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Advances in Bricks and Blocks for Building Construction

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Advances in Bricks and Blocks for
Building Construction

Mohammad Arif Kamal

Architecture Section, Aligarh Muslim University, INDIA

Copyright © 2021 by the authors

Published by Materials Research Forum LLC

Millersville, PA 17551, USA

All rights reserved. No part of the contents of this book may be reproduced or transmitted
in any form or by any means without the written permission of the publisher.

Published as part of the book series

Materials Research Foundations
Volume 108 (2021)
ISSN 2471-8890 (Print)
ISSN 2471-8904 (Online)

Print ISBN 978-1-64490-150-2

ePDF ISBN 978-1-64490-151-9

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources.
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors
and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the
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 Preface
Earlier, all major buildings relied on traditional red brick until the construction industry
decides to change things to suit the needs and easy access to different blocks for the
construction industry. Technological progress has introduced many innovations and
technologies in the field of manufacturing bricks and blocks for the building construction
industry. Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary
with region and time period, and are produced in bulk quantities. Fired bricks are one of
the longest-lasting and strongest building materials, and have been used since 4000 BC.
Air-dried or sun-dried bricks, also known as mudbricks, have a history older than fired
bricks and have an additional ingredient of a mechanical binder such as straw, reed, and
hay.
Blocks are prefabricated material mainly used to build wall masonry. Like bricks, the
blocks are stacked together and joined with mortar, usually consisting of cement, sand, and
water. The blocks are solid or hollow inside to allow for steel bars and mortar filling. These
blocks come in a variety of dimensions and textures, from traditional smooth surfaces to
fluted or rough finishes, as well as special units for corners or beams with longitudinal
reinforcements. These blocks can be incorporated creatively into our design. Although the
first blocks were manufactured by hand, nowadays they are produced in an automated way
and thousands of blocks can be made per hour. However, by not requiring firing, each unit
can be manufactured on-site by unskilled masons.
This book ‘Advances in Bricks and Blocks for Building Construction’ contains nine
chapters that describe the different types of bricks and blocks and also introduces the recent
technological advancements for bricks and blocks for the construction industry, especially
in the building construction sector. This book shall be beneficial to architects, civil
engineers, building scientists, academicians and construction industry professionals.
 Table of Contents
Preface .................................................................................................. 3

Bricks and Blocks ................................................................................ 1

1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1
2. Bricks ........................................................................................................1
3. Different Applications of Bricks ............................................................... 2
4. Properties of bricks ................................................................................... 2
4.1 Heat protection in the summer ......................................................... 2
4.2 Eco-friendly ..................................................................................... 3
4.3 Durability ......................................................................................... 3
4.4 Burn less easily ................................................................................ 3
4.5 Free of maintenance ......................................................................... 3
5. Types of bricks .......................................................................................... 3
5.1 Acid resistant bricks ......................................................................... 3
5.2 Engineering bricks ........................................................................... 4
5.3 Silica bricks ...................................................................................... 4
5.4 Refractory bricks .............................................................................. 4
5.5 Sand-lime bricks .............................................................................. 4
5.6 Blue bricks ....................................................................................... 4
5.7 Colored bricks .................................................................................. 4
5.8 Perforated bricks .............................................................................. 4
5.9 Fire bricks......................................................................................... 5
5.10 Hollow bricks or hollow blocks .......................................................5
5.11 Fly-ash bricks ................................................................................... 5
6. Advantage of brick masonry ..................................................................... 5
7. Disadvantage of brick masonry.................................................................5
8. Considerations for good brick masonry .................................................... 6
9. Blocks ........................................................................................................6
9.1 Cheaper ............................................................................................ 7
9.2 Made from waste .............................................................................. 7
9.3 Light in weight ................................................................................. 7
9.4 Strength ............................................................................................ 7
 9.5 Soundproofing..................................................................................7
9.6 Space saving.....................................................................................8
10. Advantages of concrete building blocks ................................................... 8
10.1 Strength and durability .....................................................................8
10.2 Fire resistance .................................................................................. 8
10.3 Locally manufactured ...................................................................... 8
10.4 Insulating properties .........................................................................8
10.5 Custom colors and finishes .............................................................. 8
10.6 Affordable and sustainable ..............................................................9
11. Difference between red bricks and solid concrete blocks.........................9
Conclusion........................................................................................................11
References ........................................................................................................11

Fly Ash Bricks .................................................................................... 12

1. Introduction .............................................................................................12
2. Ancient lime-pozzolanic chemistry ........................................................13
3. Types of fly ash bricks ............................................................................13
4. The FaL-G technology ............................................................................14
5. Specifications and characteristics of fly ash bricks ................................15
5.1 General requirements .....................................................................15
5.2 Dimensions and tolerances ............................................................15
5.3 Tolerances ......................................................................................16
5.4 Classification ..................................................................................16
5.5 Physical characteristics ..................................................................16
6. Manufacturing process ............................................................................17
7. Properties of fly ash affecting the strength of fly ash bricks ..................19
8. Benefits of fly ash bricks for the environment .......................................20
9. Durability of fly ash bricks .....................................................................20
10. Advantages of fly ash bricks ...................................................................21
11. Disadvantages and limitations of fly ash bricks .....................................21
12. Comparison of fly ash bricks with clay bricks .......................................22
Conclusion........................................................................................................23
References ........................................................................................................23
Calcium Silicate Bricks ..................................................................... 24
1. Introduction .............................................................................................24
2. Materials used for sand lime bricks ........................................................24
2.1 Sand ................................................................................................25
2.2 Lime ...............................................................................................25
2.3 Water ..............................................................................................25
2.4 Pigment ..........................................................................................25
3. History of calcium silicate bricks ................................................................26
4. Manufacturing of calcium silicate bricks ................................................26
4.1 Proportioning of materials .............................................................26
4.2 Mixing of materials ........................................................................27
4.3 Compaction of materials ................................................................27
4.4 Hardening of bricks........................................................................27
4.5 Stacking and handling of bricks .....................................................28
5. Properties of sand lime bricks .................................................................29
6. Advantages of calcium silicate bricks.....................................................29
7. Disadvantages of calcium silicate bricks ................................................30
8. Problems associated with calcium silicate bricks ...................................31
Conclusion........................................................................................................32
References ........................................................................................................32

Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) Blocks ................................. 33

1. Introduction .............................................................................................33
2. Raw materials used in manufacturing of AAC blocks ...........................34
3. Specifications and performance summary of AAC blocks.....................34
3.1 Appearance.....................................................................................35
3.2 Size and Density.............................................................................35
3.3 Structural Capability ......................................................................35
3.4 Thermal Mass .................................................................................35
3.5 Insulation ........................................................................................36
3.6 Sound insulation.............................................................................36
3.7 Fire and Vermin Resistance ...........................................................36
3.8 Durability and moisture resistance.................................................36
3.9 Water absorption ............................................................................37
 3.10 Toxicity and breathability ..............................................................37
3.11 Constructability, availability, and cost ..........................................37
4. Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) block walling system ....................38
4.1 Laying of blocks.............................................................................38
4.2 Electrical and plumbing installations .............................................38
4.3 Exterior finishes .............................................................................39
4.4 Interior finishes ..............................................................................39
4.5 Service lines ...................................................................................40
4.6 Lintels .............................................................................................40
4.7 Plastering ........................................................................................41
4.8 Precautions while laying the AAC masonry blocks ......................41
5. Advantages of using AAC blocks ...........................................................41
6. Disadvantages of AAC blocks ................................................................42
7. Comparative analysis of AAC blocks, clay bricks, and CLC
blocks ...............................................................................................................43
8. Cost comparative analysis of AAC blockb, Clay Bricks, and
CLC blocks.......................................................................................................45
9. Environmental benefits of AAC blocks ..................................................46
Conclusion........................................................................................................46
References ........................................................................................................47

Compressed Earth Blocks ................................................................ 49

1. Introduction .............................................................................................49
2. Basic components....................................................................................49
2.1 Coarse particles ..............................................................................50
2.2 Fine particles ..................................................................................50
3. Addition of a binding agent ....................................................................50
4. Block making machines ..........................................................................51
5. Manufacturing process ............................................................................53
5.1 Analysis of the soil .........................................................................53
5.2 Sifting of the soil ............................................................................54
5.3 Preparation of the mix ....................................................................54
5.4 Compaction of the blocks ..............................................................54
5.5 Curing of the blocks .......................................................................54
6. Size of blocks ..........................................................................................55
 7. Walling with soil cement blocks.............................................................55
7.1 Bonding of the blocks ....................................................................55
7.2 Mortar requirement ........................................................................56
7.3 Fixing of frames .............................................................................56
8. Earthquake resistance of blocks ..............................................................56
9. Energy savings ........................................................................................57
10. Advantages of compressed earth blocks .................................................57

Stabilized Mud Blocks ...................................................................... 59

1. Introduction .............................................................................................59
2. Soil Stabilization methods with different materials ................................60
2.1 Soil stabilization with cement ........................................................60
2.2 Soil stabilization using lime ...........................................................61
2.3 Soil stabilization with bitumen ......................................................61
2.4 Chemical stabilization of soil.........................................................61
3. Identification of soil ................................................................................62
4. Soil stabilization ......................................................................................62
4.1 Soil suitability and stabilization .....................................................63
5. Raw materials ..........................................................................................63
6. Preparations of raw materials..................................................................64
6.1 The requirements for preparation...................................................64
6.2 Breaking up of soil .........................................................................64
6.3 Grinding followed by screening.....................................................65
6.4 Pulverization of soil .......................................................................65
6.5 Sieving............................................................................................65
6.6 Proportioning .................................................................................65
6.7 Mixing ............................................................................................66
6.8 Quantity of materials needed .........................................................66
7. Molding of stabilized mud blocks...........................................................67
7.1 Standards for block production ......................................................67
7.2 Testing soil before block production .............................................67
7.3 Curing.............................................................................................68
8. Advantages of compressed stabilized earth blocks (CSEB) ...................69
8.1 A local material ..............................................................................69
 8.2 A bio-degradable material..............................................................69
8.3 Limiting deforestation....................................................................69
8.4 Management of resources ..............................................................69
8.5 An adapted material .......................................................................69
8.6 A transferable technology ..............................................................69
8.7 Job creation opportunity.................................................................69
8.8 Market opportunity ........................................................................70
8.9 Reducing imports ...........................................................................70
8.10 Flexible production scale ...............................................................70
8.11 Energy efficiency and eco-friendliness..........................................70
8.12 Cost efficiency ...............................................................................70
8.13 Social acceptance ...........................................................................70
9. Disadvantages of compressed stabilized earth blocks (CSEB) ..............70
Conclusion........................................................................................................71
References ........................................................................................................71

Concrete Blocks ................................................................................. 72

1. Introduction .............................................................................................72
2. Historical background of concrete blocks...............................................73
3. Raw materials for precast concrete blocks..............................................73
4. Design of precast concrete blocks...........................................................74
5. Concrete block construction method ......................................................75
5.1 Materials used in making concrete blocks .....................................75
5.2 Mixes ..............................................................................................75
5.3 Mixing ............................................................................................75
5.4 Mold ...............................................................................................76
5.5 Proportion.......................................................................................76
5.6 Casting............................................................................................76
5.7 Curing.............................................................................................76
5.8 Drying ............................................................................................77
6. Concrete block specifications .................................................................77
6.1 Dimensions.....................................................................................77
6.2 Cavities ...........................................................................................78
6.3 Shell thickness................................................................................78
6.4 Joints ..............................................................................................78
 6.5 Aggregates......................................................................................78
6.6 Density ...........................................................................................78
6.7 Crushing strength ...........................................................................78
6.8 Drying shrinkage............................................................................78
6.9 Tolerances ......................................................................................78
6.10 Density ...........................................................................................79
7. Types of concrete block or concrete masonry units ...............................79
7.1 Solid concrete blocks .....................................................................80
7.2 Hollow concrete blocks..................................................................81
8. Types of hollow concrete blocks ............................................................81
8.1 Concrete stretcher blocks ...............................................................81
8.2 Concrete corner blocks...................................................................82
8.3 Concrete pillar blocks ....................................................................82
8.4 Jamb concrete blocks .....................................................................83
8.5 Partition concrete blocks ................................................................83
8.6 Lintel blocks ...................................................................................83
9. Size of concrete blocks ...........................................................................85
10. Building with concrete blocks.................................................................85
10.1 Design ............................................................................................85
11. Construction of precast concrete block masonry ....................................86
11.1 Wetting of blocks ...........................................................................86
11.2 Laying ............................................................................................86
11.3 Provision for door and window frames..........................................86
11.4 Intersecting Walls ..........................................................................87
11.5 Provisions for roof .........................................................................87
11.6 Piers ................................................................................................87
11.7 Finishes ..........................................................................................87
12. Advantages of concrete blocks ...............................................................87
13. Comparison of hollow block and brick masonry ....................................88
Conclusion........................................................................................................89
References ........................................................................................................89

Reinforced Hollow Concrete Block Masonry ................................. 90

1. Introduction .............................................................................................90
 2. Reinforced hollow concrete block wall ..................................................90
3. Structural hollow concrete blocks ...........................................................91
4. Structural features ...................................................................................92
5. Precaution while laying RHCB masonry................................................93
6. Design details ..........................................................................................94
References ........................................................................................................97

Concrete Pavement Blocks ............................................................... 98

1. Introduction .............................................................................................98
2. Specifications of Grass Paver .................................................................99
3. Types of interlocking paver blocks .......................................................100
3.1 Regular block (heavy duty) ..........................................................101
3.2 Irregular block (medium duty) .....................................................101
3.3 Grass paver block .........................................................................101
3.4 Regular block (heavy duty) ..........................................................101
3.5 Uni regular block (medium duty) ................................................101
3.6 Grass paver block .........................................................................102
4. Manufacturing of pavement blocks ......................................................102
4.1 Selection of raw materials ............................................................102
4.2 Batching and mixing ....................................................................102
4.3 Transit of wet concrete mix .........................................................102
4.4 Casting of the block .....................................................................103
4.5 Curing...........................................................................................103
4.6 Testing and quality control ..........................................................103
5. Laying of pavement blocks ...................................................................103
5.1 Leveling of sub-base ....................................................................103
5.2 Laying of blocks...........................................................................103
5.3 Compaction of surface .................................................................103
5.4 Joint filling of blocks ...................................................................104
5.5 Final compaction ..........................................................................104
6. Characteristics features of pavement blocks .........................................104
6.1 Durable .........................................................................................104
6.2 Practical ........................................................................................104
6.3 Simple installation........................................................................104
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6.4 Versatile .......................................................................................104

6.5 Flexible.........................................................................................104
6.6 Attractive......................................................................................104
6.7 Reusable .......................................................................................104
7. Advantages over conventional rigid concrete pavement blocks...........105
7.1 Better resistance to wear and tear ................................................105
7.2 Better thermal resistance ..............................................................105
7.3 Ready to use after laying..............................................................105
7.4 Environmental friendly ................................................................105
7.5 High limiting deflection ...............................................................105
7.6 All-weather construction ..............................................................106
7.7 Weather resistant ..........................................................................106
7.8 Easy repair and maintenance .......................................................106
7.9 Safety............................................................................................106
7.10 Facility for post construction underground works .......................107
7.11 Long term behavior ......................................................................107
7.12 Fatigue ..........................................................................................107
7.13 Low life cycle cost .......................................................................107
Conclusion ...............................................................................................107
References ......................................................................................................108

About the Author............................................................................. 109