Airport Engineering
Airport Engineering
Airport Engineering
• Cost consideration
• Traffic Consideration
• Physical Features of the Country
• Uniformity of Gauge
Uniformity of gauge
Gauge to be used in a particular country should be uniform throughout as far
as possible because it will avoid many difficulties experienced in a non-
uniform system, and will result in following advantages:-
• The delay, cost and hardship in trans-shipping passengers and goods from
the vehicles of one gauge to another is avoided.
• Difficulties in loading and unloading are avoided & labour expenses are
saved.
• As the trans-shipping is not required, there is no breakage of goods.
• Possibility of thefts and misplacement while changing from one vehicle to
another are avoided.
• Labour strikes, etc do not affect the service and operation of trains.
• Surplus wagons of one gauge cannot be used on another gauge. This
problem will not arise if gauge is uniform.
• During military movement, no time is wasted in changing personal and
equipment from one vehicle to another, if gauge is uniform.
• Locomotives can be used on all the tracks if a uniform type of gauge is
adopted.
Basic Requirements of an Ideal
Alignment
• Purpose of the New Railway Line
• Integrated Development
• Economic Considerations
• Maximum Safety and Comfort
• Aesthetic Considerations
Selection of a Good Alignment
Normally, a direct straight route connecting two points is the
shortest and most economical route for a railway line, but there
are practical problems and other compulsions which necessitate
deviation from this route. The various factors involved is the
selection of a good alignment for a railway line are given below:-
• Choice of Gauge
• Obligatory or Controlling Points
• Important Cities and Towns
• Major Bridges and river Crossing
• Existing Passes and saddle in Hilly Terrain
• Site for Tunnels
• Topography of the country
• Plane Alignment
• Valley Alignment
The rolled steel sections laid end to end in
two parallel lines over sleepers to form a
railway track are known as Rails.
Double headed rails
These rails indicate the early stage of
development. It mainly consists of 3 parts
:- Upper table, Web, Lower table. Both the
upper table and lower tables were
identical. When upper table gets worn out,
then the rails can be inverted and reused.
This type of rails is practically out of use in
Indian Railways.
DOUBLE HEADED RAILS
Bull Headed Rails
The rail section whose head dimensions are
more than that of their foot is called bull-
headed rails. In this type of rail, the head is
made little thicker and stronger than the
lower part by adding more metal to it. This rail
s also require chairs for holding them in
position. Bull-headed rails are especially used
for making points and crossings.
MERITS:
• B.H. Rails keep better alignment and provide
smoother and stronger track.
• These rails provide longer life to wooden
sleepers and hence renewal of track is easy.
• These rails are easily removed from sleepers
and hence renewal of track is easy.
DEMERITS:
• B. H. Rails requires additional cost of iron chairs.
• These rails require heavy maintenance cost.
• B.H. Rails are of less strength and stiffness
Flat Footed Rails
The rail sections having their foot rolled to flat
are called flat-footed or Vignoles rails. The
foot is spread out to form a base. It distributes
the train load over a large number of sleepers
and is more cheaper than Bull Headed Rails.
These rails are most commonly used in India.
About 90% of the railway tracks in the world
are laid with this form of rails.
FLAT FOOTED RAILS
MERITS:
• Flat footed rails have more strength and
stiffness.
• These rails require less number of fastenings.
• The maintenance cost of the track formed with
F.F rails is less.
DEMERITS:
• The fittings get loosened more frequently.
• These rails are not easily removed and hence
renewal of track becomes difficult.
• It is difficult to manufacture points and
crossings using these rails.
Sleepers are members generally laid transverse to the rails on
which the rails are supported and fixed to transfer the load
from rails to the ballast and subgrade below.
FUNCTIONS OF SLEEPERS:
• To hold the rails to proper gauge.
• To transfer the loads from rails to the ballast.
• To support and fix the rails in proper position.
• To keep the rails at a proper level in straight
tracks and at proper super-elevation on curves.
• To provide elastic medium between the rails and
the ballast
• To provide stability to the permanent way on the
whole.
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD SLEEPERS:
• The sleepers should be sufficiently strong to act as a beam under
loads.
• The sleepers should be economical.
• They should maintain correct gauge.
• They should provide sufficient bearing area for the rail.
• The sleepers should have sufficient weight for stability.
• Sleepers should facilitate easy fixing and take out of rails without
disturbing them.
• They should facilitate easy removal and replacement of ballast.
• They should not be pushed out easily of their position in any
direction under maximum forces of the moving trains.
• They should be able to resist impact and vibrations of moving trains.
They should be suitable for each type of ballast.
• If track-circuiting is done, it should be possible to insulate them from
the rails
TYPES OF SLEEPERS:
• WOODEN SLEEPERS
Momentum Gradient:
• Gradient which is steeper than ruling gradient and where the
advantage of momentum is utilized is known as momentum
gradient. A train gets momentum when moving in down-
gradient and this momentum can be utilized for up-gradient. A
train while coming down a gradient gains sufficient momentum.
This momentum gives additional kinetic energy to the moving
train which would help the train to rise a steeper gradient than
the ruling gradient for a certain length of the track. This rising
gradient is called momentum gradient. In such gradients, no
signals are provided to stop the train.
Pusher Gradient:
• Pusher gradient is the gradient where an extra engine is
required to push the train. These are steeper gradient than
ruling gradient and are provided at certain places of mountains
to avoid heavy cutting or to reduce the length of the track. A
pusher gradient of 1 in 37 on Western Ghats with B.G. track is
provided. On Darjeeling Railway with N.G. track, a ruling
gradient of 1 in 25 is provided.
• Improper Gradients
• Defective Gauge
• Improper Super-elevation
• Improper Radius of Curve
• Improper design Speed
• Unequal distribution of loads on two rails
• Improper Points & Crossings
Transition curves
• As soon as a train commences motion on a circular curve from
a straight line track, it is subjected to a sudden centrifugal
force, which not only causes discomfort to the passengers, but
also distorts the track alignment and affects the stability of the
rolling stock. In order to smoothen the shift from the straight
line to the curve, transition curves are provided on either side
of the circular curve so that the centrifugal force is built up
gradually as the super-elevation slowly runs out at a uniform
rate.
Back Locking: After the train has passed the signal, it is important to put
back the signal to ‘On’ which in turn shall release entire route ahead,
which was kept locked by the signal level or approach locking circuits so
far. When a track circuit is provided ahead of the signal, the signal is
replaced back by the occupation of the track circuit. In case of
mechanical signal the reverser provided with the signal is released
putting back the signal to ‘On’ and in case of the color light signal, the
signal is put back to ‘On’ by the occupation of track circuit through
selection circuits. Occupation of this track circuit also simultaneously
initiates back locking circuits.
Track Locking:
• It is holding the points locked while it is under the wheels
of a train. Mechanically it is done by attaching a lock bar
to the facing point lock. The length of the lock bar is kept
as such to cover the maximum distance between the two
successive wheel bas3s of any vehicle. The length of lock
bar is accordingly dept to be 42 feet. The lock barf
attached to the facing point lock plunger moves to-and-
fro along with the plunger through a radial guide, due to
which the lock bar has to lift up to rail top level.
• The unlocking movement of the plunger is not possible if
a wheel is over the lock bar as the flange of the wheel
shall not allow the lock bar to be lifted to the level of rail
top. Electrically, the track locking is also provided through
track circuits in the entire point zone. The occupation of
the track circuit detects the presence of a train over the
point zone, which keeps the point locked through
selection circuits.
Classification & types of signals
Based on Operation Characteristics
Functions of AAI
• Control and management of the Indian airspace extending
beyond the territory limits
• Design, development and operation of domestic and international
airports
• Construction and management of facilities
International civil aviation
organisation
• In 1944, US invited all allied nations for a conference on post war civil
aviation in the world. The result of discussion was the Chicago
Convention on civil aviation. With the signing of a treaty in December
1944, ICAO was created as an inter-governmental organisation and in
1947 it became a specialised agency in relationship with the UN.
• 52 countries signed the Chicago Convention on international civil
aviation in Chicago on 7 Dec, 1944.
• ICAO is active in infrastructure management, including communication,
navigation and surveillance/ air traffic management systems, which
employ digital technologies in order to maintain a seamless global air
traffic management system.
• ICAO also standardizes certain functions for use in the airline industry,
such as AMHS (Aeronautical Message Handling Systems). Every country
should have an accessible Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP),
based on standards defined by ICAO.
Objectives/ functions of ICAO
• Ensure the safe and orderly growth of international
civil aviation throughout the world.
• Encourage the art of aircraft design and operation for
peaceful purposes.
• Encourage the development of airways, airports and air
navigation facilities for international aviations.
• Meet the needs of the people of the world for safe,
regular, efficient, and economical air transport.
• Prevent economic waste by unreasonable competition.
• Promote safety of flight in international air navigation.
• Avoid discrimination between contracting states.
International air transport association
(IATA)
• It is a trade association of world’s airlines
consisting of 278 airlines, representing 117
countries.
• IATA supports airline activity and helps
formulate industry policy and standards.
• Safety is the number one priority for IATA.
• IATA provides consulting and training
services in many areas crucial to aviation.
Airport System Plan
The airport system plan provides both broad and specific policies, plans, and programs required to
establish a viable and integrated system of airports to meet the needs of the region. The objectives
of the system plan include:-
• The orderly and timely development of a system of airports adequate to meet present and future
aviation needs and to promote the desired pattern of regional growth relative to industrial,
employment, social, environmental, and recreational goals.
• The development of aviation to meet its role in a balanced and multimodal transportation system to
foster the overall goals of the area as reflected in the transportation system plan and comprehensive
development plan.
• The protection and enhancement of the environment through the location and expansion of
aviation facilities in a manner which avoids ecological and environmental impairment.
• The provision of the framework within which specific airport programs may be developed consistent
with the short- and long-range airport system requirements.
• The implementation of land-use and airspace plans which optimize these resources in an often
constrained environment.
• The development of long-range fiscal plans and the establishment of priorities for airport financing
within the governmental budgeting process.
• The establishment of the mechanism for the implementation of the system plan through the normal
political framework, including the necessary coordination between governmental agencies, the
involvement of both public and private aviation and non aviation interests, and compatibility with
the content, standards, and criteria of existing legislation. The airport system planning process must
be consistent with state, regional, or national goals for transportation, land use, and the
environment.
Airport Classification
• International Airports
• Custom Airports
• Model Airports
• Other Domestic Airports
• Civil Enclaves in Defence Airport
SITE SELECTION
The emphasis in airport planning is normally on the expansion and
improvement of existing airports. However if an existing airport cannot
be expanded to meet the future demand or the need for a new airport is
identified in an airport system plan, a process to select a new airport site
may be required.
• Identification
• Screening
• Operational capability
• Capacity potential
• Ground access
• Development costs
• Environmental consequences
• Compatibility with area-wide planning
• Readily accessible to the users
• Natural protection from air-raids
AIRPORT MASTER PLAN
• An airport master plan is a concept of the ultimate development of
a specific airport.
• The term development includes the entire airport area, both for
aviation and non-aviation uses, and the use of land adjacent to the
airport. It presents the development concept graphically and
contains the data and rationale upon which the plan is based.
• Master plans are prepared to support expansion and modernization
of existing airports and guide the development of new airports.
• The overall objective of the airport master plan is to provide
guidelines for future development which will satisfy aviation
demand in a financially feasible manner and be compatible with the
environment, community development, and other modes of
transportation.
IMAGINARY SURFACES
• In order to determine whether an object is an obstruction to air
navigation, several imaginary surfaces are established with relation to
the airport and to each end of a runway. The size of the imaginary
surfaces depends on the category of each runway (e.g., utility or
transport) and on the type of approach planned for that end of the
runway (e.g., visual, non precision instrument, or precision
instrument).
• Primary surface. The primary surface is a surface longitudinally
centered on a runway. When the runway is paved, the primary surface
extends 200 ft beyond each end of the runway. When the runway is
unpaved, the primary surface coincides with each end of the runway.
The elevation of the primary surface is the same as the elevation of
the nearest point on the runway centerline.
• Horizontal surface. The horizontal surface is a horizontal plane 150 ft
above the established airport elevation, the perimeter of which is
constructed by swinging arcs of specified radii from the center of each
end of the primary surface of each runway and connecting each arcs
by lines tangent to those arcs.
• Conical surface. The conical surface is a surface
extending outward and upward from the periphery of
the horizontal surface at a slope of 20 horizontal to 1
vertical for a horizontal distance of 4000 ft.
• Approach surface. The approach surface is a surface
longitudinally centered on the extended runway
centerline and extending outward and upward from
each end of a runway at a designated slope based upon
the type of available or planned approach to the
runway.
• Transitional surface. Transitional surfaces extend
outward and upward at right angles to the runway
centerline plus the runway centerline extended at a
slope of 7 to 1 from the sides of the primary surface up
to the horizontal surface and from the sides of the
approach surfaces. The width of the transitional surface
provided from each edge of the approach surface is
5000 ft.
AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS
• Type of propulsion of aircraft
• Size of aircraft
• Minimum turning radius
• Minimum circling radius
• Speed of the aircraft
• Aircraft capacity
• Weight of aircraft and wheel configuration
• Jet blast
• Fuel Spillage
• Noise
Important Components of An Airport
Layout
• Runway
• Terminal Building
• Apron
• Taxiway
• Aircraft Stand
• Hanger
• Control Tower
• Parking
RUNWAY
A runway is a rectangular area on the airport surface
prepared for the takeoff and landing of aircraft. An
airport may have one runway or several runways
which are sited, oriented, and configured in a
manner to provide for the safe and efficient use of
the airport under a variety of conditions. Several of
the factors which affect the location, orientation,
and number of runways at an airport include local
weather conditions, particularly wind distribution
and visibility, the topography of the airport and
surrounding area, the type and amount of air traffic
to be serviced at the airport, aircraft performance
requirements, and aircraft noise.
Runway Configurations
The term ―runway configuration‖ refers to the
number and relative orientations of one or more
runways on an airfield. Many runway
configurations exist. Most configurations are
combinations of several basic configurations.
The basic configurations are
• Single runways
• Parallel runways
• Intersecting runways
• Open-V runways
Runway orientation
Runway is usually oriented in the direction of
the prevailing winds. The head wind i.e. The
direction of wind opposite to the direction of
landing and take-off, provides greater lift on
the wings of the aircraft when it is taking off.
FACTORS AFFECTING RUNWAY
ORIENTATION
• WIND
• AIRSPACE AVAILABILITY
• ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
• OBSTRUCTIONS TO NAVIGATION
• AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL VISIBILITY
• WILD LIFE HAZARDS
• TERRAIN AND SOIL CONSIDERATION
Wind direction indicator
• It may be a wind cone, usually placed at the centre
of the segmented circle marker. This helps the pilot
in locating the airport and the wind direction
indicator. The panel forming the segmented circle
markers are gable roof shaped with a pitch of at
least 1 to 1. this enhances the visibility of the
segmented circle and the pilot will be able to detect
it from a considerable distance ahead. In most of
the cases, the panels are painted white so as to
obtain a distinctive colour contrast between the
marker and its surroundings and to protect them
against weather.
Wind rose
• The wind data i.e. Direction, duration and
intensity are graphically represented by a
diagram called wind rose.
• The data should usually be collected for a period
of at least 5 years and preferably of 10 years, so
as to obtain an average data with sufficient
accuracy.
• Wind rose diagrams can be plotted in two types
1. showing direction and duration of wind
2. Showing direction duration and intensity of
wind.
• Type – I: This type of wind rose is illustrated in fig. the radial lines
indicate the wind direction and each circle represents the duration of
wind. The values are plotted along the north direction in fig similarly
other values are also plotted along the respective directions. All plotted
points are then joined by straight lines.
• The best direction of runway is usually along the direction of the longest
lone on wind rose diagram. If deviation of wind direction up to 22.5º +
11.25ºfrom their direction of runway is thus along NS direction of landing
and take off is permissible the percentage of time in a year during which
runway can safely be used for landing and take off will be obtained by
summing the percentages of time along NNW, N, NNE, SSE, S and SSW
directions. This comes to 57.6 percent. The total percentage of the time
therefore comes to 57.0 + 13.5 = 70.5. This type of wind rose does not
account for the effect of cross wind component.
• Type – II : this type of wind rose is illustrated in fig. the wind data as in the
previous type is used for this case. Each circle represents the wind
intensity to some scale. The values entered in each segment represent the
percentage of time in a year during which the wind having a particular
intensity blows from the respective direction. The procedure for
determining the orientation of runway from this type of wind rose is
described.
• Draw three equi spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper strip in such a
way that the distance between the two near by parallel lines is equal to
the permissible cross wind component. This distance is measured with the
same scale with which the wind rose diagram is drawn the permissible
cross wind component is 25kph. Place the transparent paper strip over the
wind rose diagram in such a way that the central line passes through the
centre of the diagram. With the centre of wind rose rotate the tracing
paper and place it in such a position that the sum of all the values
indicating the duration of wind within the two outer parallel lines is the
maximum. The runway should be thus oriented along the direction
indicated by the central line. The wind coverage can be calculated by
summing up all the percentages
Basic Runway Length
• The basic runway length is determined form the
performance characteristics of aircraft using
airport. The following cases are usually
considered Normal landing case, Normal takeoff
case, Engine failure case.
• Runway length is an important factor for
adequate aircraft performance and cost of airport
layout. The short range aircraft needs lesser
runway length than the long range type, since
there is a smaller fuel requirement.
Correction for elevation, temperature
and gradient
• Airports are constructed in different elevation
different atmospheric temperature and
gradient, in contrast to the assumption made
for basic runway length. Therefore correction
required for changes in each components.
Correction in elevation
• All other things being equal, the higher the field
elevation of the airport, results the less dense the
atmosphere, requiring longer runway lengths for
the aircraft to get to the appropriate
groundspeed to achieve sufficient lift for takeoff.
For airports at elevation above sea level, the
design runway length is 300 ft plus 0.03 ft for
every foot above sea level. ICAO recommends the
basic runway length should increase at rate of 7%
per 100 m rise in elevation over MSL.
Correction in temperature
• With rise of reference temperature same effect is there as
that of elevation. The airport reference temperature
defined as monthly mean of average daily temperature (Ta)
for the hottest month of the year plus one third the
difference of this temperature and monthly mean of the
maximum daily temperature(Tw) for same month of the
year. Reference Temperature = Ta + (Tw – Ta)/3
• ICAO recommends the basic runway length after have
been corrected for elevation, should further increase at the
rate of 1% for every 10C increase of reference temperature.
If both correction increases more than 35% ICAO
recommended specific site study should be conducted.
Correction for gradient
• Steeper gradient require greater consummation
of energy and longer length of runway to attain
the desired speed. ICAO does not recommend
any correction. FAA recommend after correction
for elevation and temperature a further increase
in runway length at arte of 20% for every 1
percent effective gradient. Effective gradient is
defined taking maximum difference between
elevation between lowest point and highest point
in the runway divided by length of the runway.
Actual length of Runway
• F.A.A. specifies a gradient correction of the rate of
20% of the length corrected for altitude &
temperature for each 1% of the effective runway
gradient. This is determined by dividing the
maximum difference in the runway centreline
elevation by the total length of runway.
• As per recommendation of ICAO under the
minimum clearances, 60m additional length on
either end of the runway should be graded. The
total length of landing strip therefore comes to
(L+120m) where L is the basic runway length.
• According to ICAO recommendations total
correction percentage for altitude and temperature
should not exceed 35%.
Runway geometrics (ICAO)
Airport Basic Runway Length Runway Max.
Types Pavement Width longitudinal
Maximum Minimum grade %
m ft m ft m ft