subsidies and various schemes of the
governments should be made use of.
 Simple, latest, cost effective, research based technology and indigenous technology that
is easily adaptable and maintainable must be preferred.
 Efforts should be made to make use of the old and useful building materials and thereby
avoiding wastage and minimize the cost of construction.
 The labor intensive technology should be encouraged and mechanization of
construction and labor displacing technology should be opposed and discourage.
 The programme should facilitate skill development, up-gradation of traditional skills and
encourage learning by doing. It should encourage and make use of the materials
produced by village industries and rural artisans.
The reconstruction should foster feelings of solidarity and bargaining capacities, and address the
issues related to rights and entitlements and strive for collective growth. The partners of this
reconstruction process, irrespective of their position and status, must work for transparency
accountability, democratization, capacitation and collective growth, and steer the community to
manage a controlled, self-owned and sustained development process through effective
organizational and project management systems and procedures.
Many NGOs, government machineries, and representatives of the communities, who belong to
higher strata or middle class, are clueless and don’t have sufficient motivation and commitment in
addressing the problem of the most marginalized communities. During any disaster, it is mostly
women and children, elderly and disabled, who become the most vulnerable victims and therefore
any reconstruction work, should address the issues related to women and children.
It is our experience that if the issues related to women are properly addressed, issues related to
children are taken care of. As the women sector belong to a majority of potential partners, as a
matter of principle and in practice the gender concerns and women issues must be addressed
effectively in the Reconstruction work.
Addressing the post disaster reconstruction work with gender perspective
Prior to addressing the issues of women, it is necessary to distinguish the difference between the
often confused and misinterpreted concepts of sex and gender. It should be noted that sex is
biological, whereas gender is a social construct. It is with the gender perspective that the issues
affecting women should be addressed. However, from experience, it is observed that this is more
easily said than done. There is also a tendency to overburden women in the name of women
development, women empowerment and gender concerns. Though, there are limited experiences in
addressing the issues, it is of paramount importance to share them with a hope that many more
initiatives will be undertaken based on our experience and on the reality.
Usually at the time of cyclones and floods, the people living in low-lying areas, on the banks of
rivers or other encroached lands are affected and it is they who lose life and property. During
rehabilitation, such people are shifted to safer places and permanent houses provided in such new
and safe areas. In such circumstances, it is necessary to se that the new allotment of house sites is
registered in the name of women.
Sometimes though, the people are living in safer places but in non-permanent houses like thatched
houses; when their houses are lost in a cyclone, rehabilitation takes the form of providing
permanent houses at the same place. In such cases, it is necessary to insist that the land rights in
the name of men are converted into joint ownership of men and women before the permanent
houses are constructed.
Single women (like widows, unmarried majors, divorcees, deserted women etc.,) should be treated
as separate and independent units for the purpose of developmental interventions and all
rehabilitation measures.
In issues related to evolving policies, constituting committees, electing bodies, selection of staff,
decision making structures, as a rule not less than 50% of women representation must be ensured.
The perspectives and real needs of women should form part of all plans and project proposals.
Prior to supporting the projects for reconstruction and on long term developmental interventions,
the Community Based Organizations (CBOs), the intermediary NGOs and the sponsors of the
programmes should ensure that more specific guidelines are applied with specific gender focus in
planning and implementation of the programme. As a concrete measure, it is strongly
recommended that all benefiting communities are asked to sign an MOU with Do’s and Don’ts as a
code of conduct in addressing the concerns of women and girls. For example, these can cover issues
such as sharing of domestic work, preventing child marriages, sending the girls to school, promotion
of women as community leaders, strengthening the economic independence of women, measures
to check dowry, wife battering, sexual abuse, forced marriages etc.
In other words, there need to be special initiatives for addressing the practical and strategic needs of
women. Specific measures should be undertaken to initiate, promote, support and sustain women
leadership in social, economic and political fronts.
Of late, various developmental programmes have been initiated with specific focus on women,
which makes women more responsible, burdened with more work and less control over the
benefits. Hence, the reconstruction and long term developmental measures should ensure that
appropriate activities, strategies and indicators are evolved to monitor the advancement of women
in various sectors and men should become collaborators in this process.
A Few Experiences in Post Disaster Reconstruction in Andhra Pradesh
NASA’s Post Reconstruction Housing Programme for Empowering Untouchable

Dalits and marginalized Women:
NASA’s chief bureaucrat has immense experience in relief and rehabilitation and for NASA, relief and
rehabilitation work provides an opportunity to organize the communities towards the goal of dalit
empowerment. Floods, cyclones, fire accidents and atrocities on dalits – all provide the entry point
and as a means to consolidate people organizations towards sustainable development and
empowerment. NASA demonstrated this in its relief and rehabilitation work after
1990, 1995 and 1996 cyclones. In the reconstruction
Locally work after these cyclones, NASA utilized the
available resources
emotional situations to foster unity among dalits and inspire them to build their own future.
Housing provides the best opportunity for such a committed community organization work. The
people’s organizations are motivated to complete the project by introducing locally feasible cost
effective technology, participative, transparent and accountable systems. NASA made use locally
available resources for housing such as bricks, rough stones, sand, deadwood etc., to the optimum
level. NASA has so far constructed more than 8,000 permanent houses. So far 18,000 acres of land
was acquired and developed with special focus on watershed management and by introducing
appropriate land development practices. This has immensely contributed to the socio-economic
advancement of the dalits. NASA’s documents showed that it has promoted 5,000 self-help groups
ranging from 10 to 15 members per group and there are 60,000 women involved. They are
federated at the macro level as cooperative societies. They are involved in savings, credit, skill
development, and income generation and as active participants in socio-economic and political
empowerment processes.
The concept of housing does not end with the completion of houses. The unity and ‘we’ feeling
developed during the housing programme motivated people to acquire land and develop it, mobilize
programmes for basic and minimum needs, schools, income generating programmes and
strengthens unity to fight for self respect and dignity.
Land Development
The housing colonies are provided with good internal roads, community halls, drainage, smokeless
chullahs, compost pits, electrification, drinking water, schools, kitchen gardens, flower gardens, etc.
The kitchen gardens with coconut plants yield income. The permanent houses with hygienic
atmosphere has brought new status and dignity to the dalits, the so called untouchables, who live in
segregated areas. It is not an exaggeration to say that the newly built dalit colonies give a
better look than the housing colonies of the dominant castes.
Pre Reconstruction Scenario of Dibbulapalem
Dibbulapalem is slum on the banks of Thandava River in a low-lying area. There are about 70
families. This colony was branded as a sex workers colony and all governmental agencies and the
public neglected it. The majority of them was illiterate and their children were sent to cashew
factories as labourers.
Brick Making
The cyclone of 1995 was devastating and it washed away all the thatched houses of Dibbalapalem.
The residents lost all their belongings and were left bare. At this juncture NASA stepped into the
Dibbalapalem colony and started an awareness campaign and conducted health camps. All women
were organized as Women Sangham and they were successfully persuaded to abandon prostitution.
NASA helped the women’s Sangham to mobilize and solicit a grant from the government for
housing and the grant from the Emergency Desk of Diakonisches Werk was also requested. NASA
facilitated the construction of 74 houses with the active participation of the women’s organization,
which organized its own brick making unit, mobilized voluntary labour, monitored the construction,
introduced cost control measures. The title deeds of the houses were obtained in the name of the
women. Housing brought a tremendous change in the lives of the women. They were counseled and
motivated to save regularly and helped to mobilize matching grants from the government to take
up alternative forms of living like micro-businesses. The children were guided to get admission
into Government schools and in NASA’s child labour schools. After completion of the houses, the
Sangham mobilized government support for internal roads, community hall, electricity and
developed kitchen gardens in next the houses. With permanent houses and beautiful roads, the
hitherto slum now gives a posh look. The bad name for the locality also got
erased over years. Some of the women converted part of their houses, facing the main road, into
shops.
The spirit and motivation that propelled hitherto sex workers to transform themselves into dignified
citizens was possible through an effective organizational network. This brought assertiveness among
them and a desire to a lead in the democratic process. The women participated in local municipal
elections and got one candidate elected as councilor for their area and also cornered the
chairperson’s post to their candidate.
Reconstruction of Houses: The Experience with TWACHARDO
The worst cyclonic disaster in the recent memory in the country occurred in 1977 in Guntur and
Krishna districts, Andhra Pradesh, due to tidal waves. More than 10,000 people perished overnight,
making it the biggest national calamity. The government was strongly criticized for its failure in relief
and rescue operations and disaster preparedness. Innumerable human and material resources were
mobilized by various bodies for relief and reconstruction. The present experience relates to one
such village, called Pallipalem, inhabited by 70 fishermen families, which is just 2km from the Bay of
Bengal, where a private company came forward to reconstruct the houses and the State
administration constructed a cyclone shelter.
In 1990 there was another cyclone of even larger magnitude and the majority of those houses were
damaged. TWACHARDO requested Diakonisches Werk, Germany, for financial support to take up
post-disaster reconstruction work. On-the- spot assessment proved that the pre-fabricated concrete
roofs were of poor quality and they were already unfit for living. People built up temporary shelters
with coconut leaves and were living there. The cyclone shelter of a comparatively big size with two
floors was not maintained and was in a dilapidated condition. As no one was responsible for the
building, people were using it for gambling, a portion of it was used for storage and at nights it was
used for immoral acts. There were about six toilets meant for the community in a row out of which
four were locked and the two were used for storing some household items. In the same premises,
there was a school and the children had to go for open-air defecation. It was also found out that the
government has given two acres of land, which were under the threat of occupation by non-local
affluent section. The village was exposed to sea without anything to prevent cyclonic storms or
winds. The fishing boats and nets of the people were in a damaged condition.
In view of the above scenario a comprehensive plan to address all the issues was planned with the
active participation of the people, NGO, the State Housing corporation and district administration.
Their financial commitments were obtained in writing. The NGO and the community were
facilitated to enter into a written MOU on their roles and responsibilities. With the support of the
Emergency Desk of Diakonisches Werk, the Andhra Pradesh State Housing Board, the district
administration, the local government and Andhra Bank, coupled with the people’s
contribution in the form of labor, by using the salvaged doors and windows from the buildings and
by using resources to the optimum, they could execute all the programmes that were planned. In
the process, the people had to face some difficulties. The main difficulty was the traditional NGO
attitude of the Chief Bureaucrat, who was not really promoting people’s participation, which had to
be overcome. Another difficulty was that of the government officials, who expected to receive
certain percentages from the benefits extended by the government. Both these difficulties could be
over come by the intervention of the consultant of Diakonisches Werk, who took precautions to
actively involve people and make things transparent, democratic and participatory.
Ultimately, the planned goals could be achieved and people successfully completed the housing,
repaired the cyclone shelter and the community took responsibility for its proper use and
maintenance. The community organization became spirited and motivated and they proceeded to
acquire the lands allotted to them for cultivation. As the NGO did not have the capacity to
organize the people to struggle for rights and facilitate further development, it could not make full
progress soon after the withdrawal of services by consultants.
BREDS and the SHGs as well as MACS grow stronger in partnership towards
sustainable development
BREDS provides an inspiring illustration where people’s initiative and participation was at its
optimum. BREDS, which works among the rural poor of Kottur Mandal, Srikakulam district of Andhra
Pradesh, is composed of young, enthusiastic and innovative board members and staff. This young
group inspired by ideals of voluntarism in its true spirit introduced totally transparent, accountable,
democratic, participative systems in to the people’s organizations, which in turn motivated the
people to actively shape their own destinies. The staff and people addressed the issues of fire
mishaps in the housing colonies, floods and drought that followed successively one after another in
1996. They have decided to go for permanent housing and constructed about 200 houses with
people’s participation at its peak. The people contributed voluntary labor as a community to
complete the entire housing within record time in a most cost effective way by mobilizing all local
resources like sand, wood and manufacturing bricks. Cement was purchased directly from the
manufacturers, thereby saving a lot. The CBO model with high level of people participation has
reached such a level that BREDS gave away its office to the CBO and the process of withdrawal of
NGO and takeover by CBO is in its full swing. Shortly, it is hoped that the CBO will take over the
staff of BREDS. The model work of CBO has attracted the attention of the District Administration,
which has come forward to sanction not only all possible schemes to the people but, all government
works in the area also are given to the community, which works for the larger benefit of the
community. The people have successfully implemented and benefited through various programmes
like tree plantation and afforestation of hill slopes, land development, weaving schemes, women
development schemes, road and tank works, fish cultivation, etc., and all these measures resulted
in controlling
out-migration for paid labour. A few hundred SHGs of women’s federations became the cooperative
society, which takes care of the staff of BREDS as their employees and replaced the NGO and
marching ahead as a mandal.
Community Based Organization-

Meeting
Post Reconstruction – Another Experience of Disaster
There were flash floods in a traditionally drought prone area of Cuddapah district in Andhra
Pradesh.in October, 1996 due to poor maintenance of minor irrigation tanks, floodgates of a
reservoir.
A few international donors promptly responded with relief and rehabilitation work. A network of 15
NGOs in the district that is associated with a joint forest management project, implemented the
above project in cooperation with the government and local communities.
In one site, it was planned to rehabilitate about 1000 Dalit families from 15 villages. They were not
only affected by floods but also their villages were located under the submerging area of Somaseela
reservoir; they are to be relocated. For such displaced persons, there was altogether a different and
better package than that of other rehabilitation programmes.
The work started off well. Two NGOs were entrusted with responsibilities for constructing 1000
houses. The support of one western donor was used to lay foundation work. Another western donor
helped one of the NGOs with support for buying four cement brick making machines and
implements for land development work, the government assigned about 1500 acres of land for the
families to be relocated and to buy Cuddapah slab stones for roof terracing.
The issues were that the people would not leave from their existing villages because they feared
that compensation would not be given, if they shifted their residences.
Secondly they have to depend on their daily labour to eke out a living and in the new settlement -
unless and until the land development and joint forest management programmes were taken up -
they would not be able to find employment. They have also found it difficult to travel 20 kms up
and down by spending about one day’s wage for a day’s travel expenses so that it proved to be
difficult to participate in the construction work.
One of the NGOs created employment for about 20 people to make cement bricks and to transport
sand and other building materials. This however, could not be continued because the employees of
Andhra Pradesh Housing Corporation and the Chief Bureacrats of the NGOs had their own agenda in
the absence of people’s participation. The government employees hired the brick making machines
and produced poor quality of bricks and used inferior quality of building materials. The government
employees, who were expected to monitor the progress, took up the job of construction much
against the norms and rules laid by the Housing Corporation in collision with higher ups. In
purchasing materials, in masonry work, in laying internal roads, in sinking bore wells, in making
building materials and in every other field, wherever they were involved, they made their profit by
bypassing the ethics, principles, etc. Three types of roofing were promoted by the Housing
Corporation. One was pre-fabricated arch dome, the second one is R.C.C slab. The third one is
known as Kurnool terrace roofing, which is very much local, common, cheaper and easily
maintainable, because it is of simple technology, the materials required are available in plenty and
they are cheaper. This model is to place the cement rafters at the roof level and Cuddapah slab
stones and covered it with white soil of poor quality, which prevents any seepage. The people can
use the terrace of two models for drying food grains or to sleep on at night, whereas the arch dome
model, though cheaper to erect, is not appreciated by the people because they cannot use the
terrace and it is also difficult to repair them, if they start deteriorating due to poor quality of pre-
fabrication. Now the fact remains that the Chief Bureaucrats of NGOs and the government
employees became the contractors.
The people did not bother about the poor quality

Kurnool of construction and unsystematic infrastructure
Terrace
development because they neither got involved
Roofingcontributed anything in cash or kind. Only 850
nor
houses were constructed at a cost of Rs.20, 000/- per house of 144 sq.ft. as per the government’s
prescribed sizes. The
doorframes, window frames and shutters were made of pre-fabricated cement blocks, which are of
poor quality and are not liked, by the people. At present about 30 families are residing in this
locality. Others will prefer to take possession of their houses if the following conditions are met:
 Compensation for their displacement from the existing villages, houses, lands etc.
 Receive rehabilitation package and facilities in the new place of residence.
 Employment opportunities with in new locality must be ensured and schemes for land
development and JFM are grounded.
 Basic facilities like water, electricity etc. are provided in the newly constructed colony.
It is concluded that dedicated, committed and result-oriented NGOs, community leaders and
government officials must work together to address problems confronting the communities if those
displaced communities have to live in a dignified way and improve their living conditions.
Post Cyclone Reconstruction Housing – Experimentation by PARA
PARA is supported by ‘Bread for the World' to work in 2 mandals of East Godavari District. Its area of
operation was affected by a cyclone in November 1996. It has been very effectively involved in relief
and rescue operations and in facilitating means to address the grievances of the victims. It has
made a promise to construct 300 houses for the victims of cyclone. The government advised the
NGOs not to mobilise contributions from the people for constructing the houses. The government
contribution was fixed at the rate of Rs.10,000 for a first type of house and Rs.15,000/- for a second
type of house. Hence, most of the NGOs, which showed interest, had to withdraw because they
could not afford to invest 20 to 30 thousand rupees per house. However, PARA went ahead with the
participation of the communities and from the beginning the beneficiaries were actively involved.
The criteria used for selecting the beneficiaries were three:
a) The active involvement of beneficiaries in the on going programmes like participating in

the struggle for implementing minimum wages, land reforms and protection of Dalit human
rights.
b) They should be members of an agricultural labor union and the self-help groups, who are
involved in thrift and credit and other development programmes.
c) The beneficiaries, who agree to the MOU and the important clauses in this MOU were to
make the necessary contribution for laying foundation stones and to provide unskilled labor
for their own housing.
The details of the constructions were: PARA to construct two rooms (8x9 ft each) and a toilet (3x4
ft.) on the foundations offered by the beneficiary. The walls were of 9 inches thickness to a height
of 10ft. The roof made of RCC filler roof with 1 ft. projecting over the walls. Two RCC doorframes and
2 RCC windows fitted. One wooden door shutter was fixed, cement flooring and plastering of
internal walls,
toilets with 7ft. high brick wall, RCC roof, porcelain pan connected to two leach pits 6ft. deep.
Window shades were constructed.
PARA introduced a new technology promoted by Laurie Baker. Rat Trap construction for the walls
and filler roofing for the slabs were used, which reduced the cost by 20%. PARA’s office building
was also constructed by using this technology. The local masons were also trained in acquiring skills
in the newly introduced technology.
Rat Trap Technology
It was documented that for a house of the same specification, usually about 10,000 bricks are
required, while using the Rat Trap technology, the house has been completed with over 7,000
bricks. Similarly, the slab in the ordinary construction would require over 100Kgs of steel, while in
the filler roof the steel requirement is less than 75Kgs for a house. Similarly, there is also a saving
on cement.
The majority of the families made use of the locally available materials i.e. coconut tree leaves and
rafters made of coconut trees for extending their small houses. There are about 30% of the
people who borrowed money to make additions like portico, additional rooms, etc., and who used
up the materials given by PARA; as a result there was a delay in the completion of the project.
Money was borrowed at an exorbitant rate of interestand many have become defaulters. The
people did not show much interest in taking care of the sanitation component and it showed that
women concerns and requirements were not given due importance.
Another important problem that is faced was that the people are accustomed to consult the local
experts in locating the houses and according to VAASTU. Normally, people don’t go against the
advice of the VAASTU experts because they fear about misfortunes, if the advice is not followed. In
this context, it is worth to mention here that in Andhra Pradesh, irrespective of faith they belong to,
majority follows the VAASTU and this practice is also spreading to other states. This VAASTU either
helps to get good price for the houses and if they are not according to VAASTU they fetch very
much less and are often difficult to sell.
Institutional Process and Framework
 The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is the

apex statutory body for disaster management in India.
 The NDMA was formally constituted on 27th September 2006, in
accordance with the Disaster Management Act, 2005 with Prime
Minister as its Chairperson and nine other members, and one
such member to be designated as Vice-Chairperson.
 Mandate: Its primary purpose is to coordinate response to natural
or man-made disasters and for capacity-building in disaster
resiliency and crisis response. It is also the apex body to lay down
policies, plans and guidelines for Disaster Management to ensure
timely and effective response to disasters.
 Vision: To build a safer and disaster resilient India by a holistic,
proactive, technology driven and sustainable development strategy
that involves all stakeholders and fosters a culture of prevention,
preparedness and mitigation.
What led to the Evolution of NDMA?
 In recognition of the importance of Disaster Management as a
national priority, the Government of India set up a High-Powered
Committee (HPC) in August 1999 and a National Committee
after the Gujarat earthquake (2001), for making
recommendations on the preparation of Disaster Management plans
and suggesting effective mitigation mechanisms.
 The Tenth Five-Year Plan document also had, for the first time, a
detailed chapter on Disaster Management. The Twelfth Finance
Commission was also mandated to review the financial
arrangements for Disaster Management.
 On 23 December 2005, the Government of India enacted the
Disaster Management Act,

 which envisaged the creation of NDMA, headed by the Prime

Minister, and State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs)
headed by respective Chief Ministers, to spearhead and implement
a holistic and integrated approach to Disaster Management in India.
What are the Functions and Responsibilities of NDMA?
 Approve the National Disaster Plan
 Lay down policies on disaster management
 Approve plans prepared by Ministries or Departments of the
Central Government in accordance with National Plan
 Lay down guidelines to be followed by State Authorities in drawing
up State Plan
 Lay down guidelines to be followed by different Ministries or
Departments of Central Government for purpose of integrating
measures for disaster prevention or mitigation of its effects in their
development plans and projects
 Coordinate enforcement and implementation of disaster
management policy and plan
 Recommend provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation
 Provide such support to other countries affected by major disasters
as determined by Central Government
 Take such other measures for prevention of disasters or mitigation
or preparedness and capacity building for dealing with threatening
disaster situation or disaster as it may consider necessary
 Lay down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of
National Institute of Disaster Management
What is the Institutional Framework for Disaster
Management in India?
 The primary responsibility for management of disaster rests with
the State Government concerned.
 However, the National Policy on Disaster Management puts in
place an enabling environment for all i.e., the Centre, State and
District.
 The National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009 has been
prepared in tune with and in pursuance of the Disaster
Management Act, 2005. It provides the framework/roadmap for
handling disasters in a holistic manner.
 Under the provisions of the Act, the Disaster Management Authority
has been established at 3 levels viz. National, State and District.
 The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has been
established under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister and
National Executive Committee (NEC) of Secretaries has been
created to assist the NDMA in the performance of its functions.
 At the State level, a State Disaster Management Authority has
been created under the Chairmanship of Chief Minister of the
State, which has been assisted by a State Executive Committee.
 At the District level, District Disaster Management
Authorities have been created.
 It lays down the policies, plans and guidelines for disaster
management for ensuring timely and effective response to disaster
and long-term disaster risk reduction.
 India is also a signatory to the Sendai Framework for Disaster
Risk Reduction (SFDRR) that sets targets for disaster
management.
What are State level Institutions?
 State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)
o Headed by Chief Minister of the respective state, SDMA lays

down the policies and plans for disaster management in the
state.
o It is responsible to coordinate the implementation of the state
Plan, recommend provision of funds for mitigation and
preparedness measures and review the developmental plans of
the different departments of the state to ensure integration of
prevention, preparedness and mitigation measures.
 State Executive Committee (SEC)- Headed by the Chief
Secretary of the state, SEC has the responsibility for coordinating
and monitoring the implementation of the National Policy, the
National Plan and the State Plan as provided under the DM Act.
What are District level Institutions?
 District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)
o Section 25 of the DM Act provides for constitution of DDMA
for every district of a state.
o The District Magistrate/ District Collector/Deputy
Commissioner heads the Authority as Chairperson besides an
elected representative of the local authority as Co-Chairperson
except in the tribal areas where the Chief Executive Member of
the District Council of Autonomous District is designated as
Co-Chairperson.
 Further in district, where Zila Parishad exists, its

Chairperson shall be the Co-Chairperson of DDMA.
o The District Authority is responsible for planning, coordination
and implementation of disaster management and to take such
measures for disaster management as provided in the
guidelines.
 The District Authority also has the power to examine the
construction in any area in the district to enforce the safety
standards and to arrange for relief measures and respond to
the disaster at the district level.
What are India's Efforts in Managing Disaster?
 Establishment of National Disaster Reaction Force (NDRF):
o India consciously developed DM as a holistic approach, not
just reacting after a disaster but also integrating disaster
preparedness, mitigation, and Disaster Risk Reduction
(DRR) into plans and policies.
o India has increasingly mitigated and responded to all types of
disasters, including with the establishment of its National
Disaster Reaction Force (NDRF), the world’s largest rapid
reaction force dedicated to disaster response.
 India’s Role as a Foreign Disaster Relief:
o India is also an emerging donor that has provided
a substantial amount of foreign disaster relief, as well
as foreign development assistance, to other countries.
o India’s foreign humanitarian assistance has increasingly
included its military assets, primarily deploying naval ships or
aircraft to deliver relief.
o In line with its diplomatic policy of “Neighbourhood First,”
many of the recipient countries have been in the region of
South and Southeast Asia.
 In the last two decades, India has given foreign
humanitarian assistance bilaterally to Afghanistan,
Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan,
the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and others.
 Contribution to Regional Disaster Preparedness:
o As part of its neighbourhood development efforts, India also
contributes to regional disaster preparedness and capacity
building efforts.
o Within the context of the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-
Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation
(BIMSTEC), India has hosted DM Exercises that allow NDRF
to demonstrate for counterparts from partner states the
techniques developed to respond to various disasters.
o Other NDRF and Indian Armed Forces exercises have
brought India’s first responders into contact with those from
states in the South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC) and the Shanghai Cooperation
Organisation (SCO).
 Managing Climate Change related Disaster:
o Globally, disasters in the last two decades have predominantly
been climate-related disasters, of which floods are the most
frequently occurring type of disaster and storms are the
second most deadly type of disaster (surpassed by
earthquakes).
o India has adopted the Sendai Framework for DRR,
the Sustainable Development Goals (2015-2030), and
the Paris Agreement on Climate Change, all of which make
clear the connections among DRR, Climate Change Adaptation
(CCA), and sustainable development.
o India participates in several multilateral organisations that
address these and other issues that benefit from multinational
coordination.
What are the Shortcomings and Challenges?
 Questions were raised about the role of NDMA
during Uttarakhand Flooding in 2013, where it failed to timely
inform people about the flash floods and landslides. The post
disaster relief response had been equally poor. Experts blamed
the poor planning of NDMA that lead to unfinished projects for
flood and landslide mitigation.
 A CAG report noted that there were delays in completion of
projects under the flood management programmes. It noted the
projects were not taken up in an integrated manner and blamed
NDMA for institutional failures for poor flood management.
o It held that there were huge delays in completion of river

management activities and works related to border areas
projects which were long-term solutions for the flood problems
of Assam, north Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh.
 Devastations during Kerala Floods in 2018 and Chennai Floods
in 2015 were eye-opening for the institutions regarding
preparedness for the disaster situation.
o CAG report on 2015 Chennai Floods termed it to be a “man-

made disaster” and holds Tamil Nadu government responsible
for the catastrophe.
 The NDRF personnel lack sufficient training, equipment, facilities
and residential accommodation to tackle the crisis situation
properly.
 Misutilization of Funds- Government constituted National
Disaster Response Fund and State Disaster Response Fund to deal
with the disasters.
o Audit findings reveal that some states have mis-utilized funds

for expenditures that were not sanctioned for disaster
management.
o There was in a few cases significant delay in releasing funds.
Additionally, some States didn’t invest the funds thereby
incurring huge interest losses. This shows financial indiscipline
in states management of funds.
What can be the Way Forward?
 Policy guidelines at the macro level are needed that would
inform and guide the preparation and implementation of disaster
management and development plans across sectors.
 Building in a culture of preparedness and mitigation is the need
of the hour.
 Operational guidelines should be framed for integrating disaster
management practices into development, and specific
developmental schemes for prevention and mitigation of disasters.
 Robust early warning systems coupled with effective response
plans at district, state and national levels should be put in place.
 Community, NGOs, CSOs and the media should be involved at
all stages of disaster management.

Unit 4
Today it is a proven fact that Natural

Disasters can happen at any place
irrespective of the developed, developing
or the least developed status of a
country. It can cause massive destruction
to the lives and livelihoods of large
population and hence, to the national
economies. It is experienced that the
least developed and developing
countries are impacted more severely by
large scale natural disasters.
The unique geo-climatic conditions have made India highly vulnerable to natural
disasters. In India, 54% of landmass is prone to earthquakes, 40 million hectares of
landmass is prone to floods, 8000 km of coastline is prone to cyclones and almost
68% of total geographical area is vulnerable to droughts. The recent occurrence of
massive Tsunami on 26.12.2004 has worsened the situation. Though complete
prevention of natural disasters is beyond human capabilities, the adverse impact of
any disaster on human lives and their livelihoods can be minimized by taking
adequate early warning, preparedness and mitigation measures. The state-of-art
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) systems play a crucial role for
implementing such preventive measures.
1. ICT in Disaster Risk Reduction

With advancement in Information & Communication Technology in the form of
Internet, GIS, Remote Sensing, satellite-based communication links; it can help a
great deal in planning and implementation of disaster risk reduction measures. These
technologies have been playing a major role in designing early warning systems,
catalyzing the process of preparedness, response and mitigation. ICT tools are also
being widely used to build knowledge warehouses using internet and data
warehousing techniques. These knowledge warehouses can facilitate planning &
policy decisions for preparedness, response, recovery and mitigation at all levels.
Similarly, GIS-based systems improve the quality of analysis of hazard vulnerability
and capacity assessments, guide development planning and assist planners in the
selection of mitigation measures. Communication systems have also become
indispensable for providing emergency communication and timely relief and
response measures.
The Indian Experience

In order to reduce the risk and vulnerabilities in India the Ministry of Home Affairs,
being the Nodal Ministry for Disaster Management, is taking lead on disaster
management and mitigation in the country. The Ministry has drawn up a National
Disaster Management Framework for the country. This
The Indian Experience 1

ICT for Disaster Risk Reduction
National Framework covers the prime

sectors such as institutional mechanisms
at all administrative levels, disaster
mitigation/prevention to be
mainstreamed into the development
process, envisaged legal/policy framework,
early warning systems, preparedness &
emergency response measures and human
resource development. The Ministry has
undertaken various nationwide
initiatives to strengthen disaster
management systems in the country.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has joined hands in this effort of
Government of India and is implementing GoI-UNDP Disaster Risk Management
(DRM) programme in 169 most vulnerable Districts of 17 States in India. Information
coordination and management is seen as one of the major challenges in India due to
the large geography and diversity of language/cultures. The GoI-UNDP DRM
Programme addresses these issues very carefully by using Information and
Communication Technology tools for faster response, effective decision making and
develop well informed practitioners.
There are number of ICT based initiatives, tools and applications developed to
help the disaster managers function efficiently.
2. Online Inventory of Emergency Resources

It has been observed that a comprehensive database of disaster management related
inventory and organized information dissemination system on availability of
specialized resources is very essential for mobilizing the specialized equipment and
skilled human resources to respond immediately during disaster. Lack of adequate
information about availability has hampered quick and measured response resulting in
delays which could be critical in case of sudden eventualities. Therefore, a need to
prepare a database of such resources, from District to State level was strongly felt.
When disasters strike, the disaster managers at the District/State level respond with
the resources at their command. While the Disaster Manager (District
Magistrate/Collector) is generally aware of the resources at his command within the
District, he may not be aware of the resources available in the neighboring Districts or
in the neighboring States. The disaster manager at the State level [the Relief
Commissioner] does not have an inventory of resources available within the State.
Therefore, all the resources available within the State are not brought to bear for
saving lives, and when some specialist equipment is required, there is a lack of
knowledge as to the whereabouts of the equipment either
2
in the neighboring District or in the neighboring State. Lives can be lost because of
such delays or lack of required resources.
What is IDRN?
The IDRN (India Disaster Resource Network – www.idrn.gov.in) is a nation-wide
electronic inventory of essential and specialist resources for disaster response, covering
specialist equipment, specialist manpower resources and critical supplies.
IDRN has been initiated by

Ministry of Home Affairs
(MHA) in collaboration with
United Nations Development
Program (UNDP) to
systematically build the
disaster resource inventory as
an organized information
system for collection and
transmission of information Figure 1: The Home Page of IDRN
about specific equipments,
human expertise and critical
supplies database from
District level to State level to
provide availability of
resources for disaster response, so that disaster managers can mobilize the required
resources within least response time.
The IDRN lists out the equipment and the resources by type and by the functions
it performs and it gives the contact address and telephone numbers of the controlling
officers in-charge of the said resources so that the equipment can be promptly
mobilized. The IDRN is a live system providing for updating of inventory every
quarter. Entries into the inventory are made at two levels – District and State level.
This online information system can be accessed by authorized Government officials,

District level nodal persons, corporate bodies and public sector units. District nodal
authority will be responsible for collecting, compiling and updating their
inventory data to the central server with the help of concerned District departments.
Adequate authorization and security has been in-built and is being maintained in the
portal to prevent unauthorized access to this inventory. The user may avail the
facilities like analyzing or querying the information resource inventory through
given user friendly interfaces to get a list of resources available in the District and
State level.

Target Audience:
The users and partners of IDRN initiative are: 602 District administrations of 35
States and UTs, all 35 State/ UT administration of India, around 5000 member
corporate bodies with Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), around 33,000
builders, contractors and construction companies with Builders’ Association of
India (BAI), the entire Indian Railways and numerous public sector undertakings
in the country.
How it works?
The India Disaster Resource Network is a web-based application with controlled access to
the database. 226 items mainly consisting of equipments, human resources and
critical supplies are categorized in the system. The data related to these items are
collected from the line departments and various organizations at the District level.
The data is entered in to the portal at the District level.
Figure 2: The data collection and collation process in IDRN
Description of the Portal
The authorized users can enter the portal through the User ID and Password provided to them by the
IDRN Administrator, Ministry of Home Affairs. Various users can access the portal based on their access level
predefined viz. user from the Ministry can access the administration of part of the portal,
4 The Indian Experience

whereas a State disaster management department user can view only the data in the database.
Capturing Inventory:
The inventory data of the specified item are collected from various departments below District level in a
paper format and Data is entered at the District level through the IDRN portal www.idrn.gov.in.
Locating Resources:
The database can be queried by using various options available in the portal viz. Country wide query,
summary report, department wise report, common query, date based report etc. The most commonly used
report to access country wide data is shown below. The user can choose one or multiple Activity, category,
item and State, District and the source of the equipment and find the details in a report.
Figure 3 : The data entry interface in IDRN

Figure 4 : Query Interface in IDRN
The reports generated by the system gives a detail of the equipment, human resource or critical
supplies in terms of its availability, contact person details, quantity available, location, operators provided
or not, transport options etc.
Figure 5: Detailed Report in IDRN

3. GIS in Disaster Management

During any emergency situation, the role of a reliable Decision Support System is very crucial for
effective response and recovery. Geographic Information System (GIS) provide most versatile platform for
Decision Support by furnishing multilayer geo-referenced information which includes hazard zoning,
incident mapping, natural resources and critical infrastructure at risk, available resources for response, real
time satellite imagery etc. GIS-based information tools allow disaster managers to quickly assess the impact
of the disaster/emergency on geographic platform and plan adequate resource mobilization in most
efficient way. Thus, a reliable GIS-based database will ensure the
Map for Illustration – Not to Scale

Figure 6 : Internet enabled GIS based Decision Support
System
mobilization of right resources to right locations within least response time. Such database would also
play a fundamental role in planning and implementation of large scale preparedness and mitigation
initiatives.
The Ministry of Home Affairs have initiated the development of a GIS-based National Database for
Emergency Management (NDEM) in collaboration with various Govt. Ministries/agencies such as Dept. of Space,
Dept. of Science & Technology and Ministry of Communications & IT. The Ministry with technical support
from UNDP is also in process of developing GIS based tools for emergency management on pilot basis.
The resources available, the critical infrastructures etc are mapped for

the national capital as demonstrative system (Figure-6).
4. National Emergency Communication Plan

In emergency response and management, it
is extremely important to have the
communication links operational between
decision makers at various levels and
operational response teams/personnel on the
site. Unfortunately at the time of
emergency situations such as natural or man-
made disasters, the first casualty is the regular
telecommunications infrastructure of public
wired and wireless (GSM/CDMA) telephones.
Considering the crucial role of MHA during
such emergencies, it is
essential to set-up reliable information and Figure 7 : Phase I – National Emergency Communication Plan
communication network employing both terrestrial and satellite-based communication technologies with
redundancies to establish a network for emergency communications
The Ministry of Home Affairs is planning to execute the communication plan in two phases.
Phase – I
In the first phase, the VSAT network in the first phase will use resources only from POLNET and will provide
required communication links
between National Emergency Operations
Centre (NEOC), remote Disaster sites and
respective State Emergency Operations
Centre (SEOC).
Phase – II
The second phase envisages integrated
network of all EOCs at national, State and
District levels as well as transportable
terminals deployed at emergency/disaster
sites, using satellite and terrestrial
communication networks.

Figure 8 : Phase II - National Emergency Communication Plan
5. Conclusion:
Information and Communication Technologies in form of Internet, GIS, Remote Sensing, Satellite
communication etc. are indispensable in planning and successful implementation of most Disaster Risk
Reduction initiatives. However, the potential of most advanced technologies is required to be harnessed in
early warning, preparedness and response systems along with adequate emphasis on building human
capacities to use these tools and technologies.
Unit 5

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Final Disaster Notes

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DISASTER BACKGROUND:

 A disaster can be defined as “A serious disruption in the functioning of the community or a

DISASTERS – GLOBAL SCENARIO

Incidences of Mass Trauma

Differences between Emergencies and Disasters

• A situation in which community is CAPABLE of coping is EMERGENCY.

How to Deal with Emergencies

Disaster Management Life Cycle

2. Disaster preparedness: Disaster preparedness efforts include plans or preparations made

Some significant earthquakes in India

THE CIRCULATIONS INSIDE EARTH

Arrival of Seismic Waves at a Site

– Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the actual Size of the earthquake.

– Intensity is an indicator of the severity of shaking generated at a given location

(a) Depth of focus as basis:

Common Types of Hazards

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

A. Natural Hazard: These hazards are caused by a natural process.

Vulnerability, Capacity and Risk

Susceptibility of a person, group or society to physical or emotional injury.

There are four (4) main types of vulnerability:

 Physical Vulnerability: may be determined by aspects such as population density levels,

Risk Analysis and Rating

Risk can be calculated using the following equation:

There are different ways of dealing with risk, such as:

Development Results into Disaster

Factors affecting vulnerabilities

A powerful earthquake measuring 6.6 at the Richter scale struck SOUTHEASTERN

Societal impact and strategic research objectives

Main sub-fields and areas

Climate Change Adaption

Societal impact and strategic research objectives

Political and administrative frame

DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE

Stages in Disaster Management

There are three key stages of activities in disaster management:

3. After a disaster: to achieve rapid and durable recovery.

rehabilitation and reconstruction.

Risk Reduction: Mitigation and Preparedness

• Disaster prevention and preparedness

• Prevention and preparedness

The main functions of the Department are as follows:

 Implement schemes for rural development

 Execute minor irrigation and poverty alleviation programs

 Rural Water Supply

Objective and Scope

Objective of the Plan

a. To mitigate the impact of natural and man-made disasters through

b. The Disaster Management Plan (DMP) helps to bring together the

d. It helps the Department to assess its own capacity in terms of available

e. To assist the line departments, block administration, communities in

f. To disseminate information in a timely, accurate and tactful manner while

g. To develop immediate and long-term support plans for vulnerable people

h. To have response system in place to face any eventuality.

Scope of Plan (DMP)

ii) Assess the existing capacities and comprehensiveness of Department, in

iii) Integration of strategies for prevention and mitigation of disasters, its

iv) Roles & responsibilities of Department in the event of any disaster or

v) Capacity building and preparedness measures proposed to be put into effect