LESSON 3.

0 – PROBLEM SOLVING

3.3 PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY: Polya’s 4-steps in Problem Solving

Ancient mathematicians such as Euclid and Pappus were interested in solving mathematical problems, but they were
interested in heuristics, the study of the methods and rules of discovery and invention. In the seventeenth century, the
mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650) contributed to the field of heuristics. He tried to develop a
universal problem-solving method. Although he did not achieve this goal, he did publish some of his ideas in Rules for
the Direction of the Mind and his better-known work Discourse de la Methode.

Another mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716), wrote a book on heuristics titled Art of
Invention. Of the problem-solving process, Leibnitz wrote, “Nothing is more important than to see the sources of
invention which are, in my opinion, more interesting than the inventions themselves.”

One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study on problem solving was George Polya (1887-1985). He
was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in 1940. The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya
advocated consisted of the following four steps.

Polyas’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy

1. Understand the problem

2. Devise a plan
3. Carry out the plan
4. Review the solution

Polya’s four steps are deceptively simple. To become a good problem solver, it helps to examine each of these steps
and determine what is involved.

(1) Understand the Problem. This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. You must have a clear
understanding of the problem. To help you focus on understanding the problem, consider the following questions.
1. Can you restate the problem in your own words?
2. Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
3. Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the problems?
4. Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
5. What is the goal

(2) Devise a Plan. Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt to solve a problem. Here
are some frequently used procedures.
1. Make a list of the known information.
2. Make a list of information that is needed.
3. Draw a diagram
4. Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
5. Make a table or a chart.’
6. Work backwards.
7. Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
8. Look for a pattern.
9. Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
10. Perform an experiment.
11. Guess at a solution and then check your result.

(3) Carry Out the Plan. Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.
1. Work carefully.
2. Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
3. Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to devise another plan or modify
your existing plan.

(4) Review the Solution. Once you have found a solution, check the solution.
1. Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
2. Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
3. Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could apply to other problem.

Example
A hat and a jacket together cost $100. The jacket costs $90 more than the hat. What are the cost of the hat and the
cost of the jacket?
Solution
(1) Understand the Problem. The sum of the costs of hat and jacket is $100, but the cost of the jacket is only $90
more than the cost of the hat. We need to find two dollar amounts that differ by $90 and whose sum is $100.

▪ Can you restate the problem in your own words?

▪ Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
▪ Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the problems?
▪ Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
▪ What is the goal?

Given: Find:
Let h = cost of the hat h =?
Cost of the jacket = h + 90 Cost of the jacket =?
Total cost = $100

(2) Devise a Plan. Write an equation using h for the cost of the hat and h + 90 for the cost of the jacket.

▪ Make a list of the known information. ▪ Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
▪ Make a list of information that is needed. ▪ Look for a pattern.
▪ Draw a diagram ▪ Write an equation. If necessary, define what
▪ Make an organized list that shows all the each variable represents.
possibilities. ▪ Perform an experiment.
▪ Make a table or a chart. ▪ Guess at a solution and then check your
▪ Work backwards. result.

Working Equation:
h + h + 90 = 100

(3) Carry Out the Plan. Solve the above equation for h.

▪ Work carefully.
▪ Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
▪ Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you
may have to devise another plan or modify your existing plan

Solution:
2h + 90 = 100
2h = 10
h=5
The cost of the hat is $5 and the cost of the jacket is $90 + $5 = $95.

(4) Review the Solution. The sum of the costs is $5 + $95 = $100, and the cost of the jacket is $90 more than the cost
of the hat. This check confirms that the hat cost $5 and the jacket costs $95.

▪ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
▪ Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
▪ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that
could apply to other problem.

Checking:
Cost of hat + Cost of Jacket = $100
$5 + $95 = $100
3.4 WORD PROBLEM SOLVING

Equation

An equation is a mathematical sentence that uses an equal sign to state that two expressions represent the same
number or are equivalent.

a. 3+2=5
b. 3x – 4 = 2x – 5
c. x2 – 9 = 0

An equation that contains at least one variable is called an open sentence. Equations b and c shown on the screen
are examples of open sentences. In equation b, only -1 makes the sentence true or satisfies the equation. However,
more than one number might satisfy an equation. For example, +3 and -3 satisfy the equation x2 – 9 = 0. Any number
that satisfies an equation is called a solution or root to the equation. The set of all solutions to an equation is called
the solution set to the equation.

To solve an equation means to find all of its solutions. The most basic method for solving equations involves the
properties of equality.

Types of Equations
1. Identity is an equation that is satisfied by every number by which both sides of the equation are defined.
Examples of identity equations are 2(3x – 1) = 6x – 2; x + 1 = x + 1; x/x = 1 The equation x/x = 1 can be
satisfied by all real numbers except 0 because 0/0 is undefined.
2. Conditional equation is an equation that is satisfied by at least one number but is not an identity. An
example is the equation 3x – 4 = 2x – 5 in which the solution x equals -1; another example is x2 – 9 = 0
wherein there are two solutions, namely, -3 and +3.
3. Inconsistent equation is an equation whose solution set is the empty set. The following equations are
considered inconsistent equations because, when they are computed, the x variable will all be cancelled out:
x = x + 2; 5 – 3(x – 6) = 4(x – 9) – 7x

A mathematical system is any non-empty set with one or more operations involving the elements of the set and some
statements concerning the elements with respect to the operations. Group, ring, and field are examples of
mathematical systems.

A set of elements is called a field if there are two binary operations, addition, and multiplication, such that the
properties listed below for addition and multiplication are satisfied for the elements of the set. The real number system
is considered as a field type of mathematical system and addition and multiplication as the binary operations which
assign to each pair of real numbers a unique element of the set. Subtraction and division would be properly referred to
as the inverse operations of addition and multiplication, respectively. Axioms are assumed statements connected with
a mathematical system and theorems are consequences of axioms. Thus, properties of real number system are
actually referred to as field axioms.

Properties of Real Number System Under Addition and Multiplication

1. Closure Properties
For any a, b Є R, a+b and ab Є R.
2. Commutative Properties
For any a, b Є R, a + b = b + a and ab = ba.
3. Associative Properties
For any a, b, c Є R, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (ab)c = a(bc).
4. Existence of Identity Elements
There exist two real numbers 0 and 1 such that a + 0 = 0 + a = a and a(1) = 1(a) = a. For every a Є R, zero
is the identity element for addition and one is the identity element for multiplication.
 5. Existence of Inverse Elements
For each a Є R, there exists a unique element –a Є R such that a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0. The negative of the
number is called the additive inverse. For every non-zero a Є R such that a (1/a) = (1/a) a = 1. The
reciprocal of the number is called the multiplicative inverse.
6. Distributive Property of Multiplication Over Addition
For any a, b, c Є R, a(b + c) = ab + ac (right-distributive) and (b + c)a = ba + ca (left-distributive).
Remarks: Any set of elements that satisfy these six axioms is said to form a field.

Properties of Equality (Axioms of Equality)

For any rational numbers a, b and c,
1. Reflexive Property. a = a is always true.
2. Symmetric Property. If a = b, then b = a.
3. Transitive Property. If a = b and b = c, then a = c.
4. Addition Property. Adding the same number to both sides of the equation does not change the solution set
to the equation. In symbols, if a = b, then a + c = b + c.
5. Multiplication Property. Multiplying both sides of the equation bys the same non-zero number does not
change the solution set to the equation. In symbols, if a = b and c ≠ 0, then ac = bc.
6. Substitution. If a = b, then a can be replaced by b in any mathematical statement without changing the value
of the statement.
Using the properties of equality to solve an equation, we derive equations equivalent to the original equation.
Equations that have the same solution set are called equivalent equations. The equations 2x – 4 = 10 and –x – 21 =
-4x are equivalent equations because 7 satisfies both equations.

Linear Equation

An equation is linear if the variables occur as first powers only, there are no products of the variables, and no variable
is in a denominator. The graph of the linear equation is a straight line. Linear equation is also called first-degree
equation. A linear equation in one variable x may take a form ax + b = c where a and b are real numbers, with a ≠ 0.

Techniques in Solving Equations

1. Use the properties of real numbers and axioms of equality.
2. Simplify the equation first by
a. removing grouping symbols.
b. removing fractions by multiplying by the lowest common denominator; and
c. removing decimals, i.e., multiply by a power of 10 large enough to make all decimal numbers whole
numbers. If you multiply 10, you move the decimal point in all terms one place to the right.

Literal Equation

A literal equation is an equation involving at least 2 letters or unknowns. Solving for a particular variable of a literal
equation is separating the unknown on one side of the equation and the rest of the letters on the other side.

Let’s have an exercise on solving literal equation.

Exercises. Solve for the indicated letter. Exercises. Solve for the indicated letter.
rL - a
1. I = Prt, solve for r. 2. Solve for L of the equation s = .
r -L

SOLUTION :
SOLUTION :
rL - a
I = Prt Given s= Given
r -L
Prt = I SymmetricProperty rL - a
s (r - L ) = (r - L ) MPE
1 1 r -L
Prt   = I   MPE
 Pt   Pt   1
sr - sL = (rL - a ) (r - L ) Distributive Property (L) / Associative (R)
1 1  r - L 
Pt   r = I   Commutative Property
 Pt   Pt  sr - sL = (rL - a )(1) Inverse Element (R)
  1  I sr - sL = rL - a Identity Element (R)
Pt   r = Associative Property / Closure
  Pt  Pt sr - sL - sr - rL = rL - a - sr - rL APE
sr - sr - sL - rL = rL - rL - a - sr Commutative Property
(1) r = I Inverse Element
Pt (sr - sr ) - (sL + rL ) = (rL - rL ) - a - sr Associative,Insertion of Grpg Symbol
r=
I
Identity Element (0) - L(s + r ) = (0) - a - sr Inverse Element (L/R), Distrib Prop (R)
Pt - L(s + r ) = -a - sr Identity Element
- L(s + r )(− 1) = (- a - sr )(− 1) APE / Associative (R)
L(s + r ) = a + sr Closure (L) / Distributive (R)
 1   1 
L(s + r )  = (a + sr )  MPE / Associative (R)
 s+r   s+r 
  1  a + sr
L (s + r )  = Associative (L) / Closure (R)
  s + r  s + r
a + sr
L(1) = Inverse Element (L)
s+r
a + sr
L= Identity Element
s+r

Linear Equation

An equation is linear if the variables occur as first powers only, there are no products of the variables, and no variable
is in a denominator. The graph of the linear equation is a straight line. Linear equation is also called first-degree
equation. A linear equation in one variable x is in the form ax + b = c where a and b are real numbers, with a ≠ 0.

The linear equation is very much in use in solving word problems such as the number relation problem, investment,
coin, mixture, motion, work, and age problems, to name a few.

Now … let’s solve one of them using the Polya’s 4-step strategy …

Applications of Linear Equations in One Variable

1. Number Relation Problem. The sum of two numbers is 36. If the larger number is divided by the smaller
number, the quotient is 2 and the remainder is 3. Find the numbers. (25, 11)

Let x = the smaller number

36 – x = the larger number

(36 – x) / x = 2 + 3/x
36 – x = 2x + 3
36 – 3 = 2x +x
3x = 33
x = 11 the smaller number
(36 – x) = 25 the larger number

2. Investment Problem. Interest is the money paid for the use of money called principal. In general, interest is
determined by the product of three factors – principal, rate and time. The principal is the sum of money
invested that bears interest. The rate is the fraction of the principal paid for its use during a certain period of
time, usually one year. The time is the interval which the principal is used. The amount is the sum of the
principal and interest.
 Cheska has P6,000 invested at 5% and 6%. How many pesos would she have to invest at 6% so that her
total interest per year would be equal to P320? (P4000, P2000)

Let x = investment at 6% per year

P6,000 – x = investment at 5% per year

I = Prt
0.06 (x) (1 year) + 0.05 (6000 – x) (1 year) = 320
0.06x + 300 – 0.05x = 320
0.01x = 20
x = P2,000 investment at 6% per year
P6,000 – x = P4,000 investment at 5%

3. Coin Problem. A coin purse contains 5c, 10c, and 25c coins. The number of 10c-coins is three times as
many 5c-coins and the 25c-coins is two more than the 10c-coins. If the total value of its contents is P4.90,
how many of each kind of coins are in the purse? (4, 12, 14)

Let x = number of 5c-coins

3x = number of 10c-coins
3x + 2 = 25c-coins

0.05x + 0.10(3x) + 0.25(3x + 2) = 4.90

0.05x + 0.30x + 0.75x + 0.50 = 4.90
1.10x = 4.40
x = 4 number of 5c-coins
3x = 12 number of 10c-coins
3x + 2 = 14 number of 25c-coins

Example. Mixture Problems.

Forty liters of a 60% salt solution are reduced to a 45% solution. How much solution must be drained off and replaced
with distilled water so that the resulting solution contains 45% solution.

Solution
(1) Understand the Problem.

▪ Can you restate the problem in your own words?

▪ Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
▪ Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the problems?
▪ Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
▪ What is the goal?

Let x = amount of salt solution drained, and amount of water added. An x amount of 60% salt solution is removed from
forty liters of 60% salt solution, after which the same x amount of water (0% salt) is added resulting in a 40 liters of
45% salt solution.

(2) Devise a Plan.

▪ Make a list of the known information. ▪ Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
▪ Make a list of information that is needed. ▪ Look for a pattern.
▪ Draw a diagram ▪ Write an equation. If necessary, define what each
▪ Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities. variable represents.
▪ Make a table or a chart.’ ▪ Perform an experiment.
▪ Work backwards. ▪ Guess at a solution and then check your result.

0.60 salt 0.60 salt 0.00 salt 0.45 salt

- + =
0.40 water 0.40 water 1.00 water 0.55 water
40 liters x liters x liters 40 liters

(3) Carry Out the Plan.

▪ Work carefully.
▪ Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
▪ Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you
may have to devise another plan or modify your existing plan
In terms of salt content:
0.60(40) – 0.60x + 0.00x = 0.45(40)
24 – 0.60x = 18
24 – 18 = 0.60x
6 = 0.60x
x = 10 liters

(4) Review the Solution.

▪ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
▪ Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
▪ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that
could apply to other problem.

The second solution is expected to give the same answer as the first solution and therefore, it can be used as a check
if the answer is correct.

In terms of water content:

0.40(40) – 0.40x + 1.00x = 0.55(40)
16 + 0.60x = 22
0.60x = 22 – 16
0.60x = 6
x = 10 liters

4. Motion Problem. The speed of rate of the body in its path is defined as the distance traveled in one unit of
time. If r is the rate and d is the distance traveled in t units of time, then these three quantities are related by
the equation
Distance = rate x time or d = rt.
Mrs. Altares boarded a bus bound for Baguio at exactly 4 am. After one and one-half hours, her husband
followed driving the family car at 75 mph. Assuming that the bus was traveling at an average speed of 50
mph, at what time would Mr. Altares’ car overtake the bus? (3 hrs, 8:30 am)

Let x = number of hours Mrs. Altares travelled

Persons Distance Rate Time

Mrs. Altares d1 50 x
Husband d2 75 x – 1.5

d1 = d 2
r1t1 = r2t2
50x = 75 (x – 1.5)
50x = 75x – 112.5
75x – 50x = 112.5
25x = 112.5
x = 4.5 hrs

Time of overtaking: 8:30 am

5. Work Problem. Jun can finish an accounting work in 8 hrs. Leo can finish the same work in 6 hrs. After 2
hours of working together, Jun left Leo for lunch and Leo finished the job. How long does it take Leo to finish
the job? (2.5 hrs)

Let x = number of hours Leo finished the work

Persons Rate of work per hour Time worked
Jun 1/8 2
Leo 1/6 x+2

(1/8) (2) + (1/6) (x+2) = 1

[(1/4) + (1/6) (x+2) = 1] (12)
3 + 2(x+2) = 12
3 + 2x + 4 = 12
2x = 12 – 7
2x = 5
x = 5/2 or 2.5 hours
6. Age Problem. Lita is 41 years old and her daughter is 9. In how many years will the mother be three times
as old as her daughter? (7 yrs)

Persons Involved Present x years hence

Lita 41 41 + x
Daughter 9 9+x

41 + x = 3(9 + x)
41 + x = 27 + 3x
41 – 27 = 3x – x
3x – x = 41 – 27
2x = 14
X = 7 years