Vernacular Architecture and Its Applicatibility in Contemporay Building Design

YAŞAR UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES
MASTER THESIS
VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE AND ITS

APPLICABILITY IN CONTEMPORARY BUILDING
DESIGN IN HOT AND ARID CLIMATE: CASE STUDY
OF NATIONAL PARK OF MALI
FATOUMATA MAIGA
THESIS ADVISOR: ASST. PROF. DR. EBRU ALAKAVUK
ARCHITECTURE
PRESENTATION DATE: 31.05.2017
BORNOVA / İZMİR
MAY 2017
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ABSTRACT
VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE AND ITS APPLICABILITY IN

CONTEMPORARY BUILDING DESIGN IN HOT AND ARID CLIMATE:
CASE STUDY OF NATIONAL PARK OF MALI
Maïga, Fatoumata
Msc, in Architecture
Advisor: Asst. Prof. Dr. Ebru ALAKAVUK
May 2017
While vernacular architecture is at a state of decline and about to be replaced, modern

society nowadays is losing some connection to cultural traditions and integration of
users in process of designing. The concept of sustainability in reference to vernacular
architecture is reviewed in this thesis which tends to investigate the potential and
implementation of this aspect of vernacular architecture in contemporary architecture.
So specific examples of vernacular architecture, identified in the regions of Timbuktu
and Mopti (Djenne and Bandiagara) from Mali with hot and arid climate, were selected
and explored, to understand the strategies adopted in these settlements and their
performances over a long period of time. Investigation continues in the region of
Bamako with a mixed-use complex “National Park of Mali” as case study and
composed of a group of contemporary buildings, connected to either traditional
principles or local material, to determine any technique resulting from the Malian
vernacular architecture that has been integrated. A survey is done based on a hundred
of user's perception who have frequented each this National Park. As will be shown
the results of the survey suggest a set of reasons why principles of vernacular
architecture should be integrated in the present scenario.
Key Words: Vernacular architecture, Contemporary architecture, Sustainability, Hot

and Arid climate
v
ÖZ
SICAK VE KURAK İKLİMLERDEKİ ÇAĞDAŞ BİNA TASARIMINA

GELENEKSEL MİMARLIK VE ONUN UYGULANABİLİLİĞİ: ALAN
ÇALIŞMASI NATIONAL PARK OF MALI
Maïga, Fatoumata
Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Mimarlık
Danışman: Yrd. Doç. Dr. Ebru ALAKAVUK
Mayis 2017
Geleneksel mimarlık etkisini kaybetmekte iken, günümüzde modern toplum, kültürel

geleneklerle ve tasarım sürecinde kullanıcıların entegrasyon bağlantısını kaybediyor.
Bu çalışmada geleneksel mimarlığın sürdürülebililik konsepti açısından, modern
mimarlığa uygulanma potansiyeli incelenmiştir. Sıcak ve kurak iklime sahip olan
Mali’deki Timbuktu ve Mopti (Djenne ve Bandiagara) bölgelerinde belirlenen
geleneksel mimarlık örnekleri incelenerek, bu bölgelerde uzun yıllar boyunca
uygulanmış stratejilerin ve bina performansları irdelenmiştir. Çalışmada Bamako’daki
kompleks “National Park of Mali”, Mali’nin geleneksel mimarlık yaklaşımları ve
prensipleri ve lokal malzeme kullanımı açısından alan çalışması olarak incelenmiştir.
Çalışmanın bir sonraki aşamasında National Park hakkında 100 kişi ile anket
yapılmıştır. Anket çalışmasıyla geleneksel mimarlık prensiplerinin günümüz
mimarlığına entegre edilmesi gerekliliği ortaya konulmuştur.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Geleneksel mimarlık, Modern mimarlık, sürdürülebilirlik, sıcak

ve kurak iklim
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I express thanks to the Almighty Allah in deep gratefulness for never giving
up on me in the achievement of my goals.
I would like to thank my supervisor Ebru Alakavuk for her guidance and patience
during this study.
Last, but not least, I would like to thank my family starting with my parents who
believed in me and gave me support morally and financially as best they could
throughout my scholar career.
Fatoumata Maïga
İzmir, 2017
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................. v
ÖZ ............................................................................................................................................ vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ ix
TEXT OF OATH .......................................................................................................................... xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. xiii
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... xv
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... xvii
ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................................... xix
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1

1.1. Research Problem........................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Aim of The Study ........................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Significance and Scope of The Study ............................................................................ 2
1.4. Methodology .................................................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER TWO SUSTAINABILITY IN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE ........................................ 5

2.1. Sustainability .................................................................................................................. 5
2.1.1. Sustainable Architecture ........................................................................................ 6
2.1.2. Sustainable Design Principles ................................................................................ 7
2.2. Vernacular Architecture ............................................................................................... 13

2.2.1. Influences on Vernacular Architecture ................................................................ 13
2.2.2. Vernacular Architecture in Hot and Arid Climate ............................................... 14
CHAPTER THREE VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN MALI ...................................................... 21

3.1. Location........................................................................................................................ 21
3.2. Climate ......................................................................................................................... 22
3.3. Types of Vernacular Architecture in Mali ................................................................... 23
3.3.1. Timbuktu .............................................................................................................. 24
3.3.2. Djenne .................................................................................................................. 30
3.3.3. Bandiagara ............................................................................................................35
3.4. Local Factors Influencing Vernacular Architecture of Mali ........................................ 39
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3.4.1. Climate Conditions ................................................................................ 39
3.4.2. External Influences ................................................................................ 40
3.4.3. Disponible Materials........................................................................... ...41
3.4.4. Families and Traditions ......................................................................... 43
CHAPTER FOUR SURVEY AND CASE STUDY: NATIONAL PARK OF MALI ................ 43
4.1. General Information about the Project........................................................... 43
4.1.1. Restaurant .............................................................................................. 46
4.1.2. Sport Center ............................................................................................ 48
4.2. Significance and Uniqueness of the Project .................................................... 49
4.3. Buildings Performances or Limitations ........................................................... 51
4.4. Survey .............................................................................................................. 52
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION..................................................................................54
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 56
APPENDIX 1 – Survey Questions ............................................................................ 61
APPENDIX 2 – Survey Results ................................................................................. 65
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Solar Gain Heating .................................................................................................. 8
Figure 2. Dayligthing .............................................................................................................. 9
Figure 3. Shadows Cast by the Context and by Elements of the Building. .......................... 10
Figure 4. Room Organisation Strategies Facilitating both Cross and Stack Ventillation. .... 11
Figure 5. Cells Combine in Modules or Panels, Panels Combine to Form an Array . .......... 12
Figure 6. World Map Indicating Tropics and Subtropics. .................................................... 15
Figure 7. Catching Efficiency for Different Wind Catcher Design ...................................... 17
Figure 8. Airflow Patterns through a Domed Roof Air Vent ................................................ 18
Figure 9. External View of Mashrabiya: House of Suhaymi, Cairo, Egypt .......................... 19
Figure 10. Internal View of Mashrabiya: House of Suhaymi, Cairo, Egypt ......................... 19
Figure 11. Map of Mali and its Administrative Regions ...................................................... 21
Figure 12. Climate Classification.......................................................................................... 22
Figure 13. Empires of Medieval West Africa. ...................................................................... 23
Figure 14. Aerial View of Timbuktu. ................................................................................... 24
Figure 15. Basic Type Building in Timbuktu. ...................................................................... 26
Figure 16. Urban Palace (Type 1) Building in Timbuktu. .................................................... 26
Figure 17. Urban Palace (Type 2) Building in Timbuktu ..................................................... 26
Figure 18. Courtyard in Timbuktu ........................................................................................ 28
Figure 19. Aerial View of Djenne......................................................................................... 30
Figure 20. Morocan House in Djenne ................................................................................... 32
Figure 21. Tukulor House in Djenne .................................................................................... 32
Figure 22. Typical plans, Elevation and Section of a Tukulor House in Djenne .................. 33
Figure 23. Dogon Villages along the Cliffs of Bandiagara................................................... 35
Figure 24. Typical plan and Section of a Dogon Familial House ......................................... 36
Figure 25. Spatial Organization of a Dogon Village............................................................. 37
Figure 26. Courtyard in Bandiagara...................................................................................... 38

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Figure 27. Dogon Familial House ......................................................................................... 38
Figure 28. Landscape Plan, All Phases.................................................................................. 44
Figure 29. Landscape plan with Facilities, Phase 1 ............................................................... 45
Figure 30. General View of the Restaurant with Pond, at the Time of Park Opening. ......... 46
Figure 31. Main Entrance Facade of the Restaurant.............................................................. 46
Figure 32. National Park of Mali Project: Plan of the restaurant . ........................................ 47
Figure 33. National Park of Mali Project: Cross-Section of the Restaurant. ......................... 47
Figure 34. Backside View of the Sport Center ...................................................................... 48
Figure 35. View from the Courtyard of the Sport Center ...................................................... 48
Figure 36. Plan of the Sport Center ....................................................................................... 49
Figure 37. Pillars and Roof Vents from the Great Mosque of Djenne .................................. 50
Figure 38. Section Showing Sunlight and Wind Flow Directions towards the Restaurant ... 51
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Building Characteristics in Timbuktu. .................................................................... 29
Table 2. Building Characteristics in Djenne. ........................................................................ 34
Table 3. Building Characteristics in Bandiagara. .................................................................. 39
Table 4. Building Characteristics in Timbuktu,Djenne and Bandiagara. .............................. 42
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ABBREVIATIONS
ABBREVIATIONS:
DEFRA Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
AKDN Aga Khan Development Network
AKTC Aga Khan Trust for Cultures
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Research Problem
After the use and development of numerous design principles in the conception and
construction of their surroundings, cultures within continental Africa have got the
opportunity to see the implantation of some notable buildings designed around the
continent. Especially with the help of architects who are mostly African and have been
educated abroad such as Diébédo Francis Kéré a German-trained architect from the
small West African town of Gando in Burkina Faso. The originality of each of those
new buildings (due to climatic conditions and cultures) but with the same principle
( modernity) has permitted the emergence of a new trend consisting of the combination
of local solutions with the most appropriate western ideas which is not widely common
in the continent yet.
This architectural style seems to drive the attention of the public mostly on the
importance of the aesthetic of buildings, due to its need to modify certain traditional
methods in a better way constantly for the perfection in the finishing details of local
materials used so that it can fit to the modern actual era. In reality it focuses mainly on
the sustainable aspects of both vernacular and contemporary architecture without
compromising each other according to the climatic region concerned to which they all
depend in somehow and have in common.
Nowadays it became essential for architects to have a look on vernacular architecture,

left unconsidered at its just value for a long time ago, around the world but in terms of
sustainability to keep it modern and apply it easily in contemporary buildings. Because
it’s a must to learn from the past in order to have a better future as well as an obligation
to know about the culture of a country before the conception of any project on that
territory for not losing the national identity. Especially in Africa this must be applied
because of the colonization it has suffered from. James (2011) reported that in “Africa
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projects tend to carry either a primitive aesthetic or a high-tech curtain wall to mirror
the Western notion of progress” (Para. 9).
Where the necessity for any Local population in the intention to achieve development,
to learn which sustainable features of their traditional architecture can be adapted to
the just needed and tiny portion of new technologies in modern architecture. So that
they may keep their identity intact and minimize their impact in the causes of global
warming and in return to protect themselves from it.
1.2. Aim of the study
This research focuses mainly on the investigation of climatic responsive design

strategies of vernacular architecture in a region with harsh conditions such as hot and
arid climate. In order to find out exactly which sustainable building systems and
materials from ancient cultures, with the same climatic conditions and still existing
despite the massive inattention on them since the arrival of new technologies in the
western countries, can be adapted for a contemporary use. As citizens, professionals,
teachers and parents of the next generation, it’s relevant to mention our common
responsibility towards a critical reflection, and a responsible engagement for each of
us, to be more active towards the sustainable development of our society. However at
this time the academic interest in the sustainability of vernacular architecture has
grown noticeably because the concept of sustainability is not a new or innovative term
as many of us think, but this concept is already illustrated through the vernacular
architecture in different zones of the world. More overall the lessons that can be
learned from studying vernacular architecture can help us not only to further the
conservation and retrieval of this architecture already in existence but to rethink new
architecture in the light of what have been learned. Then on the other hand the study
aims in enabling a raise of awareness among local populations from African
developing countries and beyond about the importance of vernacular architecture,
sustainable and economic issues.
1.3. Significance and Scope of the Study
The study largely concerns the sustainability of the modern and vernacular
architectural strategies of hot and arid countries with as an example Mali and would
first benefit the African leaders and populations. Because Africa is one of the most
2
vulnerable regions to the variability and the change of climate like the Arctic, small
islands and Asian mega deltas. Then the study will enable researchers not only to
improve it for hot and arid regions but also permit them to use and adapt it for regions
with different climatic conditions and with the possibility to suffer prematurely from
the global warming like the ones mentioned above. But again it’s in Africa that the
study is best suited in view of its underdevelopment too. Accordingly the study will
provide designers with the knowledge and tools of how vernacular architecture can be
used in an incredible manner with solutions developed smartly and work both
culturally, climatically, materially and economically and be seen as unique as its own
with the increasing problems of poverty, dwindling resources and unfavorable
economic atmosphere.
1.4. Methodology
Except this chapter consisting to introduce the study, the following chapters divide it
into four parts. The second chapter named as sustainability in vernacular architecture
rely on the literature review of sustainability on an international plan and vernacular
architecture in hot and arid climates zones in the world. Their definitions and strategies
are discussed by doing so within the framework of architecture which represents the
link between them because sustainability is a concept applicable in many fields.
The third chapter introduces geographically and climatically a west-African country

known as Mali and deals with three of its vernacular architecture Timbuktu, Djenne
and Bandiagara by focusing on their strategies. These particular regions placed both
under the protection of UNESCO, have been chosen for their touristic attractions and
popularity resulted from the trans-Saharan trade at the time of the empires in west-
Africa. In fact this trade, where they have played important roles such as major centers
of commerce between blacks and Arabs, had an important impact on their architectures
and religious beliefs. The characteristics of each region’s architecture were grouped
independently in different tables and then compared one to another later to deduce the
main elements that are influencing the vernacular architecture of Mali. This doesn’t
only gives credibility to the previous chapter on the fact that vernacular architecture is
generally based on climate, culture, environment and material but it permits also to
identify which sustainable aspects of these vernacular architectures can be integrated
into modern houses.
3
This is where the chapter four comes in with a suitable project as case study “National
Park of Mali” located in the capital of Mali and conceptually designed to reflect the
identity of the country through the combination of vernacular and modern architecture.
This Park as a project of Diébédo Francis Kéré, whose concern is to develop the
principles of sustainable architecture in the African context, was selected due to its
sustainable issues responding humbly to the needs related to thermal comfort, while
allowing the valorization of local resources and the diffusion of simple and efficient
techniques. In other words it’s illustrating an example to follow. Thereby in pointing
out all the architectural features and strategies of that project in reference to
sustainability, pathways will be free in spotting all the similarities with the three
Malian vernacular architectures studied before. Additionally an online survey
questionnaire about the same project ending the chapter four is conducted but this time
for producing reliable and valid results proving that this study has a well-founded
purpose of being pursued and simultaneously raising the awareness of the respondents.
While the chapter five includes the conclusion part of the thesis, the main data of this
thesis, literature review was collected as based on multiple sources such as books,
conservation reports, information from websites and analyzed by comparison.
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CHAPTER TWO
SUSTAINABILITY IN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
2.1. Sustainability
Sustainability considered as a global concept nowadays seems have started to evolve

considerably since the moment when people started having interest in environment
after the Second World War trying to discover if as a human being we are the main
responsible for the problems affecting our world such as global warming for instance
which is gaining momentum from day to day through pollution and waste (Kongebro,
Jørgensen, Nielsen & Strømann-Andersen, 2012).
The term remains elusive to many, and while a number of definitions exist,
they give little indication of how to apply principles of sustainability in
practice. Moreover these definitions differ slightly, one from another, and
in any attempt to implement sustainable development it is essential that the
meaning of sustainability be understood (Sassi, 2006, p.1).
Sustainability as an old term and due to its complexity is still unable to be simply and
clearly defined and therefore makes it difficult also for sustainable development to be
properly defined at its turn by most of the existing disciplines in the world.
The range of contexts in which the phrase ‘sustainable development’

is now employed is very wide. In research, it seems to offer the
potential to unlock the doors separating academic disciplines, and to
break down the barriers between academic knowledge and policy
action. It does this because it seems to draw together ideas in
ecology, ethics, economics, development studies, sociology and
many other disciplines (Adams, 1990/2009, p.5).
However the sustainable development which might be a pathway to achieve
sustainability has been defined by Brundtland (1987), through a report of the United
Nations world commission on environment and development named as ‘Our Common
Future’, in a way that seems to suit everyone as it’s a “development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs”.
5
According to the same report “three integrated behavioral trajectories are necessary to
achieve a sustainable future- ecology, economy and social equity” (as cited by Tanzer
and Longoria, 2007/2008, p.2). In other word sustainability rely exclusively on three
distinctive pillars inseparable from each other which refers respectively to the society,
economy and environment. Sassi(2006) confirms that “the principles of sustainability
aim to address the problems of environmental degradation and lack of human equality
and quality of life, by supporting development that is sustainable in economic and
social terms and is capable of retaining the benefits of a healthy stable environment in
the long term”(p.2).
In addition to this ‘triple bottom line’ there is the need to follow four key objectives or
instructions care at the same time in the world as a whole for achieving sustainability
and so that each of us will be able to have a better quality of life:
– Social progress which recognizes the needs of everyone;

– Effective protection of the environment;
– Prudent use of natural resources; and
– Maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and
employment.
(DEFRA, 2002, p.13).
2.1.1. Sustainable Architecture
These times it’s quite normal and frequent to see in the field of architecture or design
the presence of sustainability especially since this one is addressed to various
disciplines. This is due to the fact that the building sector is primarily responsible for
the production and emission of CO2 compared to the sectors of industry and cars.
Indeed it is recognized that CO2 represent a real danger for the whole world since it is
detrimental to the environment mainly to the ozone layer. The deterioration of which
conduct to global warming on our planet.
“But it should be widely known that buildings are the single most damaging polluters
on the planet, consuming over half of all the energy used in developed countries and
producing over half of all climate change gases”(Roaf, Fuentes &Thomas, 2001, p.1).
6
The fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on
climatic change (IPCC) state that significant global impacts on
ecosystems and water resources are likely at global temperature rises
of between 1 and 2°C, and that net negative impact on global food
production are likely to occur at temperature increases from 2-2.5°C
upwards, compared to pre-industrial levels. The IPCC report also
says that up to 2050 substantial global emission reductions of at least
50% below 1990 levels are needed, with additional global emission
reductions beyond 2050, moving towards a zero carbon economy by
the end of the century. This is the only way to keep the temperature
increase to 2°C, which is considered to be the maximum we can
afford without incurring catastrophic consequences (Butera,
Adhikari & Aste, 2014, P.1).
Thus, from now on, for the well-being of everyone, future buildings, not to say urban
planning, must be taken into account and closely monitored by architects who have
always had all the responsibility of those buildings on their shoulders. Roaf, Fuentes
and Thomas (2001) also believe that “What is certain is that we must act now to reduce
CO2 emissions globally and that one of the most effective sectors from which to
achieve rapid reductions in emissions is buildings” (p.8).
It was after this that the world of architecture gradually saw the appearance of houses
built in such a way to respect the environment from the conception to the construction
and even during their use by the people called to inhabit them. And without further
delay this new way of proceeding gave birth to what we call sustainable architecture
following passive design strategies.
2.1.2. Sustainable Design Principles
Since passive architecture obeys to different strategies (fit to place and purpose taking
advantage from local climatic resources so that the buildings can heat and cool itself)
a large amount of options is available.
But luckily the classification of the so-called solar architecture into a passive and
active categories has permitted to demonstrate that the solar energy is mostly used for
space heating in solar passive buildings. Then passive buildings are relying on sun in
order to achieve passive heating but without neglecting passive cooling which still has
a chance to be a part of those buildings through shading, ventilation or thermal mass
for instance. Bauer, Mosle and Schwarz(2007/2010) state that “Cooling happens either
via cool surfaces inside the room via cooled air”…”since heating and cooling functions
7
according to the same principles, it makes sense to use the same surfaces for both
heating and cooling purposes”(p.113).
In fact three main passive solar systems taking advantage to solar radiation actually
exist and are named respectively as direct gain, indirect gain and isolated gain.
 Direct Gain, Indirect Gain and Isolated Gain systems
While the aim is to heat the main living spaces by concentrating the majority of the
building’s glazing on sun-facing façade in both direct and indirect gain systems, the
isolated gain system or sunspace is a room designed to collect also heat for the main
part of a building but as well as to serve as a secondary living area. In general the direct
gain system differs from the indirect gain one through the location of a thermal mass
which is positioned on the floor. (Fig.1)
“The floor should be of a high thermal mass to absorb the heat and provide thermal
inertia, which reduces temperature fluctuations inside the building” (Smith, 2001/2005,
p.56).
Figure 1. Solar Gain Heating (n.d).
8
So in the indirect gain system also called trombe wall system the main space of the
building is heated with an indirect daylighting due to the thermal wall placed just
behind glazing facing towards the sun. But it should be noted that trombe walls, for
their lake of aesthetic since they supply heat without light and view on the outdoor, are
not widely used among the three prime solar design technologies.
 Daylighting
Taking advantage of daylight, which is a natural light from the sun, for sustainable
architecture is indispensable either in a cold or hot climate regions. Because natural
sunlight promotes health with visual comfort and save energy in contrast to artificial
lighting. The most problematic aspect of daylight is glare which needs to be controlled
by atrium, light shelves, prismatic glazing, light pipes, holographic glazing or again
solar shading shown in the figure below.
Figure 2. Daylighting (n.d).
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 Shading
In fact solar gains are controlled effectively with sunshade outside the windows. More
over all Shading is a solar strategy as its own even though it blocks rather than collects
solar radiation. When using solar shading to prevent solar heating it’s advised except
in the north or south hemispheres to minimize glass on east and west side but in a case
that the building keeps ending up with windows on these exposures then a great
strategy to deal with is to plant trees (Fig.3). Shadings can be fixed or operable systems
as well as composed of horizontal or vertical overhangs, trellises, awnings, external
shutters, louvers and arbors.
Figure 3. Shadows Cast by the Context and by Elements of the Building (Butera,
Adhikari & Aste, 2014, p.91).
 Ventilation
Similar to natural lighting, in reducing the energy consumption and having a good
impact on health when well executed, the natural ventilation permit to dissipate interior
heat sources and substance loads such as bad smells, harmful substances and CO2.
Passe and Battaglia (2015) explain that “Ventilation describe the means to introduce
fresh quality air into a space and extract exhaust, stale, polluted, or odorous air out of
the space” (p.35). As far as it’s known the easiest way of ventilating is that of natural
ventilation via windows that can be operable .The size and type of these windows will
define of course the temperature difference between outside and room air.
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When placing ventilation openings, you are placing inlets and
outlets to optimize the path air follows through the building.
Windows or vents placed on opposite sides of the building give
natural breezes a pathway through the structure. This is called cross-
ventilation. Cross-ventilation is generally the most effective form
of wind ventilation (Wind Ventilation, n.d, para.8).
Then cross-ventilation (Fig.4) is a passive strategy where air flow is achieved using
openings at opposite sides of a room or building. Sometimes instead of using cross-
ventilation which represents a wind-induced ventilation, ventilation can be provided
also through tempered-induced air movement or stack effect (Fig.4) ventilation which
uses temperature differences to move air so that the hot air rises. Usually higher
window openings vent rising hot air and encourage cool air flow. But unfortunately,
natural ventilation can’t be used, especially in extreme temperatures during winter or
summer. For this reason there are no other choices apart from having recourse to
mechanical ventilation with efficient heat recovery. The three strategies integrated with
each other in the same building result in a hybrid system.
Figure 4. Room Organisation Strategies Facilitating both Cross and Stack

Ventilation (Butera, Adhikari & Aste, 2014, p.77).
In addition to the previous strategies mentioned above and representing comfort

ventilation, Night flush cooling also exists. It’s a ventilation cooling strategy which
keeps windows and other passive ventilation openings closed during the day, but open
at night to precool the building for the next day.
 Energy Gain System
In fact energy demand is the reason why conventional buildings represent sector
emitting the most CO2 and polluting the environment. It’s for this reason heating,
cooling, lighting and even ventilation are being passively produced to reduce as much
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as possible energy consumption and loads in the first phase of a project called to be
efficient.
The use of energy in conventional buildings Impacts on the

environment through the consumption of non-renewable resources
and by contributing to global pollution through greenhouse gas
emissions. Energy saving is without doubt, the quickest, most
effective, and best value means of reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and offers a major contribution to combating climate
change (Brophy & Lewis, 1999/2011, p.36).
Active solar strategies also assist passive ones to supply most of the low-grade heat
requirements for domestic hot water and space heating too in a case passive solar
heating is not possible. Renewable energy resources such as sun and wind can be used
again in generating directly electricity through photovoltaic (PV) panels and wind
turbines illustrated in the following figure.
Figure 5. Cells Combine in Modules or Panels, Panels Combine to Form an Array

(Butera, Adhikari & Aste, 2014, p.245).
 Water Management System
Less integrated in the conception of sustainable buildings, water as an important

resource essential to the survival of human on earth like the wind should be efficiently
managed to reduce the problem of resource depletion caused through waste.
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For many of us, water simply flows from a faucet, and we think little
about it beyond this point of contact. We have lost a sense of respect
for the wild river, for the complex workings of wetland, for the
intricate web of life that water supports (Stelmack, Foster &
Hindman, 2014, p.26).
This inconsistent interest on water management can be the fact that it’s represent the
last strategy always mentioned after the other types in any books and research papers.
As soon as they mark it at least each architect should take them seriously and apply
them in their projects if possible.
The design of a plumbing system, must incorporate not only

traditional issues of sanitation, flow, and pressure, but also
environmentally based preferences for recycling waste water, use of
non-utility water and different treatments for potable and non-
potable water.”…”non-utility” water refers to water not provided by
the utility such as rainwater and graywater (Woodner, 1999, p.102).
2.2. Vernacular Architecture
Just as in sustainability, a problem of definition also persists in the vernacular

architecture which attracts the attention of other people exercising professions
different from the architecture but still with few points in common. The terms
vernacular, folk, traditional are sometimes used synonymously. Noble (2007) claims
that “One of the distinctive characteristics of vernacular architecture study is its
interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary focus” (p.8). In fact the architects make use of
the studies made by anthropologists, archaeologists, historians and geographers in
order to understand better the vernacular architecture which is broadly defined as the
structures where an architect or a specialist is not employed.
“All forms of vernacular architecture are built to meet specific needs, accommodating
the values, economies and ways of living of cultures that produce them” (Oliver, 2006).
2.2.1. Influences on Vernacular Architecture
In addition to man with his culture emanating from his ancestors and his geographical
position which provides him with necessary resources for the construction of a shelter
according to Oliver (2006), “other factors also have bearing on the kind, form,
especially effects of climate which have to be controlled, modified or utilized”(p.9).
 Climate
13
While thick walls and small windows are preferred in cold climates for preventing heat
loss, lighter materials in conjunction with door and windows designed to encourage
air movement are necessary in buildings in hotter climates. Then when efficiently
controlled and assuring thermal comfort, climate defines the building form and has an
important impacts on vernacular architecture which is first full a cultural expression.
 Culture
Culture is the only aspect of vernacular architecture capable to struggle in maintaining

alive traditional buildings with the advent of modern technology. Because through the
local customs and belief of the occupants which differs from others, the specific
appearance of their vernacular architecture is defined and can continue to exist for
years if this culture is still existing. In fact such buildings are recognizable with some
specific decorations of the facades or the interiors of the rooms which functions and
organization depend on the way their owners wish to use them paying attention to the
climatic conditions.
 Environment and Material
Of course in a region without the natural resources, necessary for the construction of
any strong shelter able to resist the climatic conditions of that place, there is also no
chance to even live there but there will always be another place favorable to settle
down locally. Materials in themselves do not seem to determine form like climate and
culture do but the fact that vernacular architecture is using materials that are local and
building with local labor is environmentally friendly. In that way possible pollution
created during transportation is reduced and no serious expense is required.
2.2.2. Vernacular Architecture in Hot and Arid climate
On the earth Artic, Antarctic, Temperate and Tropical are the four geographical zones
distinguished and for Szokolay from them result also four types of climates (cool,
moderate, hot dry and hot humid) spread in different places. Obviously the climates
are either cold or hot and the warmest represent the last three mentioned previously.
These hot climates occur only in the vicinity of the equator, between the tropics of
Cancer and Capricorn. (Fig.5)
In this research the concern is essentially about the hot dry climate found between 15
and 30 north and south of the equator. Describe through direct and strong solar
14
radiation during the day with low annual rainfall the climatic design priorities in such
regions is to protect from the sun, reduce day to night temperatures that can be extreme
by being hot or cold, cool and remove excess moisture. Sometimes there is a need to
prevent also from sandstorms since those hot area may include hot dry desert climates.
Figure 6. World Map Indicating Tropics and Subtropics (n.d).
 Courtyard
Courtyard, which can be used in cold regions and simultaneously as the most
suitable building strategy in hot and arid climates where it’s common, never went
out of trend. This building typology is designed to control the exterior climate,
while acting as a microclimate depending on its size and proportion compared to
the building where it’s located, but represents more over all a place of social or
familial gathering.
“All courtyard across the studied cultures have one major common characteristic:
they act as both social spaces and climatic spaces, and this cultural significance
guaranteed the survival and revival of this building type.”(Passe & Battaglia, 2015,
p.131)
By definition a courtyard is any internal space open to the sky and bounded by a
building in a fully-enclosed, semi-enclosed or semi-open way. It’s sometimes
accompanied of water source for evaporative cooling, plants and verandas known
15
as transition spaces from interior and exterior providing shading, indirect light then
facilitating cross-ventilation to the interior spaces.
Care has to be taken to shade the inward-facing walls of the building

from direct exposure to the sun. This can be achieved by using
colonnades or verandas. These intermediary spaces will act as
thermal barriers…Plants and trees outside the building play a vital
role when the wind is forced to pass through them, thus allowing
winds to be cooled and relieved of much of their sand and dust
(Koch-Nielsen, 2002/2007, p.59).
 Ventilation
Ventilation is included in the majority of strategies used in the buildings of hot and
arid zones and yet the wind that can be used for refreshing may be undesirable.
Because it’s sometimes hot and dry, even dusty during certain periods in such areas.
The courtyards so much solicited in these warm countries serve not only to diffuse
indirect lights in the internal spaces but they also permit to ventilate as best they
can. In addition to the courtyards and depending on the culture, some houses can
either have wind-catcher (vertical or horizontal) or simply roof vents.
Ford, Schiano-Phan, Francis, Alvarez and Paul Thomas acknowledges that “The
Iranian and Middle Eastern wind catcher is probably the most studied inherited
natural ventilation strategy, and it has also been successfully integrated into
contemporary built projects”(as reported by Passe & Battaglia, 2015, p.136).
So the most popular method after the courtyard is the vertical wind-catcher also
called wind-tower. It’s based on the principles of stack-effect and works by driving
inside the ground floor spaces the fresh air from outside which has been captured
beforehand above the building. (Fig.6)
“In warm climates the effectiveness of stack is questionable, the temperature

differences between inside and out are small. Since stack is driven by temperature
difference, the pressures are small. Wind-driven ventilation therefore is commonly
used in warm climates” (Hyde, 2000/2007, p.75).
16
Figure 7. Catching Efficiency for Different Wind Catcher Design (Butera, Adhikari
& Aste, 2014, p.78).
The horizontal wind-catcher with one or more sides open to the outdoors can be
classified as cross ventilation strategy and correspond to spaces such as passage,
arcade and loggia. In Pliny the younger it’s described that “Inside the arcade, of
course, there is least sunshine when the sun is blazing down on the roof, and as its
open windows allow the western breezes to enter and circulate, the atmosphere is
never heavy of stale air”( as expressed by Passe & Battaglia, 2015, p.).
Despite their advantages, wind-catchers can cause serious problems because they
are favorable places to the entry of dust and when this happen roof vents (Fig.7)
become practical.
Domed or cylindrical roof air vents are employed in Iranian areas

where dusty winds make wind tower impractical. These vents are
holes cut in the apex of a domed or cylindrical roof and protected by
a cap with openings that direct the wind across the vent (Allard &
Santamouris, 1998/2002, p.240).
But roof vents are the ventilation method applied at the flat roof of the great
mosque of Djenne. Contrary to domed and vaulted roofs which are less exposed to
the solar radiation and traditionally present for very long periods in hot and arid
regions, the flat roofs are multifunctional and perfect for regions with rare rainfall.
For more precautions these roofs are nevertheless provided with shutters to avoid
any infiltration after a storm especially if mud is the main building material.
17
Figure 8. Airflow Patterns through a Domed Roof Air Vent (Allard & Santamouris,
1998/2002, p.240).
 Thermal Mass
The roof and the walls are the most exposed elements of a building envelope to
external conditions because through them solar radiations are absorbed and
transmitted to the inner surfaces. It can result in overheating if their thermal
performances depending on their form, construction and materials are poor. In hot
and arid region the most interest is given to the thermal mass which is a property
of the building’s mass capable to slow down the heat conductivity by absorbing
the heat in the day and release it during the night.
A building in a warm and dry climate is usually a compact heavy

mass structure that modulates outdoor temperatures, with small
windows to reduce solar gains to the interior of the space but that
allow some ventilation for night cooling (Pablo La Roche, 2012,
p.120).
Thicker or again massive walls are recommended in hot and arid climates where
“earth has always been the most prevalent building material” according to Minke
(2006, p.11). Other materials than earth like natural rock and stones are commonly
used for their thermal mass property too.
 Openings
Openings are similar to courtyards in admitting inside the internal environment of a

house natural lighting and ventilation from external conditions. But the design of
openings in warm and arid regions is critical because they are often sources of glares
and passage of unwanted dusty winds. The solution is to reduce their amount or sizes
18
and be careful in which directions they are placed according to the sun path and wind
directions.
“The intense Mediterranean sun is met with by placing few and narrow windows in
the outside walls of traditional North African houses …” Noble (2007, p.204).
But there is another traditional and efficient device from the Arabic countries, and
therefore from Islamic architecture. It’s the mashrabiya (Fig.9 & Fig.10), a perforated
wooden window according to a geometric plane consisting to maximize natural
ventilation and to diffuse internal light.
“A perforated screen, normally made of wood, intended to conceal the private indoor
spaces from the public domain within a house, giving view advantage to those
inside”(Nitzan-Shiftan, 2012, p.73).
Figure 9. External view of Mashrabiya: House of Suhaymi, Cairo, Egypt (n.d).
Figure 10. Internal view of Mashrabiya: House of Suhaymi, Cairo, Egypt (n.d).
19
CHAPTER THREE
VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN MALI
3.1. Location
Mali is a landlocked country with an area of 1,240,192 square kilometers (478,839

square miles) located in the western side of the African continent. The neighboring
countries at the total number of seven are respectively composed of Senegal and
Mauritania (west); Algeria (North); Niger (East); and finally Burkina Faso, Ivory
Coast and Guinea (south) as seen in the figure below.
Figure 11. Map of Mali and its Administrative Regions (n.d).
Formed by one district and eight regions (Fig.11) which are distributed between the
three natural zones (Sahara, Sahel and Savana) the country generally flat, however
known for some of its mountains and plateau, is traversed by the Niger and Senegal
rivers (Where is Mali, 2016).
21
3.2. Climate
In reason to the presence of the zones mentioned above three types of climate are
eventually observed in Mali according to the Köppen climate classification: Desert
climate; Semi-arid climate; and Tropical wet and dry climate which are illustrated in
the following figure.
Figure 12. Climate Classification in Mali (n.d).
These climates not looking rigorously different from each other make without a doubt
Mali seen as a country with a hot and dry climate basically. But the other reason might
be the fact that the Malian Sahara own a larger superficies compared to the other two
zones or again simply because of the position of Mali according to the equator line
which pass through it.
“The majority of the surface area of Mali is taken up by desert and semi-arid land
known as the Sahel, while in the southern areas there are subtropical Savana
grasslands”(Velton, 2000/2004, p.35).
The dry period which stretches from November to June is transitioned through the
month of July into the rainy season which runs from June to October. While the months
of March to June correspond to the warmest months of the year, however those from
December to February remain the most pleasant and thus favorable to tourism (Eric &
Manaud, 2007).
22
3.3. Types of Vernacular Architecture in Mali
Mali owes its rich and diverse culture to the greatest empires and kingdoms of western
Africa that previously covered its lands. The best known were the Empire of Ghana,
the Empire of Mali (Fig.13) that the country adopted the name when taking its
independence in 1960 and finally the Songhay Empire.
Figure 13. Empires of Medieval West Africa (n.d, p.135).
Each of these three empires participated in trans-Saharan trade, which consisted of

trade between North and West Africa in the Sahara Desert. This commercial contact
between blacks and Arabs from the east has led to the advent of Islam in animist black
Africa. Result the majority of the current Malian population is Muslim. Nevertheless,
animism is still practiced by the Bambara, Malinké, Bobo, Songhay, Senufo, Dogon
and other ethnic groups. But the most important of these is the Dogon people who
didn’t want to convert to Islam in the past and then have taken refuge in the famous
cliffs of Bandiagara for developing a traditional architecture out of the ordinary.
The cities of Timbuktu and Djenne, which were major centers of trans-Saharan
commerce, also possess architectures proper to them. Timbuktu long inhabited by
Moroccans who failed to fully capture what remained of the last great empire of the
23
West Africa (the Songhay Empire) that they coveted so much, has an architecture of
adobe houses with beautifully crafted portals. While Djenne stands out by the beauty
of its architecture in earth and especially by the great mosque of Djenne considered
like the biggest monument in banco in the world (Histoire, n.d.).
3.3.3. Timbuktu
Figure 14. Aerial View of Timbuktu (Dia, n.d).
 Historical Development
The city of Timbuktu located in the Desert of Sahara owes its evolution to its strategic
geographical position which brought it covetousness and thus its occupation by diverse
cultures in turn. People were continuously going there notably for the trans-Saharan
commerce but as well as to acquire Islamic knowledges since the sovereign El Haj
Kankou Moussa / Mansa Moussa (Empire of Mali) in return from his pilgrimage to
Mecca, accompanied by an architect known as Abu Ishaq Es Sahali, had the brilliant
idea of transforming Timbuktu into a spiritual center by building a prestigious
university, mosques and Koranic schools (Reynolds, 1999).
A proverb from a famous scholar Ahmed Baba (1556-1627) in Timbuktu says that
"The salt comes from the north, the gold comes from the south, the money comes from
the country of the whites, but the word of God, the learned things and the pretty tales,
they are only found in Timbuktu"(as reported by Sidi & Joffroy,2010, p.38).
This poet and architect Abu Ishaq Es Sahal created then new styles by incorporating
building features from Arabic origins into traditional buildings made of earth already
24
existing and which were the first structures of Timbuktu constructed by African
architects from Djenne. (Architecture, n.d.).
Timbuktu in reality consisted only of tents belonging to the Tuaregs at the beginning
of its creation. This is the reason why it is not surprising to cross certain tents in its
current urbanism which is varied naturally and in perpetual change (Sidi & Joffroy,
2010).
“Timbuktu has been since its foundation a city in earth and has therefore undergone
evident transformations, given the formal metabolism inscribed in the genetic code of
earthen architecture” (Bertagnin & Sidi, 2014, p.27).
In any case the earthen houses, as well as the tents did, gradually are giving way to
new houses made of stones (Al-Hor), which was just used only on the façades of
earthen houses exposed directly to the wind Sahel- Hew, the desert wind blowing from
the north-east to the south, a harmattan laden with ocher sand and dust contributing to
the erosion of the buildings made by earth.
 Features
The Buildings from the old center of Timbuktu juxtaposed closely next to each other
with angled streets in order to reduce hot and sandy winds and provide some shades
have an organic urban structure while the buildings resulting from the colonial French
penetration have an ordered one due to an orthogonal grid with large streets (Silva,
2010).
But generally they both contain a courtyard which is an important and dominant
element in hot and dry region for the reason that through them good ventilation and
lighting is achieved. It should also be noted that the social life and habitat of the
Saharan villages and the region of Timbuktu have an impact in the presence of
courtyard. Indeed, when observing an aerial view of Timbuktu, it can grasp this mutual
interaction between solid and void, identity element of the urban fabric. In a case that
we are dealing with a one-storey building or no there is always a staircase leading to
the upper floor usually accessible from the inner courtyard.
Actually it’s true that two types of building coexist: a Basic type (Fig.15) and a Mixed
type known as the Urban palace. They just differ in the number of storey and have the
same material in common. But the urban palace style is also classified in two different
categories in terms of materials. See Figures 16 and 17 given below.
25
-Basic type: ground floor (earth)
-Mixed type/Urban palace type1: one storey (earth)
-Mixed type/Urban palace type2: one storey (stone)
Figure 15. Basic Type Building in Timbuktu (Bieber, 2010).
Figure 16. Urban Palace (Type1) Building in Timbuktu (McMorrow, 2006).
Figure 17. Urban Palace (Type2) Building in Timbuktu (Sidi & Joffroy, 2010, p.27).
In this study the main focus will be only on the buildings made of stone walls in the
region of Timbuktu since the ones with earth are quite similar to the vernacular houses
found in Djenne.
26
In addition the unique entrance door of the lobby surmounted by three windows and
connecting the street to the courtyard of the house which accentuates privacy; and
facades with small openings decorated with metal discs in the Moroccan fashion are
also observed.
According to the architectural typology the spatial organization consists of the central
courtyard around which are placed the other spaces like the bedrooms arranged along
an open corridor of the first floor thus creating a kind of terrace or loggia. To those is
added the living room which can be present either on the ground floor or the first floor,
the kitchen always on the ground floor is placed not far from the toilet and the shower
which are both on the upper floor except that on the other hand the toilet is on the
outside just like the oven placed in the street which is a functional structure of the
kitchen.
The one-storey houses have twelve pilasters, but those on the floor
are slightly offset from those on the ground floor and end with small
mitres that overhang the roof. According to the traditions preserved
by the masons, the plan of the house is divided into nine parts,
practically square, eight for the rooms, the courtyard forming the
central square (Bertagnin & Sidi, 2014, p.33).
To reduce solar radiation the houses form a rectangle oriented
towards the four cardinal points, the door being oriented preferably
North or South. Bedrooms are placed in the East or South-East (Heat
release in the early evening), while living rooms and workspaces are
placed in the West/North-West (heat release in the night) (Silva,
2010, p.14).
Regarding to the harsh condition of the region the amount of openings by house is
limited in order to reduce the heat and glare. The windows having the same small size
in any type of buildings also have different categories in terms of shape and function.
Because at one side wooden windows with square shape are found and at the other
side some pyramidal voids in walls are consisting to ventilate despite the fact that the
courtyard is already doing so. To the openings are added arches used either to frame
the main entrance door or placed in front of the covered terraces serving as loggia.
 Materials and constructions techniques
From its foundation to its walls of 40cm thick the urban palace is only made of stones
which guarantee a certain thermal mass against the action of the heat. These stones are
linked with adobe and sometimes then joined again with a mixture of adobe-cement.
27
The doors traditionally called Al-Galim (nails in Arabic) and the windows are made
either from a wood (bois veiné) from Mopti or from a red wood (bois rouge cailicédra)
from Mopti or Segou which has the advantage of being a wood naturally immune
against Termite attacks. The particularity of those two elements which stayed very
significant in decoration and prestige for the house of Timbuktu is that they are
connected to the traditional carpentry arrived in the city with the Moroccan invasion.
While the doors are distinguished by the presence of metallic plates, an iron bell and
nails the windows have square mesh grating to their lower parts for a good luminosity
as shown in the figure below.
Figure 18. Courtyard in Timbuktu (n.d).
The roof always flat and surrounded by parapets with a height of 100 to 140 cm if it’s
a walkable one is made of different layers of wood followed by an earth-based filling.
The first floor and the terrace are often covered with clay, or more rarely, with baked
bricks. With the evolution of the materials one finds in certain living rooms cement
floors.
In Al-Hor stone houses there are cornices which draw horizontally

the level of the floor and the terrace on the facade and determine in
strict relation to the corner pillars and the main entrance door, the
composition and the rhythm of the façade (Bertagnin & Sidi, 2014,
p.53).
The gargoyles similar to gutter ,either metallic or made in baked bricks, are well
integrated into the vernacular architecture of the historic city and used to evacuate the
rainwater for preventing humidity and infiltration with the help of a proper inclination
of the terrace.
28
Table 1. Building Characteristics in Timbuktu
TIMBUKTU
MIXED/URBAN PALACE
BUILDING TYPE BASIC
TYPE 1 TYPE 2
NUMBER OF
GOUND FLOOR ONE STOREY ONE STOREY
STOREY
FOUNDATION
MUD-BRICK STONE STONE
MALTERIAL
WALL MATERIAL MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK STONE
WOOD WOOD WOOD

DOOR + WINDOW
+ + +
MATERIAL METALLIC PLATES METALLIC PLATES METALLIC PLATES
LAYER OF WOOD LAYER OF WOOD LAYER OF WOOD
[Split Palm+Palm Frond [Split Palm+Palm Frond [Split Palm+Palm Frond
ROOF MATERIAL Matting] Matting] Matting]
+ + +
EARTH EARTH EARTH
COURTYARD PRESENT PRESENT PRESENT
29
3.3.4. Djenne
Figure 19. Aerial View of Djenne (Corbis, n.d).
 Historical development
Djenne found in the region of Mopti and considered also as one of the major centers
of trade is an important city of the Niger bend. What distinguished this place from the
others was the fact that Djenne was close to the rain forest region and was the first
point of exchange for traders to the south (Reece, n.d).
Acting today like a blend of African and Islamic styles, Djenne either couldn’t escape
from the Islamization of its population since koy Kunboro a chief of the city after
converted to Islam destroyed his palace in order to replace it by the great mosque of
Djenne. The mosque standing on a platform and previous foundations of the old palace
represent also the most famous building of the area (Petersen, 1996/2002).
This city, which enjoyed its political independence for a long time because efficiently
protected from enemies since it was encircled by walls, was also conquered during the
Moroccan invasion the same way like Timbuktu and later by the Empire of Tukulor
which didn’t have as much success as the three great empires of West Africa which
precede it. (Conrad, 2005/2010)
And if the pearl of desert has a mixed architecture dominated mostly by the use of
stone than earth due to the transition it has undergone, the houses of Djenne come only
from earthen architecture very mastered since the beginning through mud-bricks as
30
building material. In any case the climate plays a major role in the choice of each
region and Djenne is the most favorable place to follow using earth in their buildings.
“The area most suited to mud-brick architecture is the savannah region where there is
enough water to make bricks, plaster and pies yet not too much rain to dissolve the
dried mud walls” (Petersen, 1996, p.307).
 Features
Djenne, protected before from enemies through a city wall which doesn't exist
anymore, is still giving the same impression through some houses very close to each
other located along the river side and surrounding the city.
with its urbanism resulting from a complete earthen architecture the city, sometimes
seen as an island through rising water during the raining season despite being located
in height in order to adapt itself to its context, has been actively developing around its
great mosque and its marketplace.
Just like in Timbuktu the courtyard remains an essential element in both religious and
residential buildings and three types of houses are distinguished in general: the
Moroccan, Tukulor and Plain types. The Moroccan type (Fig.20) with its windows and
doors decorated as usual stand out by the absence of canopy compared to the Tukulor
type (Fig, 21) which has a canopy in particular on the main facade to protect the
inhabitants of the house from the Tukulor riders in search of slaves during their
invasion and get rid of the torrential rains in addition. Though the Plain type, divided
into two groups according to the number of floors, presents any decoration contrary to
the previous types mentioned above which are very traditionally ornamented.
Most houses are two-storey, with roof terraces that are actively used
not only for domestic activities but also as an alternative street
network. As there are no major separations between roofs,
neighbours use the terraces to go from one house to another. Roofs
may occasionally have a thatch-covered area to provide shade
(Chabbi-Chemrouk, 2004, p.3).
-Morrocan type: two storey- decorations - no canopy
-Tukulor type: two storey – decorations- canopy
-Plain type 1: two storey - no decorations
-Plain type2: one storey - no decorations
31
Figure 20. Morocan House in Djenne (2009).
Figure 21. Tukulor House in Djenne (2009).
In Djenne the facade is so important that one cannot speak of organization of spaces
without making reference to it beforehand since it is the first element represented in
an abstract way on the ground by the mason or the master of the work. The masons of
Djenne who transmit the art of construction with earth from father to son belong to the
same ethnic group of the fishermen present in the city.
“Interior planning is gender based: men occupy the front of the house and have a
windows and doors facing out on the road; the women are at the back overlooking the
courtyard and isolated from the outside world” (Velton, 2000/2009, p.168).
To understand the architecture of Djenné, explains Abdoulaye Touré a Malian architect

who studies the architecture of Djenné since the years 1983-1985, it is necessary to
make a detour by the Dogon architecture, where the building represents the human
body and the family. In fact from the street and by knowing the necessary codes one
can guess the gender of the owner of a house in Djenné.
32
Figure 22. Typical Plans, Elevation and Section of a Tukulor House in Djenne
(Chabbi-Chemrouk, 2004, p.16).
The walls as well as the foundations, pillars and pilasters are made of some mud-bricks
known as “Djenne ferey” which are bind together with layers of mud mortar. The
“Djenne ferey” is recognized by its cylindrical form shaped by hand and then dried or
baked on the sun. This brick seems more resistant than the “Toubabo ferey” which
posses rectangular shapes and have emerged with the French occupation of Djenne.
“In order to avoid the problems of water erosion mud-brick buildings are often built
on stone footings or have overhanging roofs with water run-off directed into special
channels” (Petersen, 1996/2002, p.198).
With regard to the type of houses decorated, some palm sticks called “Toron”
projecting out from the facades are used as decoration and as scaffolding for the
periodic rendering of walls since mud-bricks also requires a certain amount of
maintenance usually in the form of annual replasting. So wood is the principal material
for openings and horizontal structural elements such as floors, ceilings and roofs. Due
to the Moroccan occupation the windows are the same type found in Timbuktu and
providing privacy, good lighting and ventilation while the doors are less decorated than
the ones in Timbuktu.
33
Drainage from roofs is ensured by ceramic waterspouts that project from the
walls at regular intervals. However, spouts are only 60 to 80 centimeters-
which is not long enough to keep heavy rains away from the walls-so they
often have additions made from corrugated sheet metal or plastic. (Chabbi-
Chemrouk, 2004, p.9).
Table 2. Building Characteristics in Djenne
DJENNE
PLAIN
BUILDING TYPE MORROCAN TUKULOR
TYPE 1 TYPE 2
DECORATION
PRESENT PRESENT NONE NONE
[TORON]
CANOPY NONE PRESENT NONE NONE
NUMBER OF
TWO STOREY TWO STOREY TWO STOREY ONE STOREY
STOREY
FOUNDATION MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK
WALL [Rice or Barley Straw] [Rice or Barley Straw] [Rice or Barley Straw] [Rice or Barley Straw]
MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK

WALL MATERIAL [Rice or Barley Straw] [Rice or Barley Straw] [Rice or Barley Straw] [Rice or Barley Straw]
WALL MORTAR 3 LAYERS 3 LAYERS 3 LAYERS 3 LAYERS

RENDERING [Mud + Rice Husks + [Mud + Rice Husks + [Mud + Rice Husks + [Mud + Rice Husks +
Water] Water] Water] Water]
MATERIAL
WOOD WOOD WOOD WOOD
DOOR + WINDOW
+ + + +
MATERIAL METALLIC PLATES METALLIC PLATES METALLIC PLATES METALLIC PLATES
WOODEN JOIST WOODEN JOIST WOODEN JOIST WOODEN JOIST
ROOF MATERIAL + + + +
FINE MUD FINE MUD FINE MUD FINE MUD
COURTYARD PRESENT PRESENT PRESENT PRESENT
34
3.3.5. Bandiagara
Figure 23. Dogon Villages along the Cliffs of Bandiagara (2012).
 Historical development
The Dogon country, mainly inhabited by Dogon whose exact origins remain unknown,
consist of several villages scattered among the plateaus, cliffs and plains that their
natural environment offers them.
This place seems to have been formely inhabited by the Tellem culture which gave
way to the Dogon after those ones have joined them through migration according to
the archeologists when examining the Dogon cliffs.
Despite the fact that some Dogon have converted to other religions given the presence
of certain mosques and churches in their villages, animism remains firmly inked within
this people who never really cease to worship the ancestors and the spirits that they
encountered as they slowly migrated from their obscure ancestral homelands to the
Bandiagara cliffs.
It should be noted that it was through the refusal to convert to Islam the Dogon had to
find refuge to Bandiagara notably in the cliffs in order to escape this situation and to
protect themselves from future enemies at the same time.
But nowadays they begin to build more and more at the lower parts of these
extraordinary cliffs which offer magnificent views of the landscape since the danger
became less felt because the occupation of Mali by French bring peace to the region.
35
Despite all the amazing sight to be seen at ground level, the one thing
that stays with the visitor and to which the eye keeps returning, are
the amazing cliff top housing from which the Dogon in bleaker days
defended themselves from enemies (In the Land of the Dogon, 2010,
para.18).
 Features
From its creation to the present day the Dogon country have continued to extend from
south to north-east along the cliff of Bandiagara. Due to the decline in threats, the
ancient villages hanging high in the cliffs were abandoned in favor of new villages
located at the bottom of several of these cliffs. Despite the presence of several varieties
in the Dogon architecture, the village of Ireli, registered with the patrimony of
UNESCO, remains the most representative of the Dogon villages of the cliff.
In the Dogon culture several elements such as the house, the village or the universe
are all organized by the same principles. Indeed their houses mixed among granaries
are designed to represent the human body.
-The House
Several building volumes (sleeping huts, granaries, a stable) have

been grouped in a specific way around an inner square: the main
apartment in the middle is the belly, the storage spaces at the side-
parts the arms, the kitchen is the head, and the genitals are the entry.
The roofs of the dwelling huts are flat, in contrast with the granaries
that carry pointed roofs”… “Granaries are strictly separated
according to the ownership of whether men or women (Architecture,
n.d, para.3).
Figure 24. Typical Plan and Section of a Dogon Familial House (Merkus, n.d).
36
-The Village
On the spot of the head, orientated towards the North, the Toguna
(meeting place or tribınal) is to be found”… “In the ‘breast and
belly’ the Ginna (family houses) are to be found, and on the place of
the ‘genitals’ public sacrificial altars are located, a male and a female
altar. The Punula, the houses of the women, are the ‘hands’, women
should stay here during their menstruation period. On the place of
the ‘feet’ a series of communal altars is to be found. On the highest
spot in the village one will find the house of the Hogon, the village-
eldest (Architecture, n.d, para.2).
Figure 25. Spatial Organization of a Dogon Village (n.d).
As well as in Timbuktu and Djenne, Dogon architecture is also expressed through the
use of mud bricks both for family houses with their flat roofs and for their granaries
presenting pointed roofs sometimes surmounted or no by straws according to their
owners and functions. But what is sure is that each granary, usually built from clay
supported by rocks, must have at least one structure lifted from the ground in order to
be preserved from termites and rodents.
The handcraft which occupies a very important place in Dogon society covers several
activities such as woodcarving, ironwork, dyeing, shoe-making, basket-making and
weaving. Thus the shutters and doors supposed to represent the ancestors are lavishly
carved especially on the granaries but also occasionally on the houses because
apparently the openings are not very appreciated in the residences where they are
considered unnecessary. The figure 26 show specific samples of doors and windows
in Bandiagara.
37
Figure 26. Courtyard in Bandiagara (n.d).
It is interesting to note that the Dogon house has no windows

therefore it is quite dark inside, the intention being that the interior
is distinct, enclosed and presumably cooler, in contrast to the
exterior which is light, hot and open. A man was asked during the
construction of his house why there were no windows and he
answered by saying Anybody who wants light can go outside. In the
house it should be dark. Its better that way (Merkus, n.d, para.10).
Sometimes the niches present on the facade of residences and serving as front wall
decorations are used as compartments for daily utensils and fetishes (Fig.27). More
over all typical ladders are used instead of staircases in order to have access to the roof
presenting sculpted gutters looking like crocodiles through the parapet. But it’s
difficult to perceive water flowing in this region because rainfalls are rare, so water is
precious for Dogon.
Figure 27. Dogon Familial house (2009).
38
Table 3. Building Characteristics in Bandiagara
BANDIAGARA
GINNA
BUILDING TYPE
HOUSE OF SENIOR MALE TYPICAL FAMILIAL HOUSE
GRANARY
MAIN APPARTMENT SIDE-PARTS
LOCATION
NUMBER OF
ONE STOREY GROUND FLOOR
STOREY
FOUNDATION
ROCKS ROCKS
MATERIAL
WALL MATERIAL MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK
DOOR + WINDOW CARVED WOOD WITH CARVED WOOD WITH

MATERIAL HUMAN FIGURES HUMAN FIGURES
WOOD WOOD
ROOF MATERIAL + +
EARTH EARTH
COURTYARD PRESENT PRESENT
3.4. Local Factors Influencing Vernacular Architecture of Mali
3.4.1. Climate Conditions
The climate plays an important role in vernacular architecture because it’s very often
the reason why certain types of local materials provided by the environment are used
in the construction.
To determine the impact of climate in the choice of building material in the Malian
vernacular architecture, it’s just consisting to emphasize the abandonment of mud to
the benefit of the stones Al-Hor in Timbuktu as a harmattan blows at times causing the
erosion of the houses in mud.
The mud brick or the stone are each used beforehand for thermal cooling qualities
since Mali is a warm country. And if one speaks of heat refers certainly of glare which
explains a low rate of openings and their minimum sizes. The openings are always
placed in order to not face directly the winds directions often dusty especially in
Timbuktu and Djenne. However to ensure a good ventilation and lighting the presence
of a courtyard is imposed in any hot and arid climate. Due to the rain each vernacular
houses from Mali have gargoyles to avoid at least humidity and infiltration.
39
3.4.2. External Influences
In view of the study of the most important vernacular architectures in Mali and their
commonalities, three types of external influences are retained: Islamization, the
Moroccan invasion and the French colonial penetration.
 Islamization
Very often mentioned in fact Islam was established through commercial exchanges
thus contributing to the rewarding image of the vernacular architecture in Mali.
His greatest success was in the Bandiagara cliffs, which would doubtless never exist
if it didn’t have an opposite impact on the Dogon people with their occult beliefs who
preferred to continue in this way. Nevertheless, Islam did so much in Timbuktu that it
didn’t just made the city more popular than it was with Transaharian trade as well as
Djenne, but it made Mali the cradle of Sudanese architecture in West Africa (urban or
monumental architecture in raw earth) resulting from the mixing of the Arab
architecture and the one already existing.
The origin of this architecture is often attributed to the Andalusian

architect (and poet) Abu Ishaq es-Sahéli, who returned with
Emperor Kankou Moussa from his pilgrimage to Mecca, and who
was entrusted with the realization of the mosque Known as Kankou
Moussa, in Gao and the Djingareyber mosque in Timbuktu
(Architecture Soudanaise, n.d)
 Morocan Invasion
The short Moroccan occupation permitted the expression of their architecture clearly
on the doors and windows notably in Timbuktu and Djenne. Although the Morocan
never went in the cliffs of Bandiagara however in this area some openings also are
made on wood but carved and leaving human figures seen unlike those of Timbuktu
and Djenne carrying metallic discs all over.
 French Colonial penetration
Colonization having brought in majority slavery and suffering, will always remain an
injustice in the eyes of Africa. However it didn’t affect only human beings but also
architecture which can only result in a loss of identity.
One has only to see the turn taken by the urbanism of Timbuktu presenting now wide
streets incapable to control the hot and dusty winds or provide shades to prove the
40
disadvantages of colonization without forgetting the lack of resistance of the “Toubabo
ferey” compared to the “Djenne ferey” from Djenne. It was only in Bandiagara that
the presence of the French colonists was beneficial since the Dogons with the time no
longer felt the need to cut themselves off from the rest of the world.
3.4.3. Disponible Materials
Concerning vernacular architecture, materials which may be grouped into three basic
types, stone, mud and wood are used mostly in Mali according to their abundance and
varied qualities. The use of local materials, mainly earth and stone, is perfectly suited
to hot and arid regions because their good heat storage capacity stabilizes indoor
temperature (that remain cooler during the day and warm at night. More over all having
less reflection of Sun ray or protecting against solar radiation is another benefit of
using these materials that keep people’s eye healthy. And of course the wood is used
in priority not only to control and filter daylight, and to reduce indoor glare but it’s
used as a structural element due to the endurance it may provide.
3.4.4. Families and Traditions
The family composition and mode of function of the same society is reflected in the
traditional architecture. Families are often numerous, polygamy is not prohibited, and
divisions by age are very important. The houses must be large to accommodate these
extended families, and arrangement of parts allows a relative independence of children
against their parents.
Collective life is very important.
The houses are often organized around a central courtyard, a meeting place for the
whole family where foreigners are also received, meals are taken and people discuss
taking tea during evening. The rooms are arranged such that the control room to
another is relatively low. Cooking is done outside, as most of the family activities. The
Court therefore of paramount importance in traditional housing and one could almost
say that this is actually the main space of the house.
The court is also useful in coping with the dry heat itself, and has climatic implications
as well as the social and psychological ones already discussed. It gives protection from
sandstorms.
41
42
REGION TIMBUKTU DJENNE BANDIAGARA
MIXED/URBAN PALACE PLAIN GINNA

BUILDING TYPE BASIC MORROCAN TUKULOR
TYPE 1 TYPE 2 TYPE 1 TYPE 2 HOUSE OF SENIOR MALE TYPICAL FAMILIAL HOUSE
GRANARY
NONE NONE NONE NONE NONE NONE NONE MAIN APPARTMENT SIDE-PARTS
LOCATION
NUMBER OF
GOUND FLOOR ONE STOREY ONE STOREY TWO STOREY TWO STOREY TWO STOREY ONE STOREY ONE STOREY GROUND FLOOR
STOREY
FOUNDATION MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK
MUD-BRICK STONE STONE ROCKS ROCKS
WALL [Rice or Barley Straw] [Rice or Barley Straw] [Rice or Barley Straw] [Rice or Barley Straw]
MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK

WALL MATERIAL MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK STONE MUD-BRICK MUD-BRICK
[Rice or Barley Straw] [Rice or Barley Straw] [Rice or Barley Straw] [Rice or Barley Straw]
WOOD WOOD WOOD WOOD WOOD WOOD WOOD
DOOR + WINDOW CARVED WOOD WITH CARVED WOOD WITH
+ + + + + + +
MATERIAL HUMAN FIGURES HUMAN FIGURES
METALLIC PLATES METALLIC PLATES METALLIC PLATES METALLIC PLATES METALLIC PLATES METALLIC PLATES METALLIC PLATES
LAYER OF WOOD LAYER OF WOOD LAYER OF WOOD
[Split Palm+Palm Frond [Split Palm+Palm Frond [Split Palm+Palm Frond WOODEN JOIST WOODEN JOIST WOODEN JOIST WOODEN JOIST WOOD WOOD
ROOF MATERIAL Matting] Matting] Matting] + + + + + +
+ + + FINE MUD FINE MUD FINE MUD FINE MUD EARTH EARTH
EARTH EARTH EARTH
COURTYARD PRESENT PRESENT PRESENT PRESENT PRESENT PRESENT PRESENT PRESENT PRESENT
Table 4. Building Characteristics in Timbuktu, Djenne and Bandiagara
CHAPTER FOUR
SURVEY AND CASE STUDY: NATIONAL PARK OF MALI
Location: Bamako, Mali
Architect: Diébédo Francis Kéré
Client: Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN), Aga Khan Trust for Cultures
(AKTC)
Project Type: Landscape
Project Usage: Park
Project Area: 3000 Sqm
Project Cost: 1.7 Million Euros
Year of Construction: 2008-2010
4.1. General Information about the Project
The National Park of Mali, located between the National Museum and the Presidential
Palace Complex (Fig.28), was an area representing a large forest essentially composed
of protected trees before the 50th anniversary of the independence of the country.
Nowadays the National Park with its defined outlines is a significant greenbelt with
new commercial, recreational and sport facilities as well as several entrance buildings
(Fig.29). “The project brief called for the unification of the sites of the National
Museum and the existing Botanical Garden and Zoo into a single cultural/ecological
park of significant value, with natural and cultural attractions” (National Park of Mali,
2011, para.1).
43
Figure 28. Landscape Plan, All Phases (Aga Khan Trust for Culture, 2011).
For the first phase of the project a primary and secondary gate, an entry building, a
youth and sports center, a restaurant, public toilets and several kiosks have been
designed by Diébédo Francis Kéré since he is an Aga Khan Award for Architecture
recipient in 2004 who has mastered in the art of combining traditional building
techniques and materials with modern engineering methods.
The National Park of Mali, located in the capital, Bamako, reopened

for the 50th anniversary of the country's independence, The
interventions carried out for the occasion consisted of a landscaping
project (by the consultants of Planning Partners International) and
the construction of new facilities such as the National Museum of
Mali (by the team directed by Jean-Loup Pivin), the new zoo (by
Ivan Mata), and the four unique pieces designed by Diebedo Francis
Kere: two new accesses to the park, a sports center and a
restaurant.(National Park of Mali Entrance, n.d.).
44
Figure 29. Landscape Plan with Facilities, Phase 1 (Aga Khan Trust for Culture,
2011).
Even if Mali is mainly an arid country, Compared to the climate conditions of the
emplacement of its three important vernacular architectures the Park’s region is the
one beneficiating mostly of rainfalls and green areas due to its Tropical wet and dry
climate.
-The Sahara is a desert climate. Rains are irregular and accidental.
-The Sahel region is arid to semi-arid climate. Relatively dry (with relatively poor
tropical rains)
-In the Sudanian or Savana zone the rainy season (called winter) lasts 3-5 months north
5-7 months in the south.
45
4.1.1. Restaurant
Figure 30. General View of the Restaurant with pond, at the Time of Park Opening
(Aga Khan Trust for Culture, 2010).
The restaurant bearing the name of Balasoko restaurant and perched on top of a rocky
outcrop, is divided into four blocks according to the different functions required of the
restaurant (Fig.32). But still the whole is grouped apparently under two steel
corrugated and inclined roofs with a nice view on a water course offered to the clients
sitting from both the closed and open dining hall at the east elevation (Fig.33). In fact
the concern was always to integrate the spectacular view over the Park and the nearby
lake into the design.
Figure 31. Main Entrance Façade of the Restaurant (Baan, n.d).
46
Figure 32. National Park of Mali Project: Plan of the restaurant (James, 2011).
Figure 33. National Park of Mali Project: Cross-Section of the restaurant (James,
2011).
47
4.1.2. Sport center
Figure 34. Backside View of the Sport Center (Baan, n.d)
Like the Balasoko restaurant, the sport center also tends to have the same architectural
language through its three main pavilions separated but each of them having its own
extending roof in order to produce shadow in the inner courtyard which is unifying
them in a semi-private way. The courtyard is accessible from each side of the sport
center but is the only area to pass through before entering any of those pavilions
(Fig.36). It obvious that the relationships between the interior and exterior have been
taken into account with a great importance in the conception of the building especially
for assuring intimacy.
Figure 35. View from the courtyard of the Sport Center (Baan, n.d)
48
Figure 36. Plan of the Sport Center (Aga Khan Trust for Culture, 2010)
4.2. Significance and Uniqueness of the project
The presence of the technology and the tradition in the architecture of the National
Park is what makes it looking original without forgetting that it’s a project also built
on a tight budget with modern, passively cooled sport complex and restaurant.
Thanks to base clad with vertical bands of local stones shaped in a rational way then
used as wall material and the distinctive corrugated metal roof floating above the
buildings both suggested by kéré it has been possible to reduce costs and reinforce ties
with local material tradition. While the stones are assuring natural thermal insulation
by controlling the temperature in the interior spaces, the large projecting roof surfaces
shade the façade by providing natural climate control.
49
Michler (2011) affirmed that the masonry work was done by local workers who were
specially trained to use the abundant and traditional local resource.
Besides the use of local stones as cladding in the Park's walls materials which reflects
the technic of construction of some houses in Timbuktu, any coherent aspects of the
influence of the varied vernacular architectures of Mali are mentioned. But with the
necessary knowledges one can state by himself that both Djenne and Bandiagara also
have some of their traditional manners of constructing found in an indirect way in
those restaurants and sport center.
For instance the inner courtyard of the sport center as a social and climate control
element is an important aspect which all traditional buildings contain no matter in
which region of Mali they are constructed.
The steel-truss roofs may be very modern, advanced and rejecting all links with
vernacular architecture but still their aims of providing natural ventilation reminds the
same technics used in the Great mosque of Djenne where many small roofs vents are
placed through voids surmounted by hand made ceramic caps possible to be open or
closed as needed. They are represented in the Figure.37 just below.
Figure 37. Pillars and Roof Vents from the Great Mosque of Djenne (n.d)
And of course the construction of the restaurant on this natural topography alludes to
the cliffs of Bandiagara, previously visited by Kéré since he had another project in the
same region confined at him simultaneously as the project of the Park National of Mali
by the same client.
50
4.3. Buildings Performances or Limitations
Despite the fact that the majority of each element of kéré’s projects are localy produced,
the Park buildings followed a different path since local engineer could not be found in
Mali. Because James (2011) have stated that Kéré wanted to bring “technical prowess
to Mali that can be achieved by the local people, yet such incremental advancement
were at odds with the client's aspirations to produce a powerful symbol of progress”
and finally it has led to the fabrication of the steel-truss roofs needed in Turkey
(para.10).
Moreover the roofs function as a shading device and direct rainwater, allowing also
natural ventilation in each building. But since in the restaurant the client insisted on
installing an air conditioning the roof vents has been made operable. (Kéré, n.d).
Figure 38. Section Showing Sunlight and Wind Flow directions towards the
Restaurant (2011)
51
4.4. Survey
This report outlines a survey based on the architecture of the National Park of Mali
which aims to discover the need for this country with a population of 14,517,176
habitants to apply in its urbanism a similar sustainable architecture.
Information were more likely to be answered by a majority of Malians given the

location of the National Park, so an attempt was made to reach as many Malians as
possible. Notably 100 persons stratified in groups of 79 students and 21 employees
returned questionnaires. Most of them at 80% were between ages of 19 to 25 while the
rest were divided into 7% for those aged from 12 to 18, 12% for the age group of 26
to 32, and only 1% for those above 32 years old. Apart 98% of them, a small portion
representing 2% don’t go anymore or never visited the Park.
Data of this online survey have been gathered by means of a self-designed

questionnaire composed of 10 items. The majority of which were multiple choice,
rating scales and dichotomous scales questions. It should be noted that apart from the
questions 1, 2 and 3 aiming to identify the group of sample followed by the questions
4 and 5 permitting to check how the respondents have been closed to the facilities of
the National Park, the survey with the remaining questions covers three conditions. In
fact the survey, intending to raise also a public awareness especially the young one
about the importance of vernacular architecture through its sustainable issue, in the
first place seeks to clarify the rate of influence that vernacular architecture have on the
local population. This is illustrated through questions 6 and 7, which seek to verify
awareness about local materials and question 8 which simply verify knowledge about
vernacular architecture of the country by its inhabitants. The second condition
enlighten the western attitude that ignores the vernacular architecture through question
9 obviously testing the attitude of the respondents towards contemporary architecture.
Finally the third condition representing a healing part which confirms in question 10
that with the help of sustainability many problems might be solved and simultaneously
checks again awareness of population about this issue. Since the questions have been
designed in Survey Monkey, a web survey tool, the anonymous participants received
them through a web link shared on Social Medias such as Facebook and Viber. Then
permitting the results obtained on a period of one month (17 February- 17 March 2017)
to be automatically available in the chart of choice.
52
For this study pie chart graphs have been preferred and used in order to visually
represent and analyze by observation and comparison of the data derived from those
questionnaires.
The survey’s results showed that among the people who still go in the Park, maximum
86% do it rarely while the ones who go daily and frequently represent 6% each.
Thereby the Park is frequented by a group of people undertaking activities such as
promenade in majority at 88% and others either eating in a restaurant, doing sport or
working at a total of just 12%. Even if 47% of them never entered the buildings that
are found there, at least 32% entered only in the restaurant as well as only 4% in the
sports center while 17% had access in both of them. So it’s certain that 53% of them
have seen closely the restaurant and the sports center. This allowed a total of 58 good
answers in defining the types of material used in the park which were cement bricks
and local stone bricks. Then those who responded at 31% for terracotta bricks and 11%
for adobe bricks were wrong. But nevertheless 79% are sure that there are very few
houses, approximately 21%, with architectures similar to the one of the National Park
in their capital. While 70% of these young people recognize that they know little about
the traditional architecture of their own country on the other hand 30% feel confident
to have sufficient knowledge at least. However many are aware exactly 70% by
agreeing against 4% who disagree that nowadays sustainable architectures combining
tradition and modernity exist, with 26% trying to figure it out. And 76% would like to
see them more integrated in their urbanism with 3% who don’t approve this idea and
at this time with 21% who do not take part by neither agreeing nor disagreeing.
53
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION
The integration of Vernacular architecture in contemporary conceptions, which

struggle on their own sometimes to overcome the disagreements related to economy,
environment and health, is highlighted in this thesis. Humans in their endless quest to
develop have gradually turned away from the respect toward the environment, a virtue
left by the first nations yet inspired by their sustainable philosophy for the land.
Whereas a culture without the presence of its history is a culture without roots and
most probably without meaning.
This study is undertaken by particularly examining the key strategies (features,

materials and constructions technics) that have contributed to the survival of
vernacular architecture despite the extreme conditions of hot and arid climates. They
came up to be sustainable reflecting similar identities and functions (natural heating,
cooling, lighting, shading and ventilation) present in several sustainable design
principles that are used nowadays in contemporary architecture due to the solutions
taken against global warming. While some have been more or less innovated over time
others still keep the same concepts and forms as before such as the courtyard for
instance. So it’s quite possible to combine traditional techniques with modern ones in
architecture within the framework of sustainability as evidenced by the case study of
the National Park of Mali. In fact it was essential to conduct the study in this country
because projects perfectly illustrating our interest or aim on mixed architectures are
found even if they are few and Mali is an African hot and arid country with enough,
rich and varied vernacular architectures from which the West African architecture takes
its origin.
The survey intending to give supports to the purpose of the thesis has been executed
within the same National Park among Malians judge more susceptible to reply. And it
was satisfactory and fulfilling the expectations since the results demonstrated
effectively that in Mali there is a persistent lack of awareness among the young
population concerning vernacular architecture as well as its sustainability. Rare (30%)
are those who claim to have some notions about the Malian vernacular architecture.
Around (26%) seem to be unaware of the existence of sustainable buildings reflecting
both vernacular and modern architecture with (21%) unaware about the fact that they
54
can benefit from them when adopted in their urbanism. Which contains again just (21%)
of this type of building according to another minority. It was on purpose to reach and
perceive the opinion of the Malian youth representing the future of the country because,
once conscious about the sustainable issues from the vernacular architecture within the
framework of modernity, this can have a positive impact on the mentality of the local
population. This population which neglects sometimes to include even architects in the
conception of projects by restricting the participation just to either civil engineers or
simple masons. Thus this outcome in general have served for the justification but also
the recommendation in the necessity to implement this mixed and sustainable
architecture in each developing countries, with the probable chance to be the first to
suffer from the impacts of global warming and among whose youth few are familiar
with their vernacular architecture. An urgent awareness must be taken avoiding at least
these countries to perpetuate the same error that has been committed by the developed
countries formerly and who are trying to repair their faults through sustainability in
the construction’s sector. And only municipalities respecting the environment with
well adapted and structured construction rules can lead this awareness among local
population towards designers.
Additional and emphasized research must be done in sustainability and vernacular

buildings fields providing more knowledge about natural ventilation strategies for
designers. Because still now at some period of the year or day passive ventilation are
impossible to be fully used or undesirable in terms of human comfort and then
requiring to be mechanically assisted by air-conditioner in modern houses.
55
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60
APPENDIX 1 – Survey Questions
National Park of Mali: A Probable Architecture to Take Account in the Future
This survey is based on the architecture of the National Park of Mali and aims to
discover the need for a developing country such as Mali to apply in its urbanism a
similar architecture.
1) What is your age?
o 12 to 18
o 19 to 25
o 26 to 32
o Above 32
2) Which one of these is your occupation?
o Studying
o Working
o None
3) How often do you come at this place?
o Daily
o Frequently (once or twice in a month)
o Rarely (once or twice in a year)
o Never
4) Which activity are you undertaking there?
o Promenade
o Eating in a Restaurant
o Physical Activity/Sport
o Working
61
5) In addition to the garden spaces and other buildings the urban park is
composed of a restaurant constructed on top of a rock formation and a sport
center. Have you ever enter in any of them?
o just in the restaurant
o just in the sport center
o Both of them
o None of them
6) Which type of wall material have been used on those buildings when
looking at them from the exterior?
o Cement Bricks
o Terracotta Bricks
o Adobe Bricks
o Local Stone Bricks
7) Whatever wall material which has been used in the park, do you
commonly see it on the facade of other buildings in the city of Bamako?
o Yes
o No
If yes (please specify)
8) Do you know anything about the traditional architecture of Mali so far?
o Yes
o No
63
9) Did you know that in the architecture of the park some aspect of
traditional architecture have been used and combined with modern
technologies?
o Strongly agree
o Agree
o Neither agree nor disagree
o Disagree
10) In fact the National Park of Mali is a combination of traditional and modern
architecture through sustainable design solutions for saving building cost,
showing the identity of Mali and more over all overcome problems such as
global warming that affects the world. Do you find this kind of buildings
comfortable than the actual buildings found in the city of Bamako and
wish to see them more in the urbanism of Mali?
o Strongly agree
o Agree
o Neither agree nor disagree
o Disagree
64
APPENDIX 2 – Survey Results
1) What is your age?
2) Which one of these is your occupation?
65
3) How often do you come at this place?
4) Which activity are you undertaking there?
66
5) In addition to the garden spaces and other buildings the urban park is
composed of a restaurant constructed on top of a rock formation and a sport
center. Have you ever enter in any of them?
6) Which type of wall material have been used on those buildings when
looking at them from the exterior?
67
7) Whatever wall material which has been used in the park, do you
commonly see it on the facade of other buildings in the city of Bamako?
8) Do you know anything about the vernacular architecture of Mali so far?
68
9) Did you know that in the architecture of the park some aspect of
vernacular architecture have been used and combined with modern
technologies?
10) In fact the National Park of Mali is a combination of traditional and modern
architecture through sustainable design solutions for saving building cost,
showing the identity of Mali and more over all overcome problems such as
global warming that affects the world. Do you find this kind of buildings
comfortable than the actual buildings found in the city of Bamako and
wish to see them more in the urbanism of Mali?
69

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YAŞAR UNIVERSITY

GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE AND ITS

THESIS ADVISOR: ASST. PROF. DR. EBRU ALAKAVUK

PRESENTATION DATE: 31.05.2017

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE AND ITS APPLICABILITY IN

While vernacular architecture is at a state of decline and about to be replaced, modern

Key Words: Vernacular architecture, Contemporary architecture, Sustainability, Hot

SICAK VE KURAK İKLİMLERDEKİ ÇAĞDAŞ BİNA TASARIMINA

Geleneksel mimarlık etkisini kaybetmekte iken, günümüzde modern toplum, kültürel

Anahtar Kelimeler: Geleneksel mimarlık, Modern mimarlık, sürdürülebilirlik, sıcak

TEXT OF OATH .......................................................................................................................... xi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. xiii

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... xv

LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... xvii

ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................................... xix

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER TWO SUSTAINABILITY IN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE ........................................ 5

2.1.2. Sustainable Design Principles ................................................................................ 7

2.2. Vernacular Architecture ............................................................................................... 13

2.2.2. Vernacular Architecture in Hot and Arid Climate ............................................... 14

CHAPTER THREE VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN MALI ...................................................... 21

3.3.2. Djenne .................................................................................................................. 30

3.3.3. Bandiagara ............................................................................................................35

3.4. Local Factors Influencing Vernacular Architecture of Mali ........................................ 39

3.4.2. External Influences ................................................................................ 40

3.4.3. Disponible Materials........................................................................... ...41

3.4.4. Families and Traditions ......................................................................... 43

4.1. General Information about the Project........................................................... 43

4.1.1. Restaurant .............................................................................................. 46

4.1.2. Sport Center ............................................................................................ 48

4.2. Significance and Uniqueness of the Project .................................................... 49

4.3. Buildings Performances or Limitations ........................................................... 51

4.4. Survey .............................................................................................................. 52

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION..................................................................................54

APPENDIX 1 – Survey Questions ............................................................................ 61

APPENDIX 2 – Survey Results ................................................................................. 65

Figure 1. Solar Gain Heating .................................................................................................. 8

Figure 2. Dayligthing .............................................................................................................. 9

Figure 6. World Map Indicating Tropics and Subtropics. .................................................... 15

Figure 7. Catching Efficiency for Different Wind Catcher Design ...................................... 17

Figure 8. Airflow Patterns through a Domed Roof Air Vent ................................................ 18

Figure 9. External View of Mashrabiya: House of Suhaymi, Cairo, Egypt .......................... 19

Figure 11. Map of Mali and its Administrative Regions ...................................................... 21

Figure 12. Climate Classification.......................................................................................... 22

Figure 13. Empires of Medieval West Africa. ...................................................................... 23

Figure 14. Aerial View of Timbuktu. ................................................................................... 24

Figure 15. Basic Type Building in Timbuktu. ...................................................................... 26

Figure 16. Urban Palace (Type 1) Building in Timbuktu. .................................................... 26

Figure 17. Urban Palace (Type 2) Building in Timbuktu ..................................................... 26

Figure 18. Courtyard in Timbuktu ........................................................................................ 28

Figure 19. Aerial View of Djenne......................................................................................... 30

Figure 20. Morocan House in Djenne ................................................................................... 32

Figure 21. Tukulor House in Djenne .................................................................................... 32

Figure 23. Dogon Villages along the Cliffs of Bandiagara................................................... 35

Figure 25. Spatial Organization of a Dogon Village............................................................. 37

Figure 26. Courtyard in Bandiagara...................................................................................... 38

Figure 28. Landscape Plan, All Phases.................................................................................. 44