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3
HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
Department: Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Batch/Year: 2017-2021 Subject code : EE8701
Created by: K.GUNALAN M.E.,(Ph.D)

Associate Professor/EEE
RMK College of Engineering and Technology
4
Table of Contents
Page
S. No. TOPIC
No.
1 Course Objectives 7
2 Pre Requisites 8
3 Syllabus 9
4 Course Outcomes 10
5 Program Outcomes 11
6 Program Specific Outcomes 12
7 CO/PO Mapping 12
8 CO/PSO Mapping 12
UNIT – I -OVER VOLTAGES IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS
9 Lecture Plan 13
10 E-Book 14
11 Video Links 15
Causes of over voltages and its effects on power
12 17
system-
13 Lightning, 20
14 Mathematical modelling of lightning 22

switching surges and temporary over voltages
15 23
16 Bewley lattice diagram 24
17 Problems on Bewley lattice diagram 35

18 Protection against over voltages 38
19 Earthing 41
20 Lightning Arrestors 43
21 Assignment 53
5
Table of Contents
Page
S. No. TOPIC
No.
22 Part A Question & Answers 54
23 Part B Questions 58
24 Part C Questions 59
25 Supportive online courses 60

Real Time Applications in Day to day life and to Industry
26 61
6
Course Objectives
To impart knowledge on the following Topics
1. Various types of over voltages in power system and protection

methods.
2. Generation of over voltages in laboratories.
3. Measurement of over voltages.
4. Nature of Breakdown mechanism in solid, liquid and

gaseous dielectrics.
5. Testing of power apparatus and insulation coordination
7
Pre Requisites (Course Names with Code)
EE8402- Transmission and Distribution

EE8501 Power System Analysis
EE8602 Protection and Switchgear
8
SYLLABUS
EE8701 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING LTPC
3003
OBJECTIVES:
•Various types of over voltages in power system and protection
methods.
• Generation of over voltages in laboratories.
• Measurement of over voltages.
• Nature of Breakdown mechanism in solid, liquid and gaseous
dielectrics.
• Testing of power apparatus and insulation coordination
UNIT I OVER VOLTAGES IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS 9
Causes of over voltages and its effects on power system – Lightning, switching
surges and temporary over voltages, Corona and its effects – Bewley lattice
diagram- Protection against over voltages.
UNIT II DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN 9
Properties of Dielectric materials - Gaseous breakdown in uniform and non-uniform
fields – Corona discharges – Vacuum breakdown – Conduction and breakdown in
pure and commercial liquids, Maintenance of oil Quality – Breakdown mechanisms
in solid and composite dielectrics- Applications of insulating materials in electrical
equipments.
UNIT III GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND HIGH CURRENTS
Generation of High DC voltage: Rectifiers, voltage multipliers, vandigraff generator:
generation of high impulse voltage: single and multistage Marx circuits – generation
of high AC voltages: cascaded transformers, resonant transformer and tesla coil-
generation of switching surges – generation of impulse currents - Triggering and
control of impulse generators.
UNIT IV MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND HIGH CURRENTS
High Resistance with series ammeter – Dividers, Resistance, Capacitance and Mixed
dividers - Peak Voltmeter, Generating Voltmeters - Capacitance Voltage
Transformers, Electrostatic Voltmeters – Sphere Gaps - High current shunts- Digital
techniques in high voltage measurement.
UNIT V HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING & INSULATION COORDINATION 9
High voltage testing of electrical power apparatus as per International and Indian
standards – Power frequency, impulse voltage and DC testing of Insulators, circuit
breakers, bushing, isolators and transformers- Insulation Coordination& testing of
cabilitys.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
9
COURSE OUTCOME
Course Outcome Level of

Knowledge
CO1 Understand various types of over voltages K2
experienced by the power system
CO2 Understand and explain the breakdown K1
mechanism of different types of dielectrics
CO3 Explain the generation of High voltages and K3
currents and apply the same for calculating the
voltage to be generated for testing an apparatus
of a particular rated voltage
CO4 Understand various methods of HV K2
measurements and identify the appropriate
measuring system for various types of over
voltages and currents
CO5 Understand process of testing of various power K2
system apparatus
CO6 Understand the significance of insulation K3
coordination and apply the same for fixing the
BIL of an apparatus
10
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
a. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
b. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
c. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex
engineering problems and design system components or processes that meet the
specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety,
and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
d. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based
knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.
e. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
f. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
g. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate
the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
h. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
i. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
j. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
k. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these to
one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.
l. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and
ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.
11
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES
(PSOs)
PSO 1: Design and analyze electrical systems incorporating electrical machines,
power controllers along with the design of electrical layout for the complete
structure.
PSO 2 : Use the modern tools for implementing the solutions to engineering problems
that can arise in the fields of Electrical, Electronics and Telecommunication
Engineering along with Information Technology Services.
PSO 3 : Face the challenges in the society by adopting the non-conventional energy
resources and utilizing the modern technologies for energy efficient transmission
and power quality improvement delivering clean energy for the well being of the
mankind.
COs - POs/PSOs MATRICES
COs PO PSO
a b c d e f g h i j k l 1 2 3
CO1 3 3 1 1 - - - - 1 - -
CO2 3 3 1 1 - - - - 1 - -
CO3 3 3 2 1 - - - - 2 2 -
CO4 3 3 2 1 - - - - 1 2 -
CO5 3 3 2 1 - - - - 1 2 -
CO6 3 3 2 1 - - - - 2 1 -
Relevance: 1: Slight (Low) 2: Moderate (Medium) 3: Substantial (High)
12
UNIT-I
LECTURE PLAN
S. TOPIC No. Proposed Actual Per Taxo Mode of

NO of date Lecture tain nomy Delivery
Peri Date ing level
ods CO
Causes of over
voltages and its Power
1 effects on power CO1 K1 Point
system- Presentation
Power
2 Lightning, CO1 K1 Point
Presentation
switching surges
and temporary Power
3 over voltages CO1 K1 Point
Presentation
Corona and its
Power
4 effects CO1 K1 Point
Presentation
Power
Bewley lattice
5 CO1 K2 Point
diagram
Presentation
Problems on Power
6 Bewley lattice CO1 K3 Point
diagram Presentation
Power
Protection against
7. CO1 K1 Point
over voltages
Presentation
Power
8. Earthing CO1 K1 Point
Presentation
Lightning Power
9. CO1 K1 Point
Arrestors
Presentation
13
E Books
1. https://b-ok.asia/book/541362/93a5bb
High voltage engineering , by C.L Wadhwa
2. https://b-ok.asia/book/593383/a732c8
High voltage engineering by MS.Naidu &V.Kamaraju
3. https://b-ok.asia/book/462609/d72278
High Voltage Engineering Fundamentals, by E. Kuffel and
W.S. Zaengl, J.Kuffel
4. https://b-ok.asia/book/1132470/e51f4c
High-voltage engineering: theory and practice, by Mazen Abdel –
Salam, Hussein Anis, Ahdab A-Morshedy, Roshday Radwan
14
VIDEO LINKS
TITLE LINK
The Science of Lightning https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-0gNl5f4BU
Thunderstorms
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zUNEFefftt8
Lightning physics https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JJubgrI0T0g
Switching surges https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4-Lu1vnH_d8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MqICjzh-cgQ
500 kV Motor Operated
Disconnect Switch
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BlutEhZyN2I
500kv air switches being
closed
Surge Arrestors https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vpcRY0SLt1o
Lightning Arrestor- how its https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFTns1TBQ5s
made
15
UNIT -1
OVER VOLTAGES IN ELECTRICAL

POWER SYSTEMS
16
1. Causes of Over Voltages
Lightning
Lightning has been a source of wonder to mankind for thousands of years.

Schonland points out that Any real scientific search for the first time was made into
the phenomenon of lightning by Franklin in 18th century. Before going into the
various theories explaining the charge formation in a thunder cloud and the
mechanism of lightning, it is desirable to review some of the accepted facts
concerning the thunder cloud and the associated phenomenon.
1. The height of the cloud base above the surrounding ground level may vary from
160 to 9,500 m. The charged centres which are responsible for lightning are in
the range of 300 to 1500 m.
2. The maximum charge on a cloud is of the order of 10 coulombs which is built up
exponentially over a period of perhaps many seconds or even minutes.
3. The maximum potential of a cloud lies approximately within the range of 10
MV to 100 MV.
4. The energy in a lightning stroke may be of the order of 250 kWhr.
5. Raindrops:
(a) Raindrops elongate and become unstable under an electric field, the
limiting diameter being 0.3 cm in a field of 100 kV/cm.
(b) A free falling raindrop attains a constant velocity with respect to the air
depending upon its size. This velocity is 800 cms/sec. for drops of the
size 0.25 cm dia. and is zero for spray. This means that in case the air
currents are moving upwards with a velocity greater than 800 cm/sec,
no rain drop can fall.
(c) Falling raindrops greater than 0.5 cm in dia become unstable and
break up into Smaller drops.
(d) When a drop is broken up by air currents, the water particles become
positively charged and the air negatively charged.
(e) When an ice crystal strikes with air currents, the ice crystal is negatively
charged and the air positively charged.
17
Wilson’s Theory of Charge Separation
Wilson’s theory is based on the assumption that a large number of ions are present
in the atmosphere. Many of these ions attach themselves to small dust particles and
water particles. It also assumes that an electric field exists in the earth’s atmosphere
during fair weather which is directed downwards towards the earth. The intensity of
the field is approximately 1 volt/cm at the surface of the earth and decreases
gradually with height so that at 9,500 m it is only about 0.02 V/cm.
A relatively large raindrop (0.1 cm radius) falling in this field becomes polarized, the
upper side acquires a negative charge and the lower side a positive charge.
Subsequently, the lower part of the drop attracts –ve charges from the atmosphere
which are available in abundance in the atmosphere leaving a preponderance of
positive charges in the Air.
The upwards motion of air currents tends to carry up the top of the cloud, the +ve
air and smaller drops that the wind can blow against gravity. Meanwhile the falling
heavier raindrops which are negatively charged settle on the base of the cloud. It is
to be noted that the selective action of capturing –ve charges from the atmosphere
by the lower surface of the drop is Possible. No such selective action occurs at the
upper surface. Thus in the original system, both the positive and negative charges
which were mixed up, producing essentially a neutral space charge, are now
separated. Thus according to Wilson’s theory since larger negatively charged drops
settle on the base of the cloud and smaller positively charged drops settle on the
upper positions of the cloud, the lower base of the cloud is negatively charged and
the upper region is positively charged.
18
Simpson’s and Scarse Theory
Simpson’s theory is based on the temperature variations in the various regions of

the cloud. When water droplets are broken due to air currents, water droplets
acquire positive charges whereas the air is negatively charged. Also when ice
crystals strike with air, the air is positively charged and the crystals negatively
charged. The theory is explained with the help of Fig
Let the cloud move in the direction from left to right as shown by the arrow. The
air currents are also shown in the diagram. If the velocity of the air currents is
about 10 m/sec in the base of the cloud, these air currents when collide with the
water particles in the base of the cloud, the water drops are broken and carried
upwards unless they combine together and fall down in a pocket as shown by a
pocket of positive charges (right bottom region in Fig.)
19
With the collision of water particles we know the air is negatively charged and the
water particles positively charged. These negative charges in the air are immediately
absorbed by the cloud particles which are carried away upwards with the air
currents. The air currents go still higher in the cloud where the moisture freezes into
ice crystals. The air currents when collide with ice crystals the air is positively
charged and it goes in the upper region of cloud whereas the negatively charged ice
crystals drift gently down in the lower region of the cloud. This is how the charge is
separated in a thundercloud. Once the charge separation is complete, the conditions
are now set for a lightning stroke.
Mechanism of Lightning Stroke
Lightning phenomenon is the discharge of the cloud to the ground. The cloud
and the ground form two plates of a gigantic capacitor and the dielectric medium
is air. Since the lower part of the cloud is negatively charged, the earth is
positively charged by induction. Lightning discharge will require the puncture of
the air between the cloud and the earth. For breakdown of air at STP condition
the electric field required is 30 kV/cm peak. But in a cloud where the moisture
content in the air is large and also because of the high altitude (lower pressure) it
is seen that for breakdown of air the electric field required is only 10 kV/cm. The
mechanism of lightning discharge is best explained with the help of Fig.
20
After a gradient of approximately 10 kV/cm is set up in the cloud, the air
surrounding gets Ionized. At this a streamer (Fig. (a)) starts from the cloud towards
the earth which cannot be detected with the naked eye; only a spot travelling is
detected. The current in the streamer is of the order of 100 amperes and the speed
of the streamer is 0.16 m/μ sec. This streamer is known as pilot streamer because
this leads to the lightning phenomenon. Depending upon the state of ionization of
the air surrounding the streamer, it is branched to several paths and this is known as
stepped leader (Fig. (b)). The leader steps are of the order of 50 m in length and
are accomplished in about a microsecond. The charge is brought from the cloud
through the already ionized path to these pauses. The air surrounding these pauses
is again ionized and the leader in this way reaches the earth (Fig. (c)).
Once the stepped leader has made contact with the earth it is believed that a power
return stroke (Fig. 7.24(c)) moves very fast up towards the cloud through the
already ionized path by the leader. This streamer is very intense where the current
varies between 1000 amps and 200,000 amps and the speed is about 10% that of
light. It is here where the –ve charge of the cloud is being neutralized by the
positive induced charge on the earth (Fig. 7.24(d)). It is this instant which gives rise
to lightning flash which we observe with our naked eye. There may be another cell
of charges in the cloud near the neutralized charged cell. This charged cell will try to
neutralize through this ionised path. This streamer is known as dart leader (Fig.
7.24(e)). The velocity of the dart leader is about 3% of the velocity of light. The
effect of the dart leader is much more severe than that of the return stroke.
The discharge current in the return streamer is relatively very large but as it lasts
only for a few microseconds the energy contained in the streamer is small and
hence this streamer is known as cold lightning stroke whereas the dart leader is
known as hot lightning stroke because even though the current in this leader is
relatively smaller but it lasts for some milliseconds and therefore the energy
contained in this leader is relatively larger. It is found that each thunder cloud may
contain as many as 40 charged cells and a heavy lightning stroke may occur. This is
known as multiple strokes.
21
Mathematical Model for Lightning
During the charge formation process, the cloud may be considered to be a non
conductor. Hence, various potentials may be assumed at different parts of the
cloud. If the charging process is continued, it is probable that the gradient at
certain parts of the charged region exceeds the breakdown strength of the air or
moist air in the cloud. Hence, local breakdown takes place within the cloud. This
local discharge may finally lead to a situation wherein a large reservoir of charges
involving a considerable mass of cloud hangs over the ground, with the air
between the cloud and the ground as a dielectric. When a streamer discharge
occurs to ground by first a leader stroke, followed by main strokes with
considerable currents flowing, the lightning stroke may be thought to be a
current source of value /Q with a source impedance Z0 discharging to earth. If
the stroke strikes an object of impedance Z, the voltage built across it may b e
taken as
V = IZ
Z Z0
= I0
Z + Z0
Z
= I0 Z
1+Z
0
The source impedance of the lightning channels are not known exactly, but it is
estimated to be about 1000 to 3000 Ω. The objects of interest to electrical
engineers, namely, transmission line, etc. have surge impedances less than 500
Ω (overhead lines 300 to 5OO Ω , ground wires 100 to 150 Ω, towers 10 to 50
Ω, etc.). Therefore, the value Z/Z0 will usually be less than 0.1 and hence can be
neglected. Hence, the voltage rise of lines, etc. may be taken to be approximately
V = I0Z, where I0 is the lightning stroke current and Z the line surge impedance.
22
Switching surges
Origin of Switching Surges The making and breaking of electric circuits with
switchgear may result in abnormal over voltages in power systems having large
inductances and capacitances. The over voltages may go as high as six times the
normal power frequency voltage. In circuit breaking operation, switching surges
with a high rate of rise of voltage may cause repeated restriking of the arc
between the contacts of a circuit breaker, thereby causing destruction of the
circuit breaker contacts. The switching surges may include high natural
frequencies of the system, a damped normal frequency voltage component, or
the restriking and recovery voltage of the system with successive reflected waves
from terminations .The wave shapes of switching surges are quite different and
may have origin from any of the following sources.
(i) De-energizing of transmission lines, cables, shunt capacitor, banks, etc.
(ii) Disconnection of unloaded transformers, reactors, etc.
(iii) Energization or reclosing of lines and reactive loads,
(i v) Sudden switching off of loads.
(v) Short circuits and fault clearances.
(w) Resonance phenomenon like ferro-resonance, arcing grounds, etc
23
Bewley Lattice Diagram :
Successive reflections and lattice diagrams
In many problems involving short cable lengths, or lines tapped at intervals, the
travelling waves encounter successive reflections at the transition point.
Bewley has given the lattice or time-space diagrams from which the motion of
reflected and transmitted waves and their positions at every instant can be
obtained. The principles observed in the lattice diagrams are as follows:
(1) All waves travel downhill, i.e. into the positive time
(2) The position of the wave at any instant is given by means of the time scale at
the left of the lattice diagram
(3) The total potential at any instant of time is the superposition of all the waves
which arrive at that point until that instant of time, displaced in position from each
other by time intervals equal to the time differences of their arrival
(4) Attenuation is included so that the amount by which a wave is reduced is taken
care of and the previous history of the wave, if desired can be easily traced. If the
computation is to be carried out at a point where the operations cannot be directly
placed on the lattice diagram, the arms can be numbered and the quantity can be
tabulated and computed arms are as follows:
In the arrangement shown in the figure, there are two junctions 1 and 2. The travel
times for the waves are different through Z1, Z2, and Z3. The lines with surge
impedances Z1, Z2, and Z3 are connected on either side of the junctions. Let α
and β be the attenuation coefficients for the two sections Z2 and Z$. Let a and a'
be the reflection coefficients for the waves approaching from the left and the
right at junction1, and a2 and a2’ be the corresponding reflection coefficients at
junction 2
24
Similarly, let b and b‘ be the transmission coefficients for the waves that approach
from the left and the right at junction 1, and the corresponding coefficients be b2
and b2' at junction 2. To construct the lattice diagram, the position O is taken
when the wave coming from Z1 reaches junction 1. Junction 2 is taken to scale at
the time in equal to the travel time through the line Z2 between the junctions 1
and 2.
The diagram is drawn by choosing a suitable time scale. The reflection and the
transmission factors are marked as shown in the figure. The process of calculation
is indicated on the slope of the lines in the diagram. The process can be
continued for up to the required time interval.
25
Bewley’s Lattice Diagram
Whenever there is an abrupt change in the parameters of a transmission line, such as an

open circuit or a termination, the travelling wave undergoes a transition, pan of the wave is
reflected or sent back and only a portion is transmitted forward. At the transition point, the
voltage or current wave may attain a value which can vary from zero to two times its initial
value. The incoming wave is called the incident wave and the other waves are called the
reflected and transmitted waves at the transition point. Such waves are formed according to
the KirchhofFs laws and they satisfy the line differential equations.
In short cable lengths, or lines tapped at intervals, the travelling waves encounter
successive reflections at the transition point. It is extremely difficult to calculate the
multiplicity of these reflections. Bewley has given the lattice or time-space
diagrams from which the motion of reflected and transmitted waves and their
positions at every instant can be obtained.
The principles observed in the lattice diagrams are as follows:
(a) all waves travel downhill, i.e. into the positive time
(b) the position of the wave at any instant is given by means of the
time scale at the left of the lattice diagram
(c) the total potential at any instant of time is the superposition of
all the waves which arrive at that point until that instant of time,
displaced in position from each other by time intervals equal to the
time differences of their arrival
(d) attenuation is included so that the amount by which a wave is
reduced is taken care of and
(e) the previous history of the wave, if desired can be easily traced.
If the computation is to be carried out at a point where the
operations cannot be directly placed on the lattice diagram, the
arms can be numbered and the quantity can be tabulated and
computed.
Attenuation Factor
Attenuation factor α to be defined corresponding to the length of a particular line i.e.
α = e-attenuation constant x length of the line
Propagation constant γ = 𝑧𝑦
Surge impedance and Velocity of Propagation

Let L be the inductance,
Let C be the capacitance,
𝐿
Surge impedance (ZC) =
𝐶
1
Velocity of Propagation constant, ν = m/sec
𝐿𝐶
𝑑
where, 𝐿 = 2𝑋10−7 𝑙𝑛 𝑟
2𝜋𝜖0
𝐶= 𝑑
𝑙𝑛 𝑟
Reflection and Refraction Coefficient
There is a proportionality between the voltage and current. Consider the junction between
the lines or between the line and a cable of characteristics impedances Z1 and Z2.
Let the incoming voltage wave or step function surge of amplitude be V.

Let the incoming current wave be I.
Let the reflected voltage at the point of discontinuity be V1,

Let the reflected current at the point of discontinuity be I1,
Let the transmitted or refracted voltage at the point of discontinuity be V1’,
Let the transmitted or refracted current at the point of discontinuity be I1’,
At the point of discontinuity between the lines or cables having an surge impedance are Z1
and Z2.
(i) Determine reflected voltage V1 in terms of a:
Applying KVL and KCL, we have
V1’ = V + V1 & I1’=I-I1

[⸪ the reflected wave has negative sign]
𝑉1 ′ 𝑉 𝑉
= 𝑍 − 𝑍1
𝑍2 1 1
Substituting V1’,
𝑉+𝑉1 𝑉−𝑉1
=
𝑧2 𝑧1
1 1 1 1
𝑉1 +𝑍 =𝑉 −𝑍
𝑍2 1 𝑍1 2
𝑍1+𝑍2 𝑍2 −𝑍1
𝑉1 =𝑉
𝑍2 𝑍1 𝑍1 𝑍2
𝑍2 −𝑍1
𝑉1 = 𝑉 = aV
𝑍1 +𝑍2
where, a = Reflection coefficient

(i) Determine transmitted voltage V1’ in terms of b
V1’= V + V1
V1 = V1’ – V
I1’ = I – I1
𝑉1 ′ 𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉 𝑉1′ − 𝑉
= − = −
𝑍2 𝑍1 𝑍1 𝑍1 𝑍1
𝑉1 ′ 2𝑉 − 𝑉1′
=
𝑍2 𝑍1
1 1
𝑉1′ + =
𝑍2 𝑍1
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 2𝑉
𝑉1′ =
𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍1
2𝑍1 𝑍2 2𝑍2
𝑉1′ = 𝑉= .𝑉
(𝑍1 +𝑍2 )𝑍1 𝑍1 + 𝑍2
𝑉1′ = 𝑏. 𝑉
where, b = Refraction coefficient
iii) Relation between a and b:

𝑍2 − 𝑍1
1+𝑎 =1+
𝑍1 + 𝑍2
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 2𝑍2
= = =𝑏
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍1 + 𝑍2
iv) Transmitted or refracted current:

𝑉 𝑉
𝐼1′ = 𝐼 − 𝐼1 = 𝑍 − 𝑍1
1 1
Substituting the value of V1, we get
𝑉 𝑍2 −𝑍1 𝑉
=𝑍 − =𝑉
1 𝑍1 +𝑍2 𝑍1
2𝑍1 𝑉 2𝑍1
= = .𝐼
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍1 𝑍1 + 𝑍2
iv) Transmitted or refracted current:
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼1′ = 𝐼 − 𝐼1 = 𝑍 − 𝑍1
1 1
Substituting the value of V1, we get
𝑉 𝑍2−𝑍1 𝑉 𝑍1 +𝑍2 −𝑍2 +𝑍1

=𝑍 − =𝑉
1 𝑍1+𝑍2 𝑍1 𝑍1 +𝑍2 𝑍1
2𝑍1 𝑉 2𝑍1
= = .𝐼
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍1 𝑍1 + 𝑍2
v) Reflected current:
−𝑉1
𝐼1 = 𝑍1
𝑉
Substituting V1, we get 𝐼1 = −𝑎. = −𝑎𝐼
𝑍1
𝐿
Important Relation: 𝑍𝑐 =
𝐶
1
𝑣=
𝐿𝐶
1+a=b
V1 = a.V, V1’ = b V
2𝑍1
I1= -a. I, 𝐼1′ = 𝑍 .𝐼
1 +𝑍2
𝑍 −𝑍 2𝑍2
where, 𝑎 = 𝑍2+𝑍1 , 𝑏 = 𝑍
1 2 1 +𝑍2
Reflection and Refraction or Transmission at a T-Junction
Consider a line with natural impedance Z1 connected to two different lines with surge
impedances Z2 and Z3 as shown in fig.
Applying KCL and KVL, we get
𝑉1′ = 𝑉 + 𝑉1
𝐼 − 𝐼1 = 𝐼2′ + 𝐼3′
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉′ 𝑉′
− 𝑍1 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍1
𝑍1 1 2 3
𝑉 𝑉1′ − 𝑉 𝑉1′ 𝑉1′

− = +
𝑍1 𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍3
1 1 1 𝑉
𝑉1′ + 𝑍 +𝑍 = 2𝑍
𝑍1 2 3 1
Refracted transmitted voltage,

𝑉
𝑉1′ = 2 1 1 1
𝑍1 𝑍 +𝑍 +𝑍
1 2 3
The refracted or transmitted currents are

𝑉′ 𝑉
𝐼2′ = 𝑍1 = 2 1 1 1
2 𝑍2 𝑍1 𝑍 +𝑍 +𝑍
1 2 3
𝑉′ 𝑉
𝐼3′ = 𝑍1 = 2 1 1 1
3 𝑍3 𝑍1 𝑍 +𝑍 +𝑍
1 2 3
Open ended transmission line of surge impedance Z
Z1 =Z , Z2 = ꝏ
Reflection coefficient at the receiving end
𝑍
𝑍2 −𝑍1 1−𝑍1
2
𝑎= = 𝑍
𝑍1 +𝑍2 1+𝑍1
2
𝑍
1 −ꝏ
Z2 = ꝏ, 𝑎= 1 =1
1 +ꝏ
Reflection coefficient at the sending end
0−𝑍
𝑎′ = =1
0+𝑧
Procedure
Assume T is the time taken for a wave to travel from on end to the end of line and α is the
attenuation factor. Assume amplitude is unity.
At time t=0, the magnitude is +1. The wave is attenuated and reaches at T with magnitude
+1 x α = +α
At time T, the wave is reflected and the amplitude is +α x a = +α and the wave is again
attenuated and reaches at 2T with magnitude +α2
At time 2T, the wave is reflected and the amplitude is +α2x-a=-α2 and the wave is again
attenuated and reaches at 3T with magnitude –α3
At time 3T, the wave is reflected and the amplitude is –α3 x a = -α3 and the wave is
attenuated and reaches at 4T with magnitude –α4 and so on.
Voltage at the receiving end = 2 [α – α3 + α5 + ……..+ α2n-1] u(t)
[1−α4 𝑛+1 ]
= 2α . 𝑢(𝑡)
[1+α2 ]
2α
At t = ꝏ, 𝑉ꝏ = 𝑢(𝑡)
1+α2
𝑉α
Current at the receiving end , 𝐼α = 𝑍
Open ended transmission line of surge impedance Z
Problem No:1
A transmission line of surge impedance 250Ω and is connected to a cable of surge impedance 50Ω
at the other end, if a surge of 400kV travels along the line to the junction point, find the voltage
build at the junction.
Solution:
Z1 = 250Ω, Z2 = 50Ω, V= 400kV
𝑍2 − 𝑍1 50 − 250
𝑉1 = 𝑥𝑉= 𝑥 400 = −266.67𝑘𝑉
𝑍2 + 𝑍1 50 + 250
Voltage build at the junction = V - V1
= 400 – (-266.67) = 666.67kV

Problem No:2
A long trnsmission line is energised by a unit step voltage 1.0V at the sending end and is open
circuited at the receiving end. Construct the Bewley lattice diagram and obtain the value of the
voltage at the receiving end after a long time. Take the attenuation α=0.9.
Solution: For the open circuited at the receiving end,
Let the time of travel be 1unit.

At the receiving end,
∞−𝑍
Refelection coefficient, 𝑎 = = 1.0
∞+𝑍
At the sending end,
0−𝑍
Reflection coeeficient, 𝑎′ = = −1.0
0+𝑍
Lattice diagram is
As a travelling wave moves along a line, it suffers both attenuation
and distortion.
The decrease in the magnitude of the wave as it propagates along
the line is called attenuation.
The elongation or change of wave shape that occurs is called
distortion.
Sometimes, the steepness of the wave is reduced by distortion.
Also, the current and voltage wave shapes become dissimilar even
though they may be the same initially.
Attenuation is caused due to the energy loss in the line and
distortion is caused due to the inductance and capacitance of the
line.
The energy loss may be in the conductor resistance as modified by
the skin effect, changes in ground resistance, leakage resistance
and non-uniform ground resistances etc.
In short cable lengths, or lines tapped at intervals, the travelling
waves encounter successive reflections at the transition point. It is
extremely difficult to calculate the multiplicity of these reflections
Bewley has given the
Protection against Lightning Over voltages and
Switching Surges of short Duration
Protection of transmission lines against natural or lightning over voltages

and minimizing the lightning over voltages are done by suitable line designs,
providing guard and ground wires, and using surge diverters
Switching surges and power frequency over voltages are accounted for by
providing greater insulation levels and with proper insulation co-ordination
Over voltages due to lightning strokes can be avoided or minimized in practice by

(A) SHIELDING THE OVERHEAD LINES BY USING GROUND WIRES ABOVE
THE PHASE WIRES,
Ground wire is a conductor run parallel to the

main conductor of the transmission line
supported on the same tower and earthed at
every equally and regularly spaced towers
The conducting tower structure serves the

purpose of down conductor to earth for
Lightening Strikes
With the ground wire present, both the ground

wire and the line conductor get the induced
charge. But the ground wire is earthed at regular
intervals
The effective protection or shielding given by the

ground wire depends on the height of the
ground wire above the ground (H) and the
protection or shielding angle (usually 30°)
38
Shielding Angle
The Shielding Angle is defined as

the angle between an imaginary
vertical line extending downward
from the overhead ground wire and
an imaginary line connecting the
ground wire and phase conductor, as
shown in figure below.
The shielding angle 30° was

considered adequate for tower heights
of 30 m or less
39
Failure modes
Lightning current injected into an

overhead ground wire can result in
‘‘back-flashover’’ from the ground wire to
a phase wire if the resultant voltage on
the ground wire is high enough, as can
occur if there is the combination of a
large lightning current and inadequate
grounding of the overhead ground wire.
Lightning may bypass an overhead

ground wire and strike a phase wire
directly if the overhead ground wire is
not properly located, and sometimes
even if it is.
Thus the ground wire reduces the

instantaneous potential to which the
tower top rises considerably, as the
current path is in three directions
The instantaneous potential to which

tower top can rise is
𝑍𝑇
VT = I 0 𝑍
1+ 𝑇
Zs
Where ZT = Surge impedance of the

tower
Zs = Surge impedance of the ground
wire
40
Protection Using Ground Rods and Counter-Poise Wires
When a line is shielded, the lightning

strikes either the tower or the ground
wire. The path for drainage of the
charge and lightning current is
(a) through the tower frame to ground

(pipe Earthing system)
(b) through the ground line in

opposite directions from the point of
striking
Thus the ground wire reduces the

instantaneous potential to which the
tower top rises considerably, as the
current path is in three directions
Pipe type Earthing

Ground rods are a number of
rods about IS mm diameter
and 2.5 to 3 m long driven into
the ground
They are usually made of
galvanized iron or copper
bearing steel
41
Counterpoise earth wires
Counterpoise wires are wires buried in the

ground at a depth of 0.5 to 1.0 m, running
parallel to the transmission line conductors and
connected to the tower legs
These wires may be 50 to 100 m long‘

These are found to be more effective than
driven rods and the surge impedance of
the tower may be reduced to as low as 25
ohm
(C) INCLUDING PROTECTIVE DEVICES LIKE EXPULSION GAPS,

PROTECTOR TUBES ON THE LINES, AND SURGE DIVERTERS AT THE LINE
TERMINATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS.
Lightning arresters or surge diverters are used to protect the earth screen and
ground wires in an electrical system against direct lightning strokes. They conduct
the high voltage surges to the ground without getting affected to the system. The
lightning arrestor provides a cone of protection which has a ground radius
approximately equal to its height above the ground.
The surge diverters consist of a spark gap in series with a nonlinear resistor.
The function of non linear resistor is very important. As the gap sparks over, due
to the over voltage, the arc would get short circuited and may cause power flow
current in the arrester. Since the characteristic of the resistor is to offer high
resistance to high voltage, it prevents the effect of a short circuit. After the
surge is over, the resistor offers high resistance to make the gap non-conducting.
42
Working of lightning arrester
The lightning arrestor protects the structure from damage by intercepting flashes
of lightning and transmitting their current to the ground. Since lightning strikes
tends to strike the highest object in the vicinity, the rod is placed at the apex of a
tall structure. It is connected to the ground by low-resistance cables. In the case
of a building, the soil is used as the ground, and on a ship, water is used. A
lightning rod provides a cone of protection, which has a ground radius
approximately, equal to its height above the ground
What exactly does a surge arrester do
Surge arresters does not absorb the

lightning.
Surge arresters does not stop the
lightning.
Surge arresters divert the lightning to
the ground.
Surge arresters limit the voltage
produced by lightning.
Types of Lightning/Surge Arrestors

Rod Gap Arrester.
Sphere Gap Arrester.
Horn Gap Arrester.
Multiple-Gap Arrester.
Impulse Protective Gap.
Electrolytic Arrester.
Expulsion Type Lightning Arrester.
Valve Type Lightning Arresters.
43
Rod Gap Arrester
It is one of the simplest forms of the arrester. In such type of arrester, there is an
air gap between the ends of two rods. The one end of the arrester is connected
to the line and the second end of the rod is connected to the ground. The gap
setting of the arrester should be such that it should break before the damage.
When the high voltage occurs on the line, the gap sparks and the fault current
passes to the earth. Hence the equipment is protected from damage.
The difficulty with the rod arrester is that once the spark having taken place it
may continue for some time even at low voltages. To avoid it a current limiting
reactor in series with the rod is used. The resistance limits the current to such an
extent that it is sufficient to maintain the arc. Another difficulty with the road gap
is that the rod gap is liable to be damaged due to the high temperature of the arc
which may cause the rod to melt.
44
Sphere Gap Arrester
In such type of devices, the air gap is provided between two different spheres.
One of the spheres is connected to the line, and the other sphere is connected to
the ground. The spacing between the two spheres is very small. A choking coil is
inserted between the phase winding of the transformer and spheres is connected
to the line.
The air gap between the arrester is set in such a way so that the discharge must
not take place at normal operating condition. The arc will travel up the sphere as
the heated air near the arc tend to rise upward and lengthening till it is
interrupted automatically.
45
Horn gap Arrester
It consists of two horns shaded piece of

metal separated by a small air gap and
connected in shunt between each conductor
and earth. The distance between the two
electrodes is such that the normal voltage
between the line and earth is insufficient to
jump the gap.
But the abnormal high voltage will break the

gap and so find a path to earth. There is no
current limiting device provided so as to limit
the current after spark over, and hence a
series resistance is often used Without a
series resistance, the sparking current may
be very high and the applied impulse voltage
suddenly collapses to zero thus creating a
steep step voltage, which sometimes proves
to be very dangerous to the apparatus to be
protected, such as transformer or the
machine windings.
Nevertheless, rod gaps do provide efficient

protection where thunderstorm activity is less
and the lines are protected by ground wires.
46
Multiple- Gap Arrester
The multiple gap arrester consists a series of small metal cylinder insulated from one
another and separated by an air gap. The first and the last of the series is
connected to ground. The number of gaps required depends on the line voltage.
Impulse Protective Gap
The protective impulse gap is designed to have a low voltage impulse ratio, even
less than one and to extinguish the arc. Their working principle is very simple as
shown in the figure below. It consists of two sphere electrode S1 and S2 which are
connected respectively to the line and the arrester.
The auxiliary needle is placed between the mid of two sphere S1 and S2. At
normal frequency, the impedance of the capacitance C1 is quite large as compared
to the impedance of resistor R. If C1 and C2 are equal the potential of the auxiliary
electrode will be midway between those of the S1 and S2 and the electrode has no
effect on the flash over between them.
When the transient occurs the impedance of capacitor C1 and C2 decrease and the
impedance of the resistor now become effective. Due to this, the whole of the
voltage is concentrated across the gap between E and S1. The gap at once
breakdown, the rest of the length between E and S2 immediately follow.
47
Electrolyte Arrester
In such type of arrester have high a large discharge capacity. It operates on the
fact that the thin film of aluminium hydroxide deposits on the aluminium plates
immersed in the electrolyte. The plate acts as a high resistance to a low value but
a low resistance to a voltage above a critical value. Voltage more than 400 volts
causes a puncture and a free flow of current to earth. When the voltage remains
its normal value of 440 volts, the arrester again offers a high resistance in the
path and leakage stops.
Expulsion Type Lightning Arrester
Expulsion type arrester is an improvement over the rod gap in that it seals the
flow of power frequency follows the current. This arrester consists of a tube made
up of fibre which is very effective, isolating spark gap and an interrupting spark
gap inside the fibre tube.
During operation, the arc due to the impulse spark over inside the fibrous tube
causes some fibrous material of the tube to volatile in the form of the gas, which
is expelled through a vent from the bottom of the tube. Thus, extinguishing the
arc just like in circuit breakers.
48
Expulsion type lightning arrester is also known as a protector tube. It consists of –
(i) a tube made of fibre which is very effective gas-evolving material (ii) an
isolating spark gap (or external series gap) and (iii) an interrupting spark gap inside
the fibre tube.
During operation arc due to the impulse spark-over inside the fibrous tube causes
some fibrous material of the tube volatized in the form of gas, which is expelled
through a vent from the bottom of the tube, thus extinguishing the arc just like in
circuit breakers. Since the gases generated have to be expelled, one of the electrode
is hollow and the diverter is open at its lower end.
49
Valve Type Lightning Arrester
Such type of resistor is called nonlinear diverter. It essentially consists a divided

spark gap in series with a resistance element having the nonlinear characteristic.
The divided spark gap consists of some identical elements coupled in series. Each
of them consists two electrodes with the pre-ionization device. Between each
element, a grading resistor of high ohmic value is connected in parallel.
During the slow voltage variations, there is no sparks-over across the gap. But when
the rapid change in voltage occurs, the potential is no longer evenly graded across
the series gap. The influence of unbalancing capacitance between the sparks gaps
and the ground prevails over the grounded resistance. The impulse voltage is mainly
concentrated on the upper spark gap which in spark over cause the complete
arrester to spark over to.
50
Surge Diverters
These are non-linear resistors in

series with spark gaps which act as
fast switches. A typical surge diverter
or lightning arrester is shown in Fig
A number of non-linear resistor

elements made of silicon carbide are
stacked one over the other into two
or three sections. They are usually
separated by spark gaps
the entire assembly is housed in a

porcelain water-tight housing
The volt-ampere characteristic of a

resistance element is of the form
51
Metal Oxide Lightning Arrester
Such Types of diverter are also known as gapless surge diverters, or Zinc oxide
diverter. The base material used for manufacturing metal oxide resistor is zinc
oxide. It is a semiconducting N-type material. The material is doped by adding
some fine power of insulating oxides. The powder is treated with some processes
and then it is compressed into a disc-shaped. The disc is then enclosed in a
porcelain housing filled with nitrogen gas or SF6.
This arrester consists a potential barrier at the boundaries of each disc of ZNO.
This potential barrier controls the flow of current. At normal operating condition,
the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. When an overvoltage
occurs, the barrier collapse and sharp transition from insulating to conducting
take place. The current start flowing and the surge is diverted to ground.
52
Assignment-Unit 1
1.Explain the theory of lightning
2. Explain working Diiferent types of Surge
arrestors.
53
Part-A 2 Marks Questions
1. What are the types of over voltages? (/ abnormalities) ( CO1-K1)
Lightning over voltages, Switching over voltages, power frequency overvoltage's.
2. Explain the various regions of the cloud. ( CO1-K1)
The upper regions of the cloud are positively charged, whereas the lower region
and the base are predominantly negative except the local region near the base
and the head which is possible.
3. Mention the different theories of charge formation. ( CO1-K1)
Simpson’s theory, Reynolds’s theory and Mason’s theory
4.What does a thunder cloud consist? ( CO1-K1)
A thunder cloud consists of super cooled water droplets moving upwards and
large hailstones moving downwards.
5. What is back flashover? ( CO1-K1)
When a direct lightning stroke occurs on a tower, the tower has to carry huge
impulse currents. If the tower footing resistance is considerable, the potential of
the tower rises to a large value, steeply with respect to the line and consequently
a flashover may take place along the insulator strings .This is known as back
flashover.
6.State the parameters and the characteristics of the lightning

strokes(lightning /voltage). ( CO1-K1)
Amplitude of the current, the rate of rise, the probability distribution of them and
the wave shapes of the lightning voltages and currents.
54
7.Define Isokeraunic level or thunderstorm days. ( CO1-K1)
It is defined as the number of days in a year when the thunder is heard or

recorded in a particular location. Often it does not distinguish between the ground
strokes and the cloud-to-cloud strokes.
8.State the factors influence the lightning induced voltages on

transmission lines. ( CO1-K1)
The ground conductivity, the leader stroke current and the corona.
9.State the attenuation and distortion of travelling waves. ( CO1-K1)
The decrease in the magnitude of the wave as it propagates along the line is
called attenuation. The elongation or change of wave shapes that occur is called
distortion.
10. When over voltages are generated in EHV system? ( CO1-K1)
Over voltages are generated in EHV systems when there is a sudden release of
internal energy stored either in the electrostatic form or in the electromagnetic
form.
11. What are the causes for power frequency and its harmonic over
voltages? ( CO1-K1)
Sudden loss of loads, Disconnection of inductive loads or connection of capacitive

loads, Ferranti effect, unsymmetrical faults and saturation in transformers etc.
12.What are the uses of shunt reactors? ( CO1-K1)
used to limit the voltage rise due to Ferranti effect.
used to reduce surges caused due to sudden energizing.
55
13.What is ground wire? ( CO1-K1)
Ground wire is a conductor run parallel to the main conductor of the transmission
line supported on the same tower and earthed at every equally and regularly
spaced towers. It is run above the main conductor of the line.
14. What is the use of ground wire? ( CO1-K1)
It shields the transmission line conductor from induced charges, from clouds as
well as from a lightning discharge.
15. What is an expulsion gap? ( CO1-K1)
Expulsion gap is a device which consists of a spark gap together with an arc
quenching device which extinguishes the current arc when the gap breaks over
due to overvoltage.
16. Mention the parts of an expulsion gap. ( CO1-K1)
It consists of a rod gap in air in air in series with a second gap enclosed within a
fiber Tube.
17. What is a protector tube? ( CO1-K1)
It is a device which consists of a rod or spark gap in air formed by the line
conductor and its high voltage terminal. It is mounted underneath the line
conductor on a tower.
18. How are the insulation level and the protective safety margin arrived?
( CO1-K1)
Selecting the risk of failure, the statistical safety factor and by firing the withstand
level of any equipment or apparatus corresponding to 90% or 95% of the
withstand voltage.
56
19. How are the insulation level and the protective safety margin arrived?
( CO1-K1)
Selecting the risk of failure, the statistical safety factor and by firing the withstand
level of any equipment or apparatus corresponding to 90% or 95% of the
withstand voltage.
20. Define Basic Impulse Level. ( CO1-K1)
It is defined as the minimum insulation impulse withstands voltage of any power

equipment or apparatus. The BIL of a power system is usually chosen as 25% to
30% more than the protective level offered by the protective devices.
21.Mention the various insulation levels in a substation? ( CO1-K1)
The bus bar insulation is the highest to ensure the continuity of supply in a
substation. The circuit breakers, isolators, instrument and relay transformers are
given the next lower limiting level. The power transformers are the costliest and
sensitive device and the insulation level for it is the lowest.
22.What are the various types of surge arresters used for EHV and UHV
systems? ( CO1-K1)
Silicon carbide arresters with spark gaps, Silicon carbide arresters with current
limiting gaps and the gapless metal oxide arresters.
23.Write the equation of surge admittance and surge impedance of the

transmission line. ( CO1-K1)
Y(S) = C/L ((S+α - β) (S+α + β ))1/2
Z(S) = L/C ((S+α-β)(S+α-β)) 1/2
Where α is the attenuation constant and β is the wavelength constant.
57
Part-B 13 marks Questions
1.Explain the various theories of charge formation in clouds? ( CO1-K1)
2. Explain Cloud And The Associated theories and Phenomenon. ( CO1-K1)
3. Derive the Mathematical model for lightning discharge( CO1-K1)
4. Describe the causes for switching and power frequency over voltages ( CO1-K1)
5. Explain various causes of switching surges? ( CO1-K1)
6. Explain Various Methods of Over Voltage ( CO1-K1)
5.Explain Bewly’s Lattice diagram? ( CO1-K1)
6. Explain n the construction and working principle of Expulsion gaps and Protector
tubes. (CO1-K1)
7. Explain in detail the protection of transmission lines against over voltage
( CO1-K1)
58
Part C- 15 marks questions
1. A long transmission line is energised by a unit-step voltage 1.0 V at the sending

end and is open circuited at the receiving end. Construct the Bewley lattice
diagram and obtain the value of the voltage at the receiving end after a long time.
Take the attenuation factor α = 0.8. ( CO1-K2)
2. An underground cable of inductance 0.189 mH/km and of capacitance 0.3 μF/km

is connected to an overhead line having an inductance of 1.26 mH/km and
capacitance of 0.009 μF/km. Calculate the transmitted and reflected voltage and
current waves at the junction, if a surge of 200 kV travels to the junction, (i)
along the cable, and (ii) along the overhead line ( CO1-K2)
3. (i) Cloud discharge 14 coulombs within 2ms on to a transmission line during

lightening. Estimate the voltage produced at the point of stroke on the
transmission line. Assume the surge impedance of the line is 350 ohm.(8)
(ii) An overhead line has inductance of 1.26 mH/km and capacitance of

0.009μF/km. Calculate the voltage developed when lightning strikes transmission
line injecting a current of 15kA (7)
59
Supportive online Certification courses
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/104/108104048/
High voltage Engineering –NPTEL Web based
course
https://www.udemy.com/course/protection-and-
control-of-high-voltage-power-circuits/
Protection and control of high voltage power
circuit
60
Real time Applications in day to day
life and to Industry
Distribution
Electrical transmission and distribution lines for electric power typically

use voltages between tens and hundreds of kilovolts. The lines may
be overhead or underground. High voltage is used in power
distribution to reduce ohmic losses when transporting electricity long
distance.
High voltage is used in electrical power distribution, in cathode ray
tubes, to generate X-rays and particle beams, to produce
electrical arcs, for ignition, in photomultiplier tubes, and in high-
power amplifier vacuum tubes, as well as other industrial, military and
scientific applications.
Industrial
It is used in the production of semiconductors to sputter thin layers of
metal films on the surface of the wafer. It is also used for electrostatic
flocking to coat objects with small fibers that stand on edge.
61
Thank you
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62
1
2
3

Created by: K.GUNALAN M.E.,(Ph.D)

4
Table of Contents
Page
S. No. TOPIC
No.
2 Pre Requisites 8
3 Syllabus 9
7 CO/PO Mapping 12
8 CO/PSO Mapping 12
UNIT – II – DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN
9 Lecture Plan 13
10 E-Book 14
11 Video Links 15
12 Properties of Dielectric materials 17
13 Gaseous breakdown in uniform and non-uniform fields 20
14 Streamer Theory 29
15 Paschen’s Law 32
16 Corona discharges 33
17 Vacuum breakdown 35
18 Conduction and breakdown in pure and commercial liquids 41
19 Maintenance of oil Quality 46
20 Breakdown mechanisms in solid 47
21 Chemical and Electrochemical Deterioration and Breakdown 52
5
Table of Contents
Page
S. No. TOPIC
No.
22 composite dielectrics. 57
23 Assignment 58
27 Supportive onlline courses 65
28 Real Time Applications in Day to day life and to Industry 66
29 Prescribed Text Books 67
30 Assessment Schedule 68
31 Project Suggestions 69
6
Course Objectives

methods.

7

8
SYLLABUS
3003
OBJECTIVES:
methods.
dielectrics.
equipments.
cabilitys.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
9
COURSE OUTCOME

Knowledge
CO1 Interpret the causes and Protection of power K2
systems over voltages
CO2 Explain the breakdown mechanism of K1
different dielectrics
CO.3 Illustrate the generation of High voltages and K2
currents
CO4 Summarize the methods of HV measurements K2
CO5 Analyze the testing of power system apparatus K2
CO6 Compute the importance of insulation K2
coordination
10
conclusions.
limitations.
11
(PSOs)
structure.
PSO 2 : Use the modern tools for implementing the solutions to engineering problems
that can arise in the fields of Electrical, Electronics and Telecommunication
Engineering along with Information Technology Services.
PSO 3 : Face the challenges in the society by adopting the non-conventional energy
resources and utilizing the modern technologies for energy efficient transmission
and power quality improvement delivering clean energy for the well being of the
mankind.
COs PO PSO
CO1 3 3 1 1 - - - - 1 - -
CO2 3 3 1 1 - - - - 1 - -
CO3 3 3 2 1 - - - - 2 2 -
CO4 3 3 2 1 - - - - 1 2 -
CO5 3 3 2 1 - - - - 1 2 -
CO6 3 3 2 1 - - - - 2 1 -
12
UNIT-II
LECTURE PLAN
S. TOPIC No. Propose Actual Pert Ta Mode of

NO of d date Lectur aini xo Delivery
Per e ng no
iod Date CO my
s lev
el
Power
Properties of Dielectric
1 CO2 K1 Point
materials
Presentation
Gaseous breakdown in
Power
uniform and non-
2 CO2 K1 Point
uniform fields Presentation
Corona discharges Power

3 CO2 K1 Point
Presentation
Vacuum breakdown Power

4 CO2 K1 Point
Presentation
Conduction and Power
5 breakdown in pure and CO2 K1 Point
commercial liquids Presentation
Maintenance of oil Power
6 Quality CO2 K1 Point
Presentation
Breakdown mechanisms Power
7. in solid CO2 K1 Point
Presentation
Power
8. CO2 K1 Point
composite dielectrics
Presentation
Applications of
Power
insulating materials in
9. CO2 K1 Point
electrical equipment's. Presentation
E Books
14
VIDEO LINKS
TITLE LINK
The Science of Lightning https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-0gNl5f4BU
Thunderstorms
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zUNEFefftt8
Lightning physics https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JJubgrI0T0g
Switching surges https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4-Lu1vnH_d8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MqICjzh-cgQ
500 kV Motor Operated
Disconnect Switch
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BlutEhZyN2I
500kv air switches being
closed
Surge Arrestors https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vpcRY0SLt1o
Lightning Arrestor- how its https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFTns1TBQ5s
made
15
UNIT -II
DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN
16
Introduction- Properties of Dielectric Materials
With ever increasing demand of electrical energy, the power system is

growing both in size and complexities. The generating capacities of power plants
and transmission voltage are on the increase because of their inherent advantages.
If the transmission voltage is doubled, the power transfer capability of the system
becomes four times and the line losses are also relatively reduced. As a result, it
becomes a stronger and economical system. In India, we already have 400 kV lines
in operation and 800 kV lines are being planned. In big cities, the conventional
transmission voltages (110 kV–220 kV etc.) are being used as distribution voltages
because of increased demand.
A system (transmission, switchgear, etc.) designed for 400 kV and above

using conventional insulating materials is both bulky and expensive and, therefore,
newer and newer insulating materials are being investigated to bring down both the
cost and space requirements. The electrically live conductors are supported on
insulating materials and sufficient air clearances are provided to avoid flashover or
short circuits between the live parts of the system and the grounded structures.
Sometimes, a live conductor is to be immersed in an insulating liquid to bring down
the size of the container and at the same time provide sufficient insulation between
the live conductor and the grounded container. In electrical engineering all the three
media, viz. the gas, the liquid and the solid are being used and, therefore, we study
here the mechanism of breakdown of these media.
17
Dielectric Material
A dielectric material is defined as the non-metallic material with specific resistance

high, temperature coefficient of resistance negative and with large insulation
resistance. The other way of defining dielectric material is that it is non-
conducting material which stores electrical charges. When a dielectric is placed in
an electric field, the electric charges do not flow through the material, instead,
they cause dielectric polarization by shifting from the mean/equilibrium position.
As a result, the positive charges are oriented in the same direction as that of the
electric field and negative charges are shifted in the opposite direction. This
phenomenon yields an internal electric field, which in turn reduces the overall
electric field within the dielectric material. The dielectrics are mostly solids. Some
of the dielectrics are composed of weakly bonded molecules. In such scenarios
along with polarisation, we can also observe that molecules reorient themselves
to align their symmetry axes with the field.
Dielectric Properties
Dielectric properties of materials are defined as a molecular property which is

fundamental in all the materials that are capable of impending electron movement
resulting in polarization within the material on exposure to an external electric
field.
18
Properties of Dielectric materials
Following are the exhibited by the dielectric materials:

 The energy gap in the dielectric materials is very large.
 The temperature coefficient of resistance is negative and the insulation resistance is high.
 The dielectric materials have high resistivity.
 The attraction between the electrons and the parent nucleus is very strong.
 The electrical conductivity of these materials is very low as there are no free electrons to
carry current.
Dielectric Properties of Insulation
Following are the dielectric properties of insulation:

 Breakdown voltage
 Dielectric parameters such as:
 Conductivity
 Power factor
 Loss angle
 Permittivity
Dielectrics Dielectric vs Insulators

Insulators
Material that can develop an electric field A substance that has low conductivity and
with minimal loss of energy is known as a that which obstructs the flow of current is
dielectric. known as an insulator.
Weakly bonded as compared to the insulators Covalently bonded
Stores charges Obstructs charges
Their application lies in power cables, They are used in the high voltage system
capacitors and more and conducting wires
19
Application of Dielectric Properties
Dielectrics are used as a capacitor for storing energy.
The dielectric material in a transformer is used as an insulator and as a cooling agent.
Mechanism Of Breakdown Of Gases
Gaseous breakdown in uniform and non-uniform fields
The simplest and the most commonly found dielectrics are gases. Most of the
electrical apparatus use air as the insulating medium, and in a few cases other gases such
as nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), freon (CCl2F2) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) are
also used.
In order to understand the breakdown phenomenon in gases, a study of the

electrical properties of gases and the processes by which high currents are produced in
gases is essential. The electrical discharges in gases are of two types, i.e.
(i) non-sustaining discharges, and
(ii) self-sustaining types.
The breakdown in a gas, called spark breakdown is the transition of a non-

sustaining discharge into a self-sustaining discharge. The build-up of high currents in a
breakdown is due to the process known as ionization in which electrons and ions are
created from neutral atoms or molecules, and their migration to the anode and cathode
respectively leads to high currents.
20
At present two types of theories, viz.
(i) Townsend theory, and
(ii) Streamer theory are known which explain the mechanism for
breakdown under different conditions.
The various physical conditions of gases, namely, pressure, temperature,

electrode field configuration, nature of electrode surfaces, and the availability of
initial conducting particles are known to govern the ionization processes.
Ionization by Collision
process of liberating an electron from a gas molecule with the simultaneous

production of a positive ion is called ionization.
process of ionisation by collision, a free electron collides with a neutral gas

molecule and gives rise to a new electron and a positive ion.
If the energy (ϵ) gained during this travel between collisions exceeds the
ionisation potential, Vi , which is the energy required to dislodge an electron from
its atomic shell, then ionisation takes place.
Where, A is the atom, A+ is the positive ion and e- is the electron.
21
Arrangement for study of a Townsend discharge
A few of the electrons produced at the cathode by some external means, say
by ultra-violet light falling on the cathode, ionise neutral gas particles producing
positive ions and additional electrons. The additional electrons, then, themselves make
'ionizing collisions' and thus the process repeats itself. This represents an increase in the
electron current, since the number of electrons reaching the anode per unit time
is greater than those liberated at the cathode. In addition, the positive ions also
reach the cathode and on bombardment on the cathode give rise to secondary
electrons.
Photo-ionisation
The photo ionisation occurs when the amount of radiation energy absorbed by an
atom or molecule exceeds its ionisation potential. There are several processes by
which radiation can be absorbed by atoms or molecules. They are
(a) excitation of the atom to a higher energy state
(b)continuous absorption by direct excitation of the atom or dissociation of

diatomic molecule or direct ionisation etc.
As an excited atom emits radiation when the electron returns to the lower state
or to the ground state, the reverse process takes place when an atom absorbs
radiation.
22
This reversible process can be expressed as
where, h is the Planck's constant, c is the velocity of light, ƛ is the wavelength of the
incident radiation and Vi is the ionisation energy of the atom. Substituting for h and c,
we get
where Vi is in electron volts (eV).

Thermal Ionisation
The term thermal ionisation in general applies to the ionizing actions of
molecular collisions, radiation and electron collisions occurring in gases at high
temperatures. High temperature, some of the gas molecules acquire high kinetic
energy and these particles after collision with neutral particles ionize them and release
electrons.
Thermodynamic equilibrium condition the rate of new ion formation
must be equal to the rate of recombination. Saha derived an expression for the degree
of ionization β in terms of the gas pressure and absolute temperature as follows:
or
where p is the pressure in Torr, Wi the ionization energy of the gas, K the Boltzmann’s
constant, β the ratio ni /n and ni the number of ionized particles of total n particles.
23
TOWNSEND’S FIRST IONIZATION COEFFICIENT
To explain the exponential rise in current, Townsend introduced a coefficient α known as

Townsend’s first ionization coefficient and is defined as the number of electrons produced
by an electron per unit length of path in the direction of field.
Let n0 be the number of electons leaving the cathode and when these have moved
through a distance x from the cathode, these become n. Now when these n electrons
move through a distance dx produce additional dn electrons due to collision. Therefore
The term e αd is called the electron avalanche and it represents the number of electrons
produced by one electron in travelling from cathode to anode.
24
TOWNSEND SECOND IONISATION COEFFICIENT
Variation of gap current with electrode spacing in uniform E
Townsend in his earlier investigations had observed that the current in parallel plate gap
increased more rapidly with increase in voltage as compared to the one given by the above
equation. To explain this departure from linearity, Townsend suggested that a second
mechanism must be affecting the current. He postulated that the additional current
must be due to the presence of positive ions and the photons. The positive ions will
liberate electrons by collision with gas molecules and by bombardment against the cathode.
Similarly, the photons will also release electrons after collision with gas molecules and from
the cathode after photon impact.
Let n0 be the number of electrons released from the cathode by ultraviolet radiation, n+ the
number of electrons released from the cathode due to positive ion bombardment and n the
number of electrons reaching the anode.
Let γ, known as Townsend second ionization co-efficient be defined as

the number of electrons released from cathode per incident positive ion,
n = (n0 + n+)eαd
Now total number of electrons released from the cathode is (n0 + n+) and those reaching the
anode are n, therefore, the number of electrons released from the gas = n – (n0 + n+), and
corresponding to each electron released from the gas there will be one positive ion and
assuming each positive ion releases γ effective electrons from the cathode then
25
26
TOWNSEND BREAKDOWN MECHANISM
When voltage between the anode and cathode is increased, the current at the anode is
given by
The current becomes infinite if

αd
1 – ν(e –1) = 0
αd
or ν(e – 1) = 1
αd
or νe ≈1
αd
Since normally e >> 1
The current in the anode equals the current in the external circuit. Theoretically the
current becomes infinitely large under the above mentioned condition but practically it is
limited by the resistance of the external circuit and partially by the voltage drop in the
arc.
The condition ν.eαd =1 defines the condition for beginning of spark and is known as the
Townsend criterion for spark formation or Townsend breakdown criterion. Using the
above equations, the following three conditions are possible.
νeαd=1
The number of ion pairs produced in the gap by the passage of arc electron avalanche is
sufficiently large and the resulting positive ions on bombarding the cathode are able to
release one secondary electron and so cause a repetition of the avalanche process. The
discharge is then said to be self-sustained as the discharge will sustain itself even if the
source producing I0 is removed. Therefore, the condition νeαd = 1 defines the threshold
sparking condition.
νeαd> 1
Here ionization produced by successive avalanche is cumulative. The spark discharge
grows more rapidly the more νeαd exceeds unity.
νeαd< 1
Here the current I is not self-sustained i.e., on removal of the source the current I0
ceases to flow.
27
Time Lag (t)
The time t which lapses between the application of the voltage sufficient to cause
breakdown and the appearance of the initiating electron is called a statistical time lag
(ts) of the gap. The appearance of electrons is usually statistically distributed. After the
appearance of the electron, a time tt is required for the ionization processes to develop
fully to cause the breakdown of the gap, and this time is called the formative time lag
(t,). The total time ts+ tt = t is called the total time lag.
28
Drawbacks in Townsend’s Mechanism
Current growth have taken from ionization only, but in practice the breakdown also
depends on the pressure and geometry of gap.
The mechanism predicts time lags of the order of 10-5S, while in actual practice
breakdown was observed to occur at very short times of the order of 10-8S ( Time lag in
breakdown).
Townsend mechanism predicts a very diffused form of discharge, in actual practice,
discharges were found to be filamentary and irregular.
Townsend mechanism failed to explain all these observed phenomena and as a result,
around 1940, Raether and Meek and Loeb independently proposed the Streamer theory.
Streamer Theory Of Breakdown In Gases

We know that the charges in between the electrodes separated by a distance d
increase by a factor eαd when field between electrodes is uniform. This is valid only if we
assume that the field E0=V/d is not affected by the space charges of electrons and positive
ions. Raether has observed that if the charge concentration is higher than 106 but lower
than 108 the growth of an avalanche is weakened i.e., dn/dx <eαd.
Whenever the concentration exceeds 108, the avalanche current is followed by
steep rise in current and breakdown of the gap takes place. The weakening of the
avalanche at lower concentration and rapid growth of avalanche at higher concentration
have been attributed to the modification of the electric field E0 due to the space charge
field. Fig. shows the electric field around an avalanche as it progresses along the gap and
the resultant field i.e., the superposition of the space charge field and the original field E0.
Since the electrons have higher mobility, the space charge at the head of the avalanche is
considered to be negative and is assumed to be concentrated within a spherical volume. It
can be seen from Fig. that the filed at the head of the avalanche is strengthened.
Field redistribution due to space charge
29
The field between the two assumed charge centres i.e., the electrons and
positive ions is decreased as the field due to the charge centres opposes the main field
E0 and again the field between the positive space charge centre and the cathode is
strengthened as the space charge field aids the main field E0 in this region. It has been
observed that if the charge carrier number exceeds 106, the field distortion becomes
noticeable. If the distortion of field is of 1%, it would lead to a doubling of the
avalanche but as the field distortion is only near the head of the avalanche, it does not
have significance on the discharge phenomenon. However, if the charge carrier exceeds
108, the space charge field becomes almost of the same magnitude as the main field E0
and hence it may lead to initiation of a streamer. The space charge field, therefore,
plays a very important role in the mechanism of electric discharge in a non-uniform
gap.
Townsend suggested that the electric spark discharge is due to the ionization
of gas molecule by the electron impact and release of electrons from cathode due to
positive ion bombardment at the cathode. According to this theory, the formative time
lag of the spark should be at best equal to the electron transit time tr. At pressures
around atmospheric and above p.d>103 Torr-cm, the experimentally determined time
lags have been found to be much shorter than tr. Study of the photographs of the
avalanche development has also shown that under certain conditions, the space charge
developed in an avalanche is capable of transforming the avalanche into channels of
ionization known as streamers that lead to rapid development of breakdown. It has also
been observed through measurement that the transformation from avalanche to
streamer generally takes place when the charge within the avalanche head reaches a
critical value of
n0eαx ≈ 108 or αXc ≈ 18 to 20
where Xc is the length of the avalanche path in field direction when it reaches
the critical size. If the gap length d < Xc, the initiation of streamer is unlikely.
The short-time lags associated with the discharge development led Raether
and independently Meek and Meek and Loeb to the advancement of the theory of
streamer of Kanal mechanism for spark formation, in which the secondary mechanism
results from photo ionization of gas molecules and is independent of the electrodes.
Secondary avalanche formations by photoelectrons
30
Raether and Meek have proposed that when the avalanche in the gap reaches a
certain critical size the combined space charge field and externally applied field E0 lead
to intense ionization and excitation of the gas particles in front of the avalanche head.
There is recombination of electrons and positive ion resulting in generation of photons
and these photons in turn generate secondary electrons by the photo ionization
process. These electrons under the influence of the electric field develop into
secondary avalanches as shown in Fig. Since photons travel with velocity of light, the
process leads to a rapid development of conduction channel across the gap.
Raether after thorough experimental investigation developed an empirical

relation for the streamer spark criterion of the form
αxc = 17.7 + ln xc + ln
where Er is the radial field due to space charge and E0 is the

externally applied field.
Now for transformation of avalanche into a streamer Er ≈ E

Therefore, αxc = 17.7 + ln xc
For a uniform field gap, breakdown voltage through streamer mechanism is obtained on the
assumption that the transition from avalanche to streamer occurs when the avalanche has
just crossed the gap. The equation above, therefore, becomes
αd = 17.7 + ln d
When the critical length Xc ≥ d minimum breakdown by streamer mechanism is brought
about. The condition Xc = d gives the smallest value of α to produce streamer breakdown.
Meek suggested that the transition from avalanche to streamer takes place when the radial
field about the positive space charge in an electron avalanche attains a value of the order
of the externally applied field. He showed that the value of the radial field can be obtained
by using the expression.
Er = 5.3 × 10–7 volts/cm
where x is the distance in cm which the avalanche has progressed, p the gas pressure in
Torr and α the Townsend coefficient of ionization by electrons corresponding to the applied
field E. The minimum breakdown voltage is assumed to correspond to the condition when
the avalanche has crossed the gap of length d and the space charge field Er approaches
the externally applied field i.e., at x = d, Er = E. Substituting these values in the above
equation, we have
–7
Er = 5.3 × 10
31
Taking ln on both the sides, we have
ln E = – 14.5 + ln α – ln + αd
𝐸 ∝ 1 𝑑
𝑙𝑛 = −14.5 + 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑙𝑛 +∝ 𝑑
𝑃 𝑝 2 𝑝
The experimentally determined values of α/p and the corresponding E/p are used to solve
the above equation using trial and error method. Values of α/p corresponding to E/p at a
given pressure are chosen until the equation is satisfied.
Paschen’s Law
The Townsend’s Criterion
ν(eαd– 1) = 1
enables the evaluation of breakdown voltage of the gap by the use of appropriate values of
α/p and ν corresponding to the values E/p when the current is too low to damage the
cathode and also the space charge distortions are minimum. A close agreement between
the calculated and experimentally determined values is obtained when the gaps are short
or long and the pressure is relatively low. An expression for the breakdown voltage for
uniform field gaps as a function of gap length and gas pressure can be derived from the
threshold equation by expressing the ionization coefficient α/p as a function of field
strength E and gas pressure p i.e
∝ 𝐸
=𝑓
𝑃 𝑃
Paschen’s law curve
Substituting this, we have
𝐸
𝑓 𝑃 𝑃𝑑 1
𝑒 = +1
𝑣
= K say
32
𝑉𝑏
𝑓 . 𝑝𝑑 = 𝐾
𝑝𝑑
𝑉𝑏 𝐾
𝑓 =
𝑝𝑑 𝑝𝑑
or Vb = F(p.d)
This shows that the breakdown voltage of a uniform field gap is a unique function of the
product of gas pressure and the gap length for a particular gas and electrode material. This
relation is known as Paschen’s law. This relation does not mean that the breakdown voltage
is directly proportional to product pd even though it is found that for some region of the
product pd the relation is linear i.e., the breakdown voltage varies linearly with the product
pd.
Penning Effect
Paschen’s law does not hold good for many gaseous mixtures. A typical example is that of
mixture of Argon in Neon.
A small percentage of Argon in Neon reduces substantially the dielectric strength of pure
Neon.
In fact, the dielectric strength is smaller than the dielectric strengths of either pure Neon
or Argon.
The lowering of dielectric strength is due to the fact that the lowest excited stage of neon
is metastable and its excitation potential (16 ev) is about 0.9 ev greater than the ionization
potential of Argon.
The metastable atoms have a long life in neon gas, and on hitting Argon atoms there is a
very high probability of ionizing them.
This phenomenon is known as Penning Effect.
Corona Discharges
If the electric field is uniform and if the field is increased gradually, just when measurable
ionization begins, the ionization leads to complete breakdown of the gap.
However, in non-uniform fields, before the spark or breakdown of the medium takes place,
there are many manifestations in the form of visual and audible discharges. These
discharges are known as Corona discharges.
In fact Corona is defined as a self-sustained electric discharge in which the field intensified
ionization is localised only over a portion of the distance (non-uniform fields) between the
electrodes.
The phenomenon is of particular importance in high voltage engineering where most of
the fields encountered are non-uniform fields unless of course some design features are
involved to make the filed almost uniform.
Corona is responsible for power loss and interference of power lines with the
communication lines as corona frequency lies between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. This also leads
to deterioration of insulation by the combined action of the discharge ion bombarding the
surface and the action of chemical compounds that are formed by the corona discharge.
33
The voltage gradient required to produce visual a.c. corona in air at a conductor
surface, called the corona inception field, can be approximately given for the case of
parallel wires of radius r as
For the case of coaxial cylinders, whose inner cylinder has a radius r the equation
becomes
where m is the surface irregularity factor which becomes equal to unity for highly
polished smooth wires; d is the relative air density correction factor given by,
where b is the atmospheric pressure in torr, and t is the temperature in 0C, d = 1 at

760torr and 250C. The expressions were found to hold good from atmospheric
pressure down to a pressure of several torr.
On the high voltage conductors at high pressures there is a distinct difference in the
visual appearance of the corona under positive and negative polarities of the applied
voltage.
When the voltage is positive, corona appears as a uniform bluish white
sheath over the entire surface of the conductor.
On the other hand, when the voltage is negative, the corona will appear like
reddish glowing spots distributed along the length of the wire.
Practical Considerations In Using Gases For Insulation Purposes
Generally, the preferred properties of a gaseous dielectric for high voltage

applications are:
(a) high dielectric strength,
(b) thermal stability and chemical inactivity towards materials of
construction,
(c) non-flammability and physiological intertness,
(d) low temperature of condensation,
(e) good heat transfer, and
(i) ready availability at moderate cost
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) which has received much study in recent years has been
found to possess most of the above requirements.
34
VACUUM BREAKDOWN:
According to the Townsend theory, the growth of current in a gap depends on

the drift of the charged particles. In the absence of any such particles, as in the
case of perfect vacuum, there should be no conduction and the vacuum should be
a perfect insulating medium. However, in practice, the presence of metallic
electrodes and insulating surfaces within the vacuum complicate the issue and,
therefore, even in vacuum, a sufficiently high voltage will cause a breakdown.
Recently there are research works conducted to determine the electrical
properties of high vacuum. It finds different range of applications in devices such
as vacuum contractors and interrupters, high frequency capacitors and relays,
electrostatic generators, microwave tubes, etc. which are finding increasing
applications in power systems.
A vacuum is created in a system in which is pressure is maintained much below

the atmospheric pressure. Vacuum may be classified as High vacuum, Very high
vacuum, and Ultra high vacuum. High Vacuum is in the range of 1x10-3 to 1x 10-6
Torr, Very high vacuum in the range of 1x10-6 to 1x10-8 Torr, and very high
Vacuum of 1x10-9 Torr and below. For electrical insulations high vacuum is used.
You can view the electric arc formation in Vacuum in the following video
There are different methods of Vacuum breakdown. They are

classified as
Particle Exchange mechanism

Field Emission mechanism
Clump Theory
35
Particle Exchange Mechanism
The particle-exchange mechanism involves electrons, positive ions, photons and

the absorbed gases at the electrode surfaces. A charged particle would be emitted
from one electrode under the action of the high electric field, and when it
impinges on the other electrode, it liberates oppositely charged particles. These
particles are accelerated by the applied voltage back to the first electrode where
they release more of the original type of particles. When this process becomes
cumulative, a chain reaction occurs which leads to the breakdown of the gap.
Qualitatively, an electron present in the vacuum gap is accelerated towards the

anode, and on impact releases A positive ions and C photons. These positive ions
are accelerated towards the cathode, and on impact each positive ion liberates B
electrons and each photon liberates D electrons. The breakdown will occur if the
coefficients of production of secondary electrons exceed unity. The equation is
given as, [AB+ CD] > 1. But later this theory has been modified to include the
negative ions and it is written as [AB+EF] > 1. Where and E and F represent the
coefficients for negative and positive ion liberation by positive and negative ions.
The values of the product EF were close enough to unity for copper, aluminum
and stainless steel electrodes to make this mechanism applicable for voltages
above 250 KV.
Image courtesy by Naidu and Kamaraju “High Voltage Engineering
36
Field Emission Theory
There are two types of field emission theory
Anode heating mechanism
Cathode heating mechanism
Anode heating mechanism
This theory explains that electrons produced at micro-projections on the cathode due to
field emission, bombard the anode causing a local rise in temperature and release gases and
vapours into the vacuum gap. Now these ionize the atoms of the gas and produce positive
ions. These positive ions arrive at the cathode, increase the primary electron emission due
to space charge formation and produce secondary electrons by bombarding the surface. The
process continues until a sufficient number of electrons are produced to give rise to
breakdown.
Anode heating Mechanism Image courtesy by Naidu and Kamaraju “High Voltage
Engineering
Cathode Heating Mechanism
This mechanism explains that near the breakdown voltages of the gap, sharp points
on the cathode surface are responsible for the existence of the pre-breakdown
current, which is generated according to the field emission process described below.
37
This current causes resistive heating at the tip of a point and when a critical
current density is reached, the tip melts and explodes, thus initiating vacuum
discharge. Thus, the initiation of breakdown depends on the conditions and the
properties of the cathode surface. The breakdown takes place by this process
when the effective cathode electric field is of the order of 106 to 10 7V/cm.
Cathode heating Mechanism Image courtesy by Naidu and Kamaraju “High Voltage
Engineering “
3) Clump Mechanism
This mechanism is based on the following assumptions,
A loosely bound particle (clump) exists on one of the electrode surfaces
On the application of a high voltage, this particle gets charged, subsequently gets
detached from the other electrode, and is accelerated across the gap.
The breakdown occurs due to a discharge in the vapor or gas released by the
impact of the particle at the target electrode.
38
The theory was proposed by cranberg. He initially assumed that breakdown will
occur when the energy per unit area, W delivered to the target electrode by a
clump exceeds a value C, a constant, characteristic of a given pair of electrodes.
The quantity W is the product of gap voltage (V) and the charge density on the
clump. The latter is proportional to the electric field E at the electrode of origin.
The criterion for breakdown is VE =C ’.
In Parallel plane electrodes the field E= V/d where d is the distance between the
electrodes. So the generalized criterion for breakdown becomes,
V = (Cd)1/2
Where C is another constant . The value of C is obtained as 60x 1010 V2/cm. But
later the equation is modified as V = Cd power alpha . Where varies between 0.2
and 1.2 depending on the gap length and the electrode material, with a maximum at
0.6. The dependence of V on the electrode material, comes from the observations of
markings on the electrode surfaces.
39
40
CONDUCTION AND BREAKDOWN IN PURE AND COMMERCIAL LIQUIDS
Liquid dielectrics, because of their inherent properties, appear as though they

would be more useful as insulating materials than either solids or gases. This is
because both liquids and solids are usually 103 times denser than gases and
hence, from Paschen's law it should follow that they possess much higher
dielectric strength of the order of 10 7V/cm. Liquid dielectrics are used mainly as
impregnants in high voltage cables and capacitors, and for filling up of
transformers, circuit breakers etc.
Liquid dielectrics also act as heat transfer agents in transformers and as arc
quenching media in circuit breakers. Petroleum oils (Transformer oil) are the most
commonly used liquid dielectrics. Synthetic hydrocarbons and halogenated
hydrocarbons are also used for certain applications. For very high temperature
application, silicone oils and fluorinated hydrocarbons are also employed. In
recent times, certain vegetable oils and esters are also being tried
Electrical Properties
The electrical properties that are essential in determining the dielectric

performance of a liquid dielectric are
(a) its capacitance per unit volume or its relative permittivity
(b) its resistivity
(c) its loss tangent (tan 5) or its power factor which is an indication of the power
loss under a.c. voltage application
(d) its ability to withstand high electric stresses.
Conduction and breakdown in pure liquids
When low electric fields less than 1 kV/cm are applied, conductivities of 10-18 -10 -
20mho/cm are obtained. These are probably due to the impurities remaining after
purification. However, when the fields are high (> 100 kV/cm) the currents not
only increase rapidly, but also undergo violent fluctuations which will die down
after some time.
41
A typical mean value of the conduction current in hexane is shown above. This is
the condition nearer to breakdown. However, if this figure is redrawn starting
from very small currents, a current-electric field characteristics shown below, can
be obtained. This curve will have three distinct regions as shown.
At very low fields the current is due to the dissociation of ions. With intermediate
fields the current reaches a saturation value, and at high fields the current
generated because of the field-aided electron emission from the cathode gets
multiplied in the liquid medium by a Townsend type of mechanism. The current
multiplication also occurs from the electrons generated at the interfaces of liquid
and impurities. The increase in process continues until breakdown occurs .
42
CONDUCTION AND BREAKDOWN IN COMMERCIAL LIQUIDS
The breakdown mechanism in commercial liquids is dependent, as seen above, on

several factors, such as, the nature and condition of the electrodes, the physical
properties of the liquid, and the impurities and gases present in the liquid.
Several theories have been proposed to explain the breakdown in liquids, and
they are Classified as follows:
Suspended Particle Mechanism
Cavitation and Bubble Mechanism
Stressed Oil Volume Mechanism
(a)Suspended Particle Mechanism
In commercial liquids, the presence of solid impurities cannot be avoided. These

impurities will be present as fibres or as dispersed solid particles. The permittivity
of these particles ϵ1 will be different from the permittivity of the liquid ϵ2 . If we
consider these impunities to be spherical particles of radius r, and if the applied
field is E9 then the particles experience a force F, where
1 (∈2 −∈1 )
𝐹= 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐸 2
2𝑟 3 (2 ∈1 +∈2 )
This force is directed towards areas of maximum stress, ϵ2> ϵ1 if example, in the
case of the presence of solid particles like paper in the liquid. On the other hand,
if only gas bubbles are present in the liquid, i.e., ϵ2< ϵ1 the force will be in the
direction of areas of lower stress. If the voltage is continuously applied (d.c.) or
the duration of the voltage is long (a.c.), then this force drives the particles
towards the areas of maximum stress. If the number of particles present are
large, they becomes aligned due to these forces, and thus form a stable chain
bridging the electrode gap causing a breakdown between the electrodes.
43
Thus the force will urge the particle to move to the strongest region of the field.
In a uniform field gap or sphere gap of small spacing the strongest field is in the
uniform region. In this region grad E is equal to zero so that the particle will
remain in equilibrium there. Accordingly, particles will be dragged into the uniform
field region. If the permittivity of the particle is higher than that of the medium,
then its presence in the uniform field region will cause flux concentration at its
surface. Other particles will be attracted into the region of higher flux
concentration and in time will become aligned head to tail to form a bridge across
the gap. The field in the liquid between the particles will be enhanced, and if it
reaches critical value breakdown will follow. The movement of particles by
electrical force is opposed by viscous drag, and since the particles are moving into
the region of high stress, diffusion must also be taken into account.
If there is only a single conducting particle between the electrodes, it will give rise
to local field enhancement depending on its shape. If this field exceeds the
breakdown strength of the liquid, local breakdown will occur near the particle, and
this will result in the formation of gas bubbles which may lead to the breakdown
of the liquid. The value of the breakdown strength of the liquids containing solid
impurities was found to be much less than the values for pure liquids. The
impurity particles reduce the breakdown strength, and it was also observed that
the larger the size of the particles the lower were the breakdown strengths.
Cavitation and the Bubble Theory
It was experimentally observed that in many liquids, the breakdown strength

depends strongly on the applied hydrostatic pressure, suggesting that a change of
phase of the medium is involved in the breakdown process, which in other words
means that a kind of vapor bubble formed is responsible for breakdown. The
following processes have been suggested to be responsible for the formation of
the vapor bubbles:
Gas pockets at the surface of the electrodes;
b) electrostatic repulsive forces between space charges which may be sufficient

to overcome the surface tension;
44
c) gaseous products due to the dissociation of liquid molecules by electron
collisions; and
d) Vaporization of the liquid by corona type discharges from sharp points and
irregularities on the electrode surfaces.
Once a bubble is formed it will elongated (long and thin) in the direction of the
electric field under the influence of electrostatic forces. The volume of the bubble
remains constant during elongation. Breakdown occurs when the voltage drop along
the length of the bubble becomes equal to the minimum value on the Paschen’s
curve for the gas in the bubble. The electric field in a spherical gas bubble which is
immersed in a liquid of permittivity ϵ2 is given by Eb=3E0/( ε2+2) ; where E0 is the
field in the liquid in the absence of the bubble. When the field Ebbecomes equal to
the gaseous ionization field, discharge takes place which will lead to decomposition
of the liquid and breakdown may follow.
1 2𝜋𝜎 2∈1+∈2
𝐸0 = 𝑉𝑏/2𝑟𝐸0 − 1 1/2
∈1 −∈2 𝑟
where  is the surface tension of the liquid, 1 is the permittivity of the liquid, 2 is
the permittivity of the gas bubble, r is the initial radius of the bubble assumed as a
sphere and Vbis the voltage drop in the bubble (corresponding to minimum on the
Paschen’s curve). From this equation it can be seen that the breakdown strength
depends on the initial size of the bubble which in turn is influenced by the
hydrostatic pressure and temperature of the liquid. But this theory does not take
into account the production of the initial bubble and hence the results given by this
theory do not agree well with the experimental results.
45
Stressed Oil Volume Theory
In commercial liquids where minute traces of impurities are present, the

breakdown strength is determined by the “largest possible impurity” or “weak
link”. On a statistical basis it was proposed that the electrical breakdown strength
of the oil is defined by the weakest region in the oil, namely, the region which is
stressed to the maximum and by the volume of oil included in that region. In non-
uniform fields, the stressed oil volume is taken as the volume which is contained
between the maximum stress Emax  contour.
According to this theory the breakdown strength is inversely proportional to the

stressed oil volume. The breakdown voltage is highly influenced by the gas
content in the oil, the viscosity of the oil, and the presence of other impurities.
These being uniformly distributed, increase in the stressed oil volume
consequently results in a reduction in the breakdown voltage. The variation of the
breakdown voltage stress with the stressed oil volume is shown below
46
BREAKDOWN IN SOLID DIELECTRICS
Solid dielectric materials are used in all kinds of electrical circuits and devices to
insulate one current carrying part from another when they operate at different
voltages. A good dielectric should have low dielectric loss, high mechanical
strength, should be free from gaseous inclusion, and moisture, and be resistant to
thermal and chemical deterioration. Solid dielectrics have higher breakdown
strength compared to liquids and gases. Studies of the breakdown of solid
dielectrics are of extreme importance in insulation studies. When breakdown
occurs, solids get permanently damaged while gases fully and liquids partly
recover their dielectric strength after the applied electric field removed. The
mechanism of breakdown is a complex phenomenon in the case of solids, and
varies depending on the time of application of voltage as shown
The various breakdown mechanisms can be classified as follows:
(a)Intrinsic or ionic breakdown,
(b)electromechanical breakdown,
(c)failure due to treeing and tracking,
(d)thermal breakdown, (e)electrochemical breakdown, and
(f)breakdown due to internal discharges.
47
INTRINSIC BREAKDOWN
When voltages are applied only for short durations of the order of 108 s the
dielectric strength of a solid dielectric increases very rapidly to an upper limit called
the intrinsic electric strength. Experimentally, this highest dielectric strength can be
obtained only under the best experimental conditions when all extraneous influences
have been isolated and the value depends only on the structure of the material and
the temperature.
The maximum electrical strength recorder is 15 MV/cm for polyvinyl-alcohol at -

1960C. The maximum strength usually obtainable ranges from 5 MV/cm. Intrinsic
breakdown depends upon the presence of free electrons which are capable of
migration through the lattice of the dielectric. Usually, a small number of conduction
electrons are present in solid dielectrics, along with some structural imperfections
and small amounts of impurities.
The impurity atoms, or molecules or both act as traps for the conduction electrons
up to certain ranges of electric fields and temperatures. When these ranges are
exceeded, additional electrons in addition to trapped electrons are released, and
these electrons participate in the conduction process. Based on this principle, two
types of intrinsic breakdown mechanisms have been proposed
i)Electronic Breakdown
Intrinsic breakdown occurs in time of the order of 10-8 s and therefore is assumed
to be electronic in nature. The initial density of conduction (free) electrons is also
assumed to be large, and electron-electron collisions occur. When an electric field is
applied, electrons gain energy from the electric field and cross the forbidden energy
gap from the valence band to the conduction band. When this process is repeated,
more and more electrons become available in the conduction band, eventually
leading to breakdown.
48
ii) Avalanche or Streamer Breakdown
This is similar to breakdown in gases due to cumulative ionization. Conduction
electrons gain sufficient energy above a certain critical electric field and cause
liberation of electrons from the lattice atoms by collision. Under uniform field
conditions, if the electrodes are embedded in the specimen, breakdown will occur
when an electron avalanche bridges the electrode gap.
An electron within the dielectric, starting from the cathode will drift towards the
anode and during this motion gains energy from the field and loses it during
collisions. When the energy gained by an electron exceeds the lattice ionization
potential, an additional electron will be liberated due to collision of the first electron.
This process repeats itself resulting in the formation of an electron avalanche.

Breakdown will occur, when the avalanche exceeds a certain critical size. In practice,
breakdown does not occur by the formation of a single avalanche itself, but occurs
as a result of many avalanches formed within the dielectric and extending step by
step through the entire thickness of the material.
ELECTROMECHANICAL BREAKDOWN
When solid dielectrics are subjected to high electric fields, failure occurs due to
electrostatic compressive forces which can exceed the mechanical compressive
strength. If the thickness of the specimen is d0 and is compressed to thickness d
under an applied voltage V, then the electrically developed compressive stress is in
equilibrium if
𝑣2 𝑑0
∈0 ∈𝑟= 2 = 𝑌𝑙𝑛
2𝑑 𝑑
Where Y is the Young’s Modulus

2𝑦 𝑑0
𝑣2 = 𝑑2 𝑙𝑛
∈0 ∈𝑟 𝑑
Usually, mechanical instability occurs when d/d0 =0.6 or d0 /d =1.67
49
Substituting the values the equation becomes
𝑉 𝑌
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑑 =0.6 ∈0 ∈𝑟
1
2
0
The above equation is only approximate as Y depends on the mechanical stress. Also
when the material is subjected to high stresses the theory of elasticity does not hold
good, and plastic deformation has to be considered.
THERMAL BREAKDOWN
In general, the breakdown voltage of a solid dielectric should increase with its
thickness. But this is true only up to a certain thickness above which the heat
generated in the dielectric due to the flow of current determines the conduction.
When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction current however small it
may be, flows through the material.
The current heats up the specimen and the temperature rise. The heat generated is
transferred to the surrounding medium by conduction through the solid dielectric
and by radiation from its outer surfaces. Equilibrium is reached when the heat used
to raise the temperature of the dielectric, plus the heat radiated out, equals the heat
generated.
Wd.c =E2 σ W/cm3
where σ is the d. c. conductivity of the specimen.
Under a. c. fields, the heat generated
Wa.c= E2 fϵr tan ᵟ/1.8*1012 W/ cm3
where, f= frequency in Hz,
ᵟ - loss angle of the dielectric material and E= rms value
The heat dissipated Wr is given by
Wr= Cv dv/ dt+div (K grad T)
where, Cv = specific heat of the specimen
T = temperature of the specımen , K = thermal conductivity of the specimen
t = time over which the heat is dissipated.
50
Equilibrium is reached when the heat generated (Wd.c or Wa.c ) becomes equal to
the heat dissipated (Wr). In actual practice there is always some heat that is
radiated out. The thermal instability condition is shown in Fig.
Here, the heat lost is shown by a straight line, while the heat generated at fields E1
and E2 is shown by separate curves. At field E 2breakdown occurs both at
temperatures TA and TB heat generated is less than the heat lost for the field E2 ,
and hence the breakdown will not occur.
BREAKDOWN OF SOLID DIELECTRICS IN PRACTICE
There are certain types of breakdown which do not come under either intrinsic
breakdown, but actually occur after prolonged operation. These are, for example,
breakdown due to tracking in which dry conducting tracks act as conducting paths
on the insulator surfaces leading to gradual breakdown along the surface of the
insulator. Another type of breakdown in this category is the electrochemical
breakdown caused by chemical transformations such as electrolysis, formation of
ozone, etc. In addition, failure also occurs due to partial discharges which are
brought about in the air pockets inside the insulation. This type of breakdown is very
important impregnated paper insulation used in high voltage cables and capacitors.
51
Chemical and Electrochemical Deterioration and Breakdown
In the presence of air and other gases some dielectric materials undergo chemical
changes when subjected to continuous stresses. Some of the important chemical
reactions that occur are:
Oxidation
In the presence of air or oxygen, material such as rubber and polyethylene

undergo oxidation giving rise to surface cracks
Hydrolysis
When moisture or water vapor is present on the surface of a solid dielectric,

hydrolysis occurs and the material loses their electrical and mechanical properties.
Electrical properties of materials such as paper, cotton tape, and other cellulose
materials deteriorate very rapidly due to hydrolysis. Plastics like polyethylene
undergo changes, and their service life considerably reduces.
Chemical Action
Even in the absence of electric fields, progressive chemical degradation of

insulating materials can occur due to a variety of processes such as chemical
instability at high temperatures, oxidation and cracking in the presence of air and
ozone, and hydrolysis due to moisture and heat.
Since different insulating materials come into contact with each other in any practical
reactions occur between these various materials leading to reduction in electrical
and mechanical strengths resulting in a failure.
The effects of electrochemical and chemical deterioration could be minimized by

carefully studying and examining the materials. High soda content glass insulation
should be avoided in moist and damp conditions, because sodium, being very
mobile, leaches to the surface giving rise to the formation of a strong alkali which
will cause deterioration.
52
It was observed that this type of material will lose its mechanical strength within 24
hrs,when it is exposed to atmospheres having 100% relative humidity at 70̊ C. In
paper insulation, even if partial discharges are prevented completely, breakdown can
occur due to chemical degradation. The chemical and electrochemical deterioration
increases very rapidly with temperature, and hence high temperatures should be
avoided.
Breakdown Due to Treeing and Tracking

When a solid dielectric subjected to electrical stresses for a long time fails, normally
two kinds of visible markings are observed on the dielectric material. They are:
a) the presence of a conducting path across the surface of the insulation:
b) a mechanism whereby leakage current passes through the conducting path

finally leading to the formation of a spark. Insulation deterioration occurs as a
result of these sparks.
The spreading of spark channels during tracking, in the form of the branches of a
tree is called treeing. Consider a system of a solid dielectric having a conducting film
and two electrodes on its surface. In practice, the conducting film very often is
formed due to moisture. On application of voltage, the film starts conducting,
resulting in generation of heat, and the surface starts becoming dry. The conducting
film becomes separate due to drying, and so sparks are drawn damaging the
dielectric surface.
With organic insulating materials such as paper and bakelite, the dielectric
carbonizes at the region of sparking, and the carbonized regions act as permanent
conducting channels resulting in increased stress over the rest of the region. This is
a cumulative process, and insulation failure occurs when carbonized tracks bridge
the distance between the electrodes. This phenomenon, called tracking and is
common between layers of bakelite, paper and similar dielectrics built of laminates.
53
On the other hand treeing occurs due to the erosion of material at the tips of the
spark. Erosion results in the roughening of the surfaces, and hence becomes a
source of dirt and contamination. This causes increased conductivity resulting either
in the formation of conducting path bridging the electrodes or in a mechanical failure
of the dielectric.
Arrangement for study of treeing phenomena.1 and 2 are electrodes.
When a dielectric material lies between two electrodes as shown in Fig., there is
possibility for two different dielectric media, the air and the dielectric, to come
series. The voltages across the two media are as shown (V1 across the air gap, and
V2 across the dielectric). The voltage V1 across the air gap is given as,
𝑉 𝑑1
𝑉1 =
∈
𝑑1 + ∈1 𝑑2
2
Where V is the applied voltage .
Since ϵ2 >ϵ1 most of the voltage appears across 1 d , the air gap. Sparking will occur
in the air gap and charge accumulation takes place on the surface of the insulation.
Sometimes the spark erodes the surface of the insulation. As time passes, break-
down channels spread through the insulation in an irregular “tree’ like fashion
leading to the formation of conducting channels. This kind of channeling is called
treeing. Under a.c. voltage conditions treeing can occur in a few minute or several
hours. Hence, care must be taken to see that no series air gaps or other weaker
insulation gaps are formed.
54
Usually, tracking occurs even at very low voltage of the order of about 100 V,
whereas treeing requires high voltages. For testing of tracking, low and medium
voltage tracking tests are specified. These tests are done at low voltages but for
times of about 100 hr or more. The insulation should not fail. Sometimes the tests
are done using 5 to 10 kV with shorter durations of 4 to 6 hour. The numerical value
that initiates or causes the formation of a track is called “tracking index” and this is
used to qualify the surface properties of dielectric materials.
Treeing can be prevented by having clean, dry, and undamaged surfaces and a clean
environment. The materials chosen should be resistant to tracking. Sometimes
moisture repellant greases are used. But this needs frequent cleaning and
regressing. Increasing creeping distances should prevent tracking, but in practice
the presence of moisture films defeat the purpose. Usually, treeing phenomena is
observed in capacitors and cables, and extensive work is being done to investigate
the real nature and causes of this phenomenon.
Breakdown Due to Internal Discharges
Solid insulating materials, and to a lesser extent liquid dielectrics contain voids or
cavities within the medium or at the boundaries between the dielectric and the
electrodes. These voids are generally filled with a medium of lower dielectric
strength, and the dielectric constant of the medium in the voids is lower than that of
the insulation. Hence, the electric field strength in the voids is higher than that
across the dielectric. Therefore, even under normal working voltages the field in the
voids may exceed their breakdown value, and breakdown may occur.
Let us consider a dielectric between two conductors as shown in . If we divide the

insulation into three parts, an electrical network of C1 , C2 , C3 can be formed as
shown in Fig.. In this, C1 represents the capacitance of the void or cavity, C2 is the
capacitance of the dielectric which is in series with the void, and C3 is the
capacitance of the dielectric
55
When the applied voltage is V, the voltage across the void, V1 is given by the same
equation as
𝑉 𝑑1
𝑉1 =
∈
𝑑1 + ∈1 𝑑2
2
Usually d1<d2, and if we assume that the cavity is filled with a gas, then
V1 = V d1
∈r
d2
When a voltage V is applied, V1 reaches the breakdown strength of the medium in

the cavity (Vi) and breakdown occurs. Vi is called the “discharge inception voltage”.
When the applied voltage is a.c., breakdown occurs on both the half cycles and the
number of discharges will depend on the applied voltage. When the first breakdown
across the cavity occurs the breakdown voltage across it becomes zero. When once
the voltage V1 becomes zero, the spark gets extinguished and again the voltage
rises till breakdown occurs again. This process repeats again and again, and current
pulses will be obtained both in the positive and negative half cycles. All these effect
will result in a gradual erosion of the material and consequent reduction in the
thickness of insulation leading to breakdown. The life of the insulation with internal
discharges depends upon the applied voltage and the number of discharges.
Breakdown by this process may occur in a few or days or may take a few years.
56
BREAKDOWN OF COMPOSITE INSULATION
In certain cases the behavior of the insulation system can be predicted by the
behavior of the components. But in most cases, the system as a whole has to be
considered. The following considerations determine the performance of
The stress distribution at different parts of the insulation system is distorted due
to the component dielectric constant and conductivities,
The breakdown characteristics at the surface are affected by the insulation

boundaries of various components,
The internal or partial discharge products of one component invariably affect the
other components in the system, and
The chemical ageing products of one component also affect the performance of
other components in the system.
Ageing is the process by which the electrical and mechanical properties of insulation
normally becomes worse in condition (deteriorate) with time. Ageing occurs mainly
due to oxidation, chemical degradation, irradiation, and electron and ion
bombardment on the insulation. Tracking is another process by which ageing of the
insulation occurs. Usually partial discharge tests are used in ageing studies to
estimate the discharge magnitudes, discharge inception, and extinction voltages.
Change of loss angle during electrical stressing provides information of the
deterioration occurring in insulation systems. The knowledge of the mechanical
stresses in the insulation, controlling of the ambient conditions such as temperature
and humidity, and a study of the gaseous products evolved during ageing processes
will also help to control the breakdown process in composite insulation. Finally,
stress control in insulation systems to avoid high electric stress regions is an
important factor in controlling the failure of insulation systems.
57
Assignment
1. Discuss about Various Mechanisms of Vaccum Breakdown
2. Explain various theories that explain the Breakdown in Liquid
Dielectrics.
58
UNIT II-DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN
PART A (2 marks)
1. Mention the gases used as the insulating medium in electrical apparatus? (CO2
K1)
Most of the electrical apparatus use air as the insulating medium, and in a few cases
other gases such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, Freon and sulphur hexafluoride
2 .What is breakdown voltage? (CO2 K1)
The maximum voltage applied to the insulation at the moment of breakdown is called the
breakdown voltage
3.What is ionization? (CO2 K1)
The process of liberating an electron from a gas molecule with a simultaneous production
of a positive ion is called ionization.
4.What is a Townsend’s first ionization coefficient? (CO2 K1)
Townsend’s first ionization coefficient is the average number of ionizing collisions made
by an electron per centimeter travel in the direction of the field.
5.What is a Townsend’s secondary ionization coefficient? (CO2 K1)
The Townsend’s secondary ionization coefficient is defined as the net number of

secondary electrons produced per incident, positive ion, photon, excited particle or meta-
stable particle.
6. What are electro negative gases? (CO2 K1)
The gases which are highest breakdown strength due to attachment of free electrons to
neutral atoms or molecules to form negative ions, thus removing free electrons that
would otherwise led to breakdown is called as electro negative gases.
7.Define an attachment coefficient. (CO2 K2)
An attachment co-efficient is defined as the number of attaching collusions made by one

electron drifting one centimeter in the direction of the field.
8.What is meant by time lag? (CO2 K1)
The time difference between the application of a voltage sufficient to cause breakdown
and the occurrence of breakdown itself is called as time lag.
59
9.Mention some of the applications of liquid dielectrics. (CO2 K1)
They are used as impregnants in high voltage cables and capacitors, and for filling
up of transformers, circuit breakers. They are also used as heat transfer agents in
transformers and as arc quenching media in circuit breakers.
10.Name some examples of liquid dielectrics. (CO2 K1)
Petroleum oils, Synthetic hydrocarbons, halogenated hydrocarbons, silicone oils and
fluorinated hydrocarbons.
11. What are pure liquids? Give examples. (CO2 K1)
They are chemically pure and do not contain any other impurity even in traces of
1in 109 and are structurally simple. Examples are n-hexane, n-heptane and other
paraffin hydrocarbons.
12.What are the different types of solid insulating materials? (CO2 K1)
Organic materials: paper, wood and rubber, Inorganic materials: Mica, glass and
porcelain Synthetic polymers: Perplex, PVC, epoxy resins.
13.State the properties of good dielectrics (CO2 K2)
Low dielectric loss, high mechanical strength, should be free from gaseous
inclusions and moisture and be resistant to thermal and chemical deterioration.
14. State and explain Paschen’s law. (CO2 K2)
The Townsends breakdown criterion for gases is given by γ(eαd-1) = Where α, γ
are the Townsends co-efficient and are functions of (E/p).
60
15. What do you mean by “Intrinsic strength‟ of a solid dielectric? (CO2
K1)
When voltage is applied for a short time of the order of 10-8 , the electric strength
of the solid material increases rapidly to an upper limit. This is called Intrinsic
strength.
16.Define treeing and tracking. (CO2 K2)
Treeing is the formation of a continuous conducting path across the surface of the
insulation mainly due to surface erosion under voltage application. Insulation failure
occurs when carbonized tracks bridge the distance between the electrodes . This
phenomenon is called tracking.
17.What is meant by corona discharges? (CO2 K2)
In non-uniform fields, the increase in voltage cause breakdown in the gas at points
with highest electric field intensity(sharp points), or where the electrodes are
curved or on transmission lines. This form of discharge is called as corona
discharge.
18.What are the properties required for a gaseous dielectric for HV

application? (CO2 K2)
Generally , the preferred properties of a gaseous dielectric for high voltage

applications are:
High dielectric strength
Thermal stability and chemical inactivity towards materials of construction
Non-flammable and physiological inertness, and environmentally non-

hazardous
Low temperature of condensation
Arc extinguishing ability
Good heat transfer
Commercially available at moderate cost.
61
19. What are commercial liquid dielectrics and how are they
different from pure liquid dielectrics? (CO2 K1)
Pure liquids are those which are chemically pure and do not contain any other
impurity even in traces of 1 in 109, and are structurally simple. Examples of such
simple, pure liquids are n-hexane , n-heptane and other paraffin hydrocarbons.
Commercial liquids which are insulating liquids like oils which are not chemically
pure. Normally consist of mixtures of complex organic molecules which cannot be
easily specified or reproduced in a series of experiments.
20.What is Penning Effect ? ? (CO2 K1)
It is a form of Chemi-ionization , an ionization process involving the reactions

between neutral atoms or molecules .
21. What are the factors which affect the breakdown in gaseous
dielectrics? (CO2 K1)
Low dielectric strength ,Flammability and hazardous, Thermal and chemical

instability,Bad heat transfer
62
Part B- 13 marks Questions
1. Discuss about Various Mechanisms of Vaccum Breakdown [CO2
K1]
2. Explain various theories that explain the Breakdown in Liquid
Dielectrics. [[CO2 K1]
3. Discuss Various Properties of Composite Dielectrics [CO2 K1]
4. Derive the Townsend current growth equation in uniform
gaseous dielectric field [CO2/K1]
5. Discuss the Phenomenon of Thermal Breakdown in solid
dielectrics [CO2 K1]
6. What are the different mechanisms of Breakdown in Vaccum,
Explain any one mechanism in detail [CO2 K1]
7. Explain the Suspended particle mechanism of Breakdown in
commercial liquid dielectrics [CO2 K1]
8. From the fundamental principles, derive Townsend’s criteria for
breakdown in gases. [ CO2 K1]
9. Define town send’s first and second ionization coefficients. How
the condition is for breakdown obtained in town send’s
discharge? [CO2 K1]
10. Explain paschen's law and breakdown in electro negative gases?
[CO2 K1]
11. Explain the phenomenon of corona discharge in detail. [CO2 K1]
12. Explain the following breakdown mechanism in solid dielectric
(i)Intrinsic breakdown,(ii)Electromechanical breakdown,(iii)
Thermal breakdown (iv) (ii) Treeing and Tracking [CO2 K1]
13. Explain in detail about the breakdown mechanism in composite
dielectrics(13) [CO2 K1]
63
Part C-15 marks questions
1. (i).List out the problems caused by corona discharge.(7)
(ii)describe the mechanism of short term breakdown composite
insulation.(8) [CO2 K2]
2. (i) Name the primary ionization processes in gaseous dielectrics
and explain in detail.(8)
(ii) how vacuum breakdown occurs according to particle exchange
mechanism.(7) [CO2 K2]
3. State why the very high intrinsic strength of solid dielectric is
not fully realized in practice. Explain in detail any one mechanism
of breakdown in solid dielectrics.(15) [CO2 K2]
4. (i).A steady state current of 5.5x10-8 A was noted during

experiments in certain gas at 8Kv at a distance of 0.4cm
between plane electrodes. Keeping the field constant and
reducing the distance to 0.1cm resulted in a current of 5.5x10-9
A. Calculate Townsend’s primary ionization coefficient alpha
α.(8)
(ii).Derive and expression for the growth of current due to
Townsend’s primary ionization. Assume necessary data.(7) [CO2
K3]
64
course
circuit
65
Spark gaps were used historically as an early form of radio

transmission. Similarly, lightning discharges in the
atmosphere of Jupiter are thought to be the source of the
planet's powerful radio frequency emissions.
High voltages have been used in landmark chemistry and
particle physics experiments and discoveries. Electric arcs
were used in the isolation and discovery of the
element argon from atmospheric air. Induction coils powered
early X-ray tubes. Moseley used an X-ray tube to determine
the atomic number of a selection of metallic elements by the
spectrum emitted when used as anodes. High voltage is used
for generating electron beams for microscopy. Cockcroft and
Walton invented the voltage multiplier to transmutate lithium
atoms in lithium oxide into helium by accelerating hydrogen
atoms.
66
Prescribed Text Books
TEXT BOOKS:
1. S.Naidu and V. Kamaraju, ‘High Voltage Engineering’, Tata
McGraw Hill, Fifth Edition, 2013.
2. E. Kuffel and W.S. Zaengl, J.Kuffel, ‘High voltage Engineering
fundamentals’, Newnes Second Edition Elsevier , New Delhi, 2005.
3. C.L. Wadhwa, ‘High voltage Engineering’, New Age
International Publishers, Third Edition, 2010.
REFERENCES
1. L.L. Alston, ‘High Voltage Technology’, Oxford University
Press, First Indian Edition , 2011.
2. Mazen Abdel – Salam, Hussein Anis, Ahdab A-Morshedy,
Roshday Radwan,
High Voltage Engineering – Theory &Practice, Second Edition
Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2010.
3. Subir Ray,’ An Introduction to High Voltage Engineering’ PHI
Learning Private Limited, New Delhi, Second Edition, 2013.
67
Assesment Schedule- Proposed
Internal Assessment 1 – 01/08/2020 (Proposed)
Internal Assesment2 --
Model Exam --
68
Mini Project Suggestions :
https://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/research/projects/High%20Voltage%20E
ngineering
Advanced NAno-Structured TApeS for electrotechnical high power
Insulating Applications (ANASTASIA)
An Investigation into Electrical Degradation Mechanisms within Air-
Filled Cavities in Solid Dielectric Materials
An investigation into partial discharge sources and locations along the
high voltage transformers
An Investigation into the Next Generation of Ultra High Voltage, High
Power Density, DC Power Supplies
Application of Machine learning for condition assessment of large high
voltage autotransformers
Charge Transport in Nanodielectrics
Condition and Climatic Environment for Power Transformer (ConCEPT)
Condition monitoring and prognostic indicators for network reliability
Continuous Online PD Monitoring for HV Cables
Corrosive Sulphur Condition Monitoring of Large Transformers
Cryogenic Dielectrics
Degradation Behaviour of Voids in Silicone Rubber under Applied AC
Electric Fields
Effect of LN2 Bubble Dynamics on Insulation Performance of High
Temperature Superconducting Power Apparatus
Effect of nucleating agent on a polyethylene blend
Three Phase Partial Discharge monitoring of MV PILC cables
Three Phase Partial Discharge monitoring of MV PILC cables
Towards Enhanced HVDC Cable Systems
Towards Intelligent Insulation
69
Mini Project Suggestions :
Effect of oil passivation on the electrical properties of high voltage
transformers
Electric Field Determination in DC Polymeric Power Cable in the
Presence of Space Charge and Temperature Gradient
FEAR - Finite Element Analysis for cable Ratings
Flexible Rating Options for DC Operation
Impact of Seabed Properties on Ampacity and Reliability of Cables
Impact of thermal mechanical stresses on electric field of Cables and
Joints
Impulse ageing of polymeric materials
Influence of oil contamination on the electrical performance of power
transformers
Insulation for high voltage dc power transformer
Inter-phase pressboard surface discharge characteristics under
influence of general electric fields
Management of Evaluation of Cable Equipment State
Mechanical Deformation of Dielectrics
Modelling and Parameter Estimation of High Voltage Transformers for
Partial Discharge Detection and Identification
Modelling of Thermal Damage in Carbon Fibre Composites
Modelling PD in Cavities under DC and AC Electric Fields
Modelling the Aging Processes of Polymeric Insulation using
Electroluminescence and Space Charge Measurement Data
On Line Detection of Partial Discharge Activity in HV Cables and
Accessories Using Directional Coupling Techniques
On Line Detection of Partial Discharge Activity in HV Cables and
Accessories Using Directional Coupling Techniques
On-line Condition Monitoring of HV Cables
70
Mini Project Suggestion
Optimization of a PPT for nano and pico satellite applications
Partial discharge (PD) analysis of defective paper insulated lead
covered (PILC) cable samples under three-phase rated condition
Partial discharge detection in cable systems
Partial Discharge Discrimination
Penetrant Diffusion in Dielectrics
Polar/non-polar Polymer Blends: On structural evolution and the
electrical properties of PE and EVA blends
Polymeric Insulation for high voltage DC application
Potential decay of corona charged LDPE film
Probabilistic Dynamic Cable Rating Algorithms
Renewable materials for high voltage applications
Silicone oil degradation analysis (SODA)
Space charge measurement and analysis in polyethylene film
SPARCARB
Study of Surface Discharge Behaviour at the Oil-pressboard
Interface of Large Transformers
Substation Earthing
Supergen V: Amperes: Infrastructure for reducing environmental
impact
Surface Discharge in the Inter-phase barrier region of large
Transformers
Surface discharge measurement using the pockels effect
The effect of cross-linking byproduct on electrical properties of
soaked LDPE.
The Use of Raman Microscopy in the Analysis of Electerical Aging
in Polymeric Insulators
Thermal ageing and its impact on charge trap density and
Insulating properties in LDPE
Thermal bubble behaviours in high voltage thermosyphon
coolants under electric field
71
Thank you
Disclaimer:
72
1
2
3

Created by: 1) K.GUNALAN M.E.,(Ph.D)

2) K.Praveen Kumar Reddy M.E (Ph.D)

Assistant Professor/EEE
RMD Engineering College
3) Ms.SABARI L.UMA MAHESWARI M.E(Ph.D),

RMK Engineering College
4
Table of Contents
S. No. TOPIC Page No.
2 Pre Requisites 8
3 Syllabus 9
7 CO/PO Mapping 12
8 CO/PSO Mapping 12
UNIT – III -GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND HIGH CURRENTS
9 Lecture Plan 13
10 E-Book 14
11 Video Links 15
12 Generation of High DC voltage: Rectifiers, voltage multipliers 16
13 Van de Graff generator 27

Generation of high
14 30
AC voltages: cascaded transformers
15 Resonant transformer and Tesla coil 32
Generation of high impulse voltage: single stage Marx
16 41
circuits
17 Generation of switching surges 41
18 Generation of impulse currents 41
Multistage Marx circuits
19 44
20 Triggering and control of impulse generators. 46
21 Assignment 47
5
Table of Contents
Page
S. No. TOPIC
No.

26 53
6
Course Objectives

methods.

7

8
SYLLABUS
3003
OBJECTIVES:
methods.
dielectrics.
equipments.
cabilitys.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
9
COURSE OUTCOME

Knowledge
voltage to be generated for testing an
apparatus of a particular rated voltage
CO5 Understand process of testing of various K2
power system apparatus
coordination and apply the same for fixing the
BIL of an apparatus
10
conclusions.
limitations.
11
(PSOs)
structure.
PSO 2 : Use the modern tools for implementing the solutions to engineering
problems that can arise in the fields of Electrical, Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineering along with Information Technology Services.
PSO 3 : Face the challenges in the society by adopting the non-conventional

energy resources and utilizing the modern technologies for energy efficient
transmission and power quality improvement delivering clean energy for the
wellbeing of the mankind.
COs PO PSO
CO1 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 - - - - 2 2 - -
CO2 3 2 1 2 1 2 2 - - - - 2 2 - -
CO3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - 2 3 1 -
CO4 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - 2 3 2 1
CO5 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - 2 2 3 1
CO6 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - 2 2 - -
12
UNIT-III
LECTURE PLAN
S. TOPIC No. Proposed Actual Pert Taxon Mode of

NO of date Lecture aini omy Delivery
Peri Date ng level
ods CO
Generation of High
Power
DC voltage:
1 CO3 K3 Point
Rectifiers, voltage
Presentation
multipliers
vandigraff Power
2 CO3 K1 Point
generator
Presentation
generation of high
Power
AC voltages:
Point
3 cascaded CO3 K2
Presentation
transformers
Resonant
transformer and Power
4 CO3 K2 Point
tesla coil
Presentation
Generation of high
Power
impulse voltage:
5 CO3 K3 Point
singlestage Marx
Presentation
circuits
Power
Multistage Marx
6 CO3 K3 Point
circuits
Presentation
Generation of Power
7 switching surges CO3 K2 Point
Presentation
Generation of Power
8 impulse currents CO3 K2 Point
Presentation
Triggering and Power
9 control of impulse CO3 K2 Point
generators. Presentation
13
E Books
High-voltage engineering: theory and practice, by Mazen Abdel – Salam,
Hussein Anis, Ahdab A-Morshedy, Roshday Radwan
14
VIDEO LINKS
TITLE LINK
Cockroft-walton Voltage https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yfykYXdAUNY

Multiplier Circuit
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yfykYXdAUNY&list=RDC
MUCEWpbFLzoYGPfuWUMFPSaoA&index=1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ep3D_LC2UzU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=litsAzP4oqw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IqzA3-bgIIE
Vande Graff Generators https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xqt2gAalV4Y
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jZEFuCxD7BE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VebB-D61XDM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Ptu07enIsY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubZuSZYVBng
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X-vW7r5K76I
Generation of Impulse https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yBedWO5cRF0

voltages https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2O6aPrO5Iw4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZEIikw36P80
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZEIikw36P80
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=goOS2FDqAyU
15
UNIT -3
GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND

HIGH CURRENTS
16
Definition of Voltage Levels (IEC60038)
 A high voltage is voltage being greater than 1000 V for ac and greater than 1200
V for dc.
 Voltage class
 In the fields of electrical engineering and applied physics, high voltages (d.c, a.c
& impulse) are required for several applications.
 For electron microscopes and x-ray units require high d.c voltage.
 High a.c voltages are required for testing power apparatus (trasformers, cables,
capacitors, circuit breakers, etc).
 High impulse voltages are required for testing purposes to simulate overvoltages
that occur in power system due to lightning or switching action.
 For electrical engineers, the main concern of high voltages is for the insulation
testing of various components in power systems.
17
Generation of High DC Voltages
 For the generation of D.C voltages of up to 100kV, electronic valve rectifiers are
used and the output currents are about 100 mA.
 The rectifier valves require special construction since a high electrostatic field of
several kV/cm exists.
 There are two methods of generating high D.C voltages:-
• through the process of rectification employing voltage multiplier circuits
(Half-wave Rectifier Circuit, Full-wave Rectifier Circuit, Voltage Doubler
Circuit & Cockroft-Walton Voltage Multiplier).
• Electrostatic generators.
Half-wave Rectifier Circuit

• The simplest circuit for generation of high direct voltage is the half wave
rectifier shown in Fig. 1(a)
Fig. 1 (a) Single Phase rectifier

Here RL is the load resistance and C the capacitance to smoothen the d.c.
output voltage.
 Assuming the ideal transformer and small internal resistance of the diode during
conduction the capacitor C is charged to the maximum voltage Vmax during
conduction of the diode D.
 Assuming that there is no load connected, the d.c voltage across capacitance
remains constant at Vmax whereas the supply voltage oscillates between ±Vmax
 During negative half cycle the potential of point A becomes – Vmax
 The single phase half-wave rectifier circuits have the following disadvantages:
 (i) The size of the circuits is very large if high and pure d.c. output voltages are
desired.
 (ii) The h.t. transformer may get saturated if the amplitude of direct current is
comparable with the nominal alternating current of the transformer.
18
Full-wave Rectifier Circuit
 A full wave rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 2
 In the positive half cycle, the rectifier A conducts and charges the capacitor C.
 In the negative half cycle the rectifier B conducts and charges the capacitor.
 The sources transformer requires a centre tapped secondary with a rating of 2 V
 Ripple Voltage: the variation in capacitor voltage due to the charging and
discharging.
 The advantage of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave is quite clear. The
capacitor can more effectively reduce the ripple when the time between peaks is
shorter
19
Voltage Doubler Circuit
• High d.c. voltages can be generated by using :-
• Voltage doubler
• cascaded voltage multiplier circuits.
• One of the most popular doubler circuit due to Greinacher is shown in Fig. 3
• Suppose B is more positive with respect to A and the diode D1 conducts thus
charging the capacitor C1 to Vmax with polarity.
• During the next half cycle terminal A of the capacitor C1 rises to Vmax and hence
terminal M attains a potential of 2 Vmax. Thus, the capacitor C2 is charged to 2
Vmax through D2.
• Normally the voltage across the load will be less than 2 Vmax depending upon the
time constant of the circuit C2RL.
Fig. 3 Greinacher Voltage Doubler Circuit
20
Cockroft-Walton Voltage Multiplier
Fig. 4 shows a multistage single phase cascade circuit of the Cockroft-Walton type
Fig. 4 Cockroft-Walton Voltage Multiplier Circuit
NO LOAD OPERATION
 During the next half cycle when B becomes positive with respect to A, potential of
M falls and, therefore, potential of N also falls becoming less than potential at M′
hence C2 is charged through D2.
 Next half cycle A becomes more positive and potential of M and N rise thus
charging C′2 through D′2.
 Finally all the capacitors C′1, C′2, C′3, C1, C2, and C3 are charged.
 The voltage across the column of capacitors consisting of C1, C2, C3, keeps on
oscillating as the supply voltage alternates.
 However, the voltage across the capacitances C′1, C′2, C′3, remains constant and
is known as smoothening column.
 The voltages at M′, N′, and O′ are 2 Vmax 4 Vmax and 6 Vmax.
 The total output voltage is 2n Vmax where n is the number of stages.
 The equal stress of the elements (both capacitors and diodes) used is very helpful
and promotes a modular design of such generators.
21
22
GENERATOR LOADED
 When the generator is loaded, the output voltage will never reach the value 2n
Vmax.
 Also, the output wave will consist of ripples on the voltage.
 Thus, we have to deal with two quantities, the voltage drop ΔV and the ripple δV.
 For n-stage circuit, the total ripple will be,
Ripple voltage,
V 
I

n n  1  I  n n  1
fC 2 2 fC
Total Ripple,
VT  2 x V
% Ripple,
VT
%  VT  x 100%
2n Vmax
Voltage drop, ΔV is the difference between the theoretical no
load voltage 2nVmax and the on load voltage,
I 2 3 n2 n
Voltage Drop, V   n   
fC 
 3 2 6 

23
For large values of n (≥5)will be small and may be neglected, thus
I 2 3
Voltage Drop, V   n 
fC  3 
V
% Voltage Regulation, % V  x 100%
2n Vmax
Voltage regulation is the ratio between voltage drop and no load
voltage, 2nVmax
The optimum number of stages assuming a constant Vmax, I, f and C
can be obtained
Vmax x fc
noptimum 
I
In general, it is more economical to use high frequency and smaller
value of capacitance to reduce the ripples or the voltage drop
rather than low frequency and high capacitance.
24
PROBLEM1:
A ten stages Cockraft-Walton circuit has all capacitors of 0.06 μF. The
secondary voltage of the supply transformer is 100 kV at a
frequency of 150 Hz. If the load current is 1 mA, determine
(i) the voltage ripple
(ii) the voltage drop and regulation
(iii) the max output voltage
(iv) the optimum number of stages
Solution:
(i) the voltage ripple
V 
I

n n  1  I  n n  1
fC 2 2 fC
= 6.111 kV
ii) the voltage drop and regulation
25
(iii) the max output voltage
(iv) the optimum number of stages
26
Van de Graaff Generators
(Electro static Generator)
Fig. below shows belt driven electrostatic generator developed by Van deGraaf in
1931.
An insulating belt is run over pulleys. The belt, the width of which may vary
from a few cms to metres is driven at a speed of about 15 to 30 m/sec, by means
of a motor connected to the lower pulley. The belt near the lower pully is charged
electrostatically by an excitation arrangement. The lower charge spray unit
consists of a number of needles connected to the controllable d.c. source (10 kV–
100 kV) so that the discharge between the points and the belt is maintained. The
charge is conveyed to the upper end where it is collected from the belt by
discharging points connected to the inside of an insulated metal electrode through
which the belt passes. The entire equipment is enclosed in an earthed metal tank
filled with insulating gases of good dielectric strength viz. SF6 etc. So that the
potential of the electrode could be raised to relatively higher voltage without
corona discharges or for a certain voltage a smaller size of the equipment will
result. Also, the shape of the h.t., electrode should be such that the surface
gradient of electric field is made uniform to reduce again corona discharges, even
though it is desirable to avoid corona entirely. An isolated sphere is the most
favourable electrode shape and will maintain a uniform field E with a voltage of Er
where r is the radius of the sphere.
27
As the h.t. electrode collects charges its potential rises. The potential at any
instant is given as V = q/C where q is the charge collected at that instant. It
appears as though if the charge were collected for a long time any amount of
voltage could be generated. However, as the potential of electrode rises, the field
set up by the electrode increases and that may ionise the surrounding medium
and, therefore, this would be the limiting value of the voltage. In practice,
equilibrium is established at a terminal voltage which is such that the charging
current
equals the discharge current which will include the load current and the leakage
and corona loss currents. The moving belt system also distorts the electric field
and, therefore, it is placed within properly shaped field grading rings. The grading
is provided by resistors and additional corona discharge elements.
The collector needle system is placed near the point where the belt enters the
h.t. terminal. A second point system excited by a self-inducing arrangement
enables the down going belt to be charged to the polarity opposite to that of the
terminal and thus the rate of charging of the latter, for a given speed, is doubled.
The self inducing arrangement requires insulating the upper pulley and
maintaining it at a potential higher than that of the h.t. terminal by connecting
the pulley to the collector needle system. The arrangement also consists of a row
of points (shown as upper spray points in Fig. connected to the inside of the h.t.
terminal and directed towards the pulley above its points of entry into the
terminal. As the pulley is at a higher potential (positive), the negative charges due
to corona discharge at the upper spray points are collected by the belt. This
neutralises any remaining positive charge on the belt and leaves an excess of
negative charges on the down going belt to be neutralised by the lower spray
points. Since these negative charges leave the h.t. terminal, the potential of the
h.t. terminal is raised by the corresponding amount.
In order to have a rough estimate of the current supplied by the generator, let us
assume that the electric field E is normal to the belt and is homogeneous.
28
From equation it is clear that current I depends upon σ, b and ν. The belt width
(b) and velocity ν being limited by mechanical reasons, the current can be
increased by having higher value of σ. σ can be increased by using gases of
higher dielectric strength so that electric field intensity E could be increased
without the inception of ionisation of the medium surrounding the h.t. terminal.
However, with all these arrangements, the actual short circuit currents are limited
only to a few mA even for large generators.
The advantages of the generator are:
(i) Very high voltages can be easily generated
(ii) Ripple free output
(iii) Precision and flexibility of control
The disadvantages are:
(i) Low current output
(ii) Limitations on belt velocity due to its tendency for vibration. The
vibrations may
make it difficult to have an accurate grading of electric fields
These generators are used in nuclear physics laboratories for particle
acceleration and other processes in research work.
29
Generation of High AC Voltages
 Generation of high voltages and high currents are required for the purpose of
testing various types of power system equipment.
 Test transformers normally used for the purpose have low power rating but high
voltage ratings.
 These transformers are mainly used for short time tests on high voltage
equipments.
 For higher voltage requirement, a single unit construction becomes difficult and
costly.
 These drawbacks are overcome by series connection or cascading of the several
identical units of transformers.
 High AC voltages can be generated by either Test transformers or Resonant
Circuits
 For generating AC test voltages of less than a few hundred kV, a single
transformer can be used.
 For voltages higher than 400 KV, it is desired to cascade two or more
transformers.
 Fig. 6 shows a basic scheme for cascading three transformers.
Fig. 6 Basic 3 stage cascaded transformer
30
 The primary of the first stage transformer is connected to a low voltage supply.
 A voltage is available across the secondary of this transformer.
 The tertiary winding (excitation winding) of first stage has the same number of
turns as the primary winding, and feeds the primary of the second stage
transformer.
 The potential of the tertiary is fixed to the potential V of the secondary winding as
shown in Fig. 6.
 The secondary winding of the second stage transformer is connected in series
with the secondary winding of the first stage transformer, so that a voltage of 2V
is available between the ground and the terminal of secondary of the second
stage transformer
 Similarly, the stage-III transformer is connected in series with the second stage
transformer.
 With this the output voltage between ground and the third stage transformer,
secondary is 3V.
 The advantage of cascading the transformers is that the natural cooling is
sufficient and the transformers are light and compact.
 The main disadvantage of this scheme :-
 1) the lower stages of the primaries of the transformers are
loaded more as compared with the upper stages
 2) Bulky and heavy
31
Series Resonant Circuit
The equivalent circuit of a single-stage-test transformer alongwith its capacitive
load is shown in Fig. Here L1 represents the inductance of the voltage regulator
and the transformer primary, L the exciting inductance of the transformer, L2 the
inductance of the transformer secondary and C the capacitance of the load.
Normally inductance L is very large as compared to L1 and L2 and hence its
shunting effect can be neglected. Usually the load capacitance is variable and it is
possible that for certain loading, resonance may occur in the circuit suddenly and
the current will then only be limited by the resistance of the circuit and the
voltage across the test specimen may go up as high as 20 to 40 times the desired
value.
Under resonance, the output voltage will be
Where V is the supply voltage.

Since at resonance
where Q is the quality factor of the inductor which usually varies between 40 and 80. This
means that with Q = 40, the output voltage is 40 times the supply voltage. It also means
that the reactive power requirements of the load capacitance in kVA is 40 times the
power to be provided by the feed transformer in KW. This results in a relatively small
power rating for the feed transformer.
32
33
Tesla Coil (Generation of High Frequency a.c.
High Voltages)
A Tesla coil is a radio frequency oscillator that drives an air-core double-
tuned resonant transformer to produce high voltages at low currents
Tesla coils can produce output voltages from 50 kilovolts to several million volts
for large coils. The alternating current output is in the low radio frequency range,
usually between 50 kHz and 1 MHz
Although some oscillator-driven coils generate a continuous alternating current,
most Tesla coils have a pulsed output
the high voltage consists of a rapid string of pulses of radio frequency alternating
current.
The common spark-excited Tesla coil circuit, shown below, consists of these
components
1. A high voltage supply transformer (T), to step the AC mains voltage up to a
high enough voltage to jump the spark gap. Typical voltages are between 5 and
30 kilovolts (kV).[20]
2. A capacitor (C1) that forms a tuned circuit with the primary winding L1 of the
Tesla transformer
3. A spark gap (SG) that acts as a switch in the primary circuit
4. The Tesla coil (L1, L2), an air-core double-tuned resonant transformer, which
generates the high output voltage.
5. Optionally, a capacitive electrode (top load) (E) in the form of a smooth metal
sphere or torus attached to the secondary terminal of the coil. Its large surface
area suppresses premature air breakdown and arc discharges, increasing the Q
factor and output voltage.
34
Primary coil:
● High circulating current. 100 Amps or more.

● flat coil, not cylinder
● 1/4 inch refrigerator tubing
● 10 Ga wire.
● various tap positions.
Spark gap:
● high current
● not too wide: .25 inch.
● needs quenching
● static:
● 2 carriage bolts
● multiple copper tube gaps with blower
● Rotary: sync or async
● triggered gap
35
Secondary Coil
● 1000 to 1300 turns of magnet wire (24g to 32g)
● PVC coil form . 3 to 8 inch diameter.
● 6:1 width to height
● Polyurethane first.
● Use a winding jig. very tedious.
● 3 finishing coats of poly. inside and out.
36
Capacitance Hat.
● A necessity
● Toroid best
● Sphere second best
● stores energy on successive cycles.
● can be too large or too small
● made from dryer duct and aluminum tape
● can buy spun aluminum toroids.
37
The commonly used high frequency resonant transformer is the Tesla coil, which
is a doubly tuned resonant circuit shown schematically in Fig. The primary
voltage rating is 10 kV and the secondary may be rated to as high as 500 to 1000
kV. The primary is fed from a d.c. or a.c. supply through the condenser Ci. A
spark gap G connected across the primary is triggered at the desired voltage V1
which induces a high self-excitation in the secondary. The primary and the
secondary windings (L1 and L2) are wound on an insulated former with no core
(air-cored) and are immersed in oil. The windings are tuned to a frequency of 10
to 100 kHz by means of the condensers C1 and C2
The output voltage V2 is a function of the parameters L1, L2, C1, C2 and the
mutual inductance M. Usually, the winding resistances will be small and contribute
only for damping of the oscillations.
The analysis of the output waveform can be done in a simple manner neglecting
the winding resistances. Let the condenser C1 be charged to a voltage V1 when
the spark gap is triggered. Let a current i1 flow through the primary winding L1
and produce a current i2 through L2 and C2
38
39
A more simplified analysis for the Tesla coil may be presented by considering that
the energy stored in the primary circuit in the capacitance C1 is transferred to C2
via the magnetic coupling. If W1 is the energy stored in C1 and W2 is the energy
transferred to C2 and if the efficiency of the transformer is η, then
It can be shown that if the coefficient of coupling K is large the oscillation

frequency is less, and for large values of the winding resistances and K, the
waveform may become a unidirectional impulse. This is shown in the next
sections while dealing with the generation of switching surges.
40
Generation of Impulse Voltages
DEFINITIONS
 An impulse voltage is a unidirectional voltage which, rises rapidly to a maximum
value and falls more or less rapidly to zero.
 The maximum value is called the peak value of the impulse.
 A full impulse voltage is characterized by its peak value and its two time intervals,
the wave front and wave tail time intervals.
 The wave front time is specified as 1.25 times (t2 – t1), where t2 is the time for
the wave to reach to its 90% of the peak value and t1 is the time to reach 10% of
the peak value.
 Wave tail time is measured between the nominal starting point t0 and the point
on the wave tail where the voltage is 50% of the peak value i.e. wave tail time is
expressed as (t3 – t0).
Impulse Wave
V  V0 [exp( t )  exp(   t )

 The tolerances allowed in the front and tail durations are ±30% and ±20% respectively
 The tolerance allowed in the peak value is ±3%
 The standard lightning impulse wave has a front duration of 1.2 μs and a wave tail
duration of 50 μs, and is described as a 1.2/50 μs wave.
 The definition of the front and tail is as described in the IEC 60060 standard
41
IMPULSE GENERATOR CIRCUITS
Two simplified but more practical forms of impulse generator

circuits are shown in Fig. 6.10 (a) and (b).
Fig. Simplified equivalent circuit of an impulse generator
 The two circuits are widely used and differ only in the position of
the wave tail control resistance R2.
 When R2 is on the load side of R1 (Fig. a) the two resistances form
a potential divider which reduces the output voltage
 But when R2 is on the generator side of R1 (Fig. b) this particular
loss of output voltage is absent.
 The impulse capacitor C1 is charged through a charging resistance
to a d.c. voltage Vo
 And then discharged by flashing over the switching gap with a
pulse of suitable value.
 The desired impulse voltage appears across the load capacitance
C2.
 The value of the circuit elements determines the shape of the
output impulse voltage.
42
ANALYSIS OF CIRCUIT ‘a’
The output voltage
where
The front wave time and the tail wave time can be determined approximately
The time for wave front
The time for wave tail
43
Multistage Impulse Generators
In the above discussion, the generator capacitance C1 is to be first charged and

then discharged into the wave shaping circuits. A single capacitor C1 may be used
for voltages up to 200 kV. Beyond this voltage, a single capacitor and its charging
unit may be too costly, and the size becomes very large. The cost and size of the
impulse generator increases at a rate of the square or cube of the voltage rating.
Hence, for producing very high voltages, a bank of capacitors are charged in
parallel and then discharged in series. The arrangement for charging the
capacitors in parallel and then connecting them in series for discharging was
originally proposed by Marx.
Fig . Schematic diagram of Marx circuit arrangement for multistage impulse generator
The schematic diagram of Marx circuit and its modification are shown in Fig.
Usually the charging resistance Rs is chosen to limit the charging current to about
50 to 100 mA, and the generator capacitance C is chosen such that the product
CRs is about 10 s to 1 min. The gap spacing is chosen such that the breakdown
voltage of the gap G is greater than the charging voltage V. Thus, all the
capacitances are charged to the voltage V in about 1 minute. When the impulse
generator is to be discharged, the gaps G are made to spark over simultaneously
by some external means. Thus, all the capacitors C get connected in series and
discharge. into the load capacitance or the test object. The discharge time
constant CR1/n (for n stages) will be very very small (microseconds), compared to
the charging time constant CRs which will be few seconds. Hence, no discharge
takes place through the charging resistors Rs. In the Marx circuit is of Fig . the
impulse wave shaping circuit is connected externally to the capacitor uni.
44
45
TRIPPING AND CONTROL OF IMPULSE
GENERATORS
In large impulse generators, the spark gaps are generally sphere gaps or gaps formed by hemispherical
electrodes. The gaps are arranged such that sparking of one gap results in automatic sparking of other gaps
as overvoltage is impressed on the other. In order to have consistency in sparking, irradiation from an ultra-
violet lamp is provided from the bottom to all the gaps.
To trip the generator at a predetermined time, the spark gaps may be mounted on a movable frame, and the
gap distance is reduced by moving the movable electrodes closer. This method is difficult and does not
assure consistent and controlled tripping.
A simple method of controlled tripping consists of making the first gap a three
electrode gap and firing it from a controlled source. Figure gives the schematic
arrangement of a three electrode gap. The first stage of the impulse generator is
fitted with a three electrode gap, and the central electrode is maintained at a
potential in between that of the top and the bottom electrodes with the resistors
R\ and RL. The tripping is initiated by applying a pulse to the thyratron G by
closing the switch S. The capacitor C produces an exponentially decaying pulse of
positive polarity. The pulse goes and initiates the oscillograph time base. The
thyratron conducts on receiving the pulse from the switch S and produces a
negative pulse through the capacitance Ci at the central electrode of the three
electrode gap. Hence, the voltage between the central electrode and the top
electrode of the three electrode gap goes above its sparking potential and thus
the gap conducts. The time lag required for the thyratron firing and breakdown of
the three electrode gap ensures that the sweep circuit of the oscillograph begins
before the start of the impulse generator voltage. The resistance R2 ensures
decoupling of voltage oscillations produced at the spark gap entering the
oscilloscope through the common trip circuit.
46
Assignment-Unit 3
1. Explain the working of cockroft-walton voltage
multiplier circuit under unloaded and loaded
conditions
2. Describe the construction and working principle of
vande graff generator with neat sketch
47
Part-A 2 Marks Questions
1. What are the different forms of high voltages? (CO3-K1)

• High DC voltages
• High ac voltages of power frequency
• High ac voltages of high frequency
• High transient or impulse voltage of very short duration
• Transient voltages of longer duration such as switching surges.
2. What are the applications of high voltages? (CO3-K1)
• Electron microscopes and x-ray units in the order of 100KV or more.
• Electrostatic precipitators
• Testing purposes to simulate over voltages due to lighning and switching.
3. Name the methods used to generate High voltage DC. (CO3-K1)
• Half and full wave rectifier
• Voltage doubler circuit
• Voltage multiplier circuit
• Van de Graff generator
4. Write the basic principle of Electrostatic machines. (CO3-K1)
In electrostatic machines, current carrying conductors are moved in a magnetic
field, so that the mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
5. What are the advantages of Van de graff generator? (CO3-K1)
• Very high DC voltage
• Ripple free output
• Precision and flexible of control
6. What are the limitations of Van de graff generator? (CO3-K1)
• Low current output.
• Limitations on belt velocity due to vibration.
• It is difficult to have an accurate grading of electric fields
48
7. What are the methods to generate High alternating voltages?
(CO3-K1)
• Cascaded Transformers
• Resonant Transformers
8. What are the advantages of using cascade transformer with isolating transformer?
(CO3-K1)
• Natural cooling is sufficient.
• Transformer are compact in size
• Constructional is identical
• Three phase connection in star or delta is possible
9. What are the advantages of resonant transformers?
(CO3-K1)
• It gives an output of pure sine wave
. • Power requirement is less.
• No high power arcing and heavy current surges occur.
• Cascading is also possible for very high voltages.
• Simple and compact test arrangement.
10. What are the advantages of High frequency ac transformers? (CO3-K1)
• The absence of iron core in transformers and hence saving in cost and size
. • Pure sine wave output.
• Slow build up of voltage over a few cycles and hence no damage due to
switching surge
11. Define front time.
It is the time required for the response to raise from 10% to 90% or o to 100%
of the final value at the very first instant.
12. What are the components of multi-stage impulse generator?
• DC charging set
• Charging resistor
• Generator capacitor or spark gap
• Wave shaping resistors and capacitors
• Trigerring system
• Voltage dividers
• Gas insulated impulse generators
49
Part-B 13 marks Questions
1. a)Mention the necessity of generating high DC Voltages (CO3-K1)

b) Describe the construction and working principle of vande graff
generator with neat sketch (CO3-K1)
2. Explain the working of cockroft-walton voltage multiplier circuit
under unloaded and loaded conditions (CO3-K2)
3. Derive the expression for total voltage drop and total voltage
ripple of n-stage multiplier circuit and hence deduce the condition
for optimum number of stages (CO3-K2)
4. Explain the working principle of parallel resonant transformer
(CO3-K1)
5. Explain the cascaded transformer method of HVAC Generation
(CO3-K1)
6. Explain the operation of basic impulse generator (CO3-K1)
7. Give the complete analysis of the given impulse circuit and derive
the condition for physical realization of wave front and wave tail
resistances (CO3-K1)
8. What is Tesla coil? How the Damped high frequency oscillations

are obtained from Tesla coil? (CO3-K1)
50
Part C- 15 marks questions
PART-C (15 Marks)

1. A Cockroft Walton type voltage multiplier has eight stages with capacitances all
equal to 0.05 micro farads. The supply transformer secondary voltage is 125 KV
at a frequency of 125 Hz. If the load current to be supplied is 4.5 mA. Find
a) the % ripple (CO3-K3)
b) the regulation
c) the optimum number of stages for minimum regulation of voltage drop
2. A 100 kVA 250 V/200 kV feed transformer has resistance and reactance of 1%
and 5% respectively. This transformer is used to test a cable at 400 kV at 50 Hz.
The cable takes a charging current of 0.5 A at 400 kV. Determine the series
inductance required. Assume 1% resistance of the inductor. Also determine input
voltage to the transformer. Neglect dielectric loss of the cable. (CO3-K3)
3. A six-stage impulse generator designed to generate the standard waveform

(1.2/50 mocrS) has a per stage capacitance of 0.06microF to be used to test
transformers with an equivalent winding to earth capacitance of 1nF. A peak
output voltage of 550 kV is required for testing the transformer. Thewavefront
time is to be defined based on 30% and 90% values. With the aid of appropriate
calculations select the values of the resistive elements in the circuit to produce
the required waveform. State any assumptions made (CO3-K3)
51
course
circuit
52
There are various applications of high d.c. voltages in industries, research medical
sciences etc. HVDC transmission over both overhead lines and underground
cables is becoming more and more popular. HVDC is used for testing HVAC cables
of long lengths as these have very large capacitance and would require very large
values of currents if tested on HVAC voltages. Even though D.C. tests on A.C.
cables is convenient and economical, these suffer from the fact that the stress
distribution within the insulating material is different from the normal operating
condition. In industry it is being used for electrostatic precipitation of ashing in
thermal power plants, electrostatic painting, cement industry, communication
systems etc. HVDC is also being used extensively in physics for particle
acceleration and in medical equipments (X-Rays)
Test transformers normally used for the purpose have low power rating but high
voltage ratings. These transformers are mainly used for short time tests on high
voltage equipments
53
Thank you
Disclaimer:
54

Created by: 1) K.GUNALAN

R.M.K College of Engineering and Technology
2) K.Praveen Kumar Reddy M.E (Ph.D) Assistant

Professor/EEE
3)Ms.SABARI L.UMA MAHESWARI M.E(Ph.D), Assistant

Professor/EEE
RMK Engineering College
4
Table of Contents
Page
S. No. TOPIC
No.
2 Pre Requisites 8
3 Syllabus 9
7 CO/PO Mapping 12
8 CO/PSO Mapping 12
UNIT – 4 –MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND HIGH

CURRENTS
9 Lecture Plan 13
10 E-Book 14
11 Video Links 15
Measurement of High Voltages
12 17
13 Potential Dividers for dc voltages 19
14 Generating Voltmeter 21
Measurement of High Ac voltages
15 22
16 Spark gaps 31
17 Potential dividers for impulse voltages measurement 35

18 Measurement of High DC current 39
19 Rogoswki coil 45
20 Impulse current measurement 46
21 Problems 50
5
Table of Contents
Page
S. No. TOPIC
No.
25 Assignment 57

27 59
6
Course Objectives

methods.

7

8
SYLLABUS
EE8701 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING L T PC
3003
OBJECTIVES:
methods.
•Generation of over voltages in laboratories.
•Measurement of over voltages.
•Nature of Breakdown mechanism in solid, liquid and gaseous dielectrics.
•Testing of power apparatus and insulation coordination
equipments.
UNIT III GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND HIGH
CURRENTS
cabilitys.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
9
COURSE OUTCOME

Knowledge
voltage to be generated for testing an apparatus
of a particular rated voltage
CO5 Understand process of testing of various power K2
system apparatus
coordination and apply the same for fixing the BIL
of an apparatus
10
a.Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
b.Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
c.Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex
d.Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based
conclusions.
e.Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
limitations.
f.The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
g.Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
h.Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
i.Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
j.Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
k.Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
l.Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and
11
(PSOs)
structure.
PSO 2 : Use the modern tools for implementing the solutions to engineering
problems that can arise in the fields of Electrical, Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineering along with Information Technology Services.
PSO 3 : Face the challenges in the society by adopting the non-conventional

energy resources and utilizing the modern technologies for energy efficient
transmission and power quality improvement delivering clean energy for the
wellbeing of the mankind.
COs PO PSO
CO1 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 - - - - 2 2 - -
CO2 3 2 1 2 1 2 2 - - - - 2 2 - -
CO3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - 2 3 1 -
CO4 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - 2 3 2 1
CO5 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - 2 2 3 1
CO6 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - 2 2 - -
12
UNIT-I
LECTURE PLAN

Peri Date ing level
ods CO
High Resistance with Power Point

1 series ammeter CO4 K1Presentation
Dividers, Resistance CO4 Power

2 Divider K2 Point
Presentation
Capacitance and CO4
Mixed potential Power Point
3 Divider K2 Presentation
Peak Voltmeter CO4

Power
Generating
4 K1 Point
voltmeter
Presentation
CO4 Power
Capacitance voltage
5 K2 Point
transformer
Presentation
Electrostatic CO4 Power
6 voltmeter K2 Point
Presentation
CO4 Power Point
Sphere gap
7. K2 Presentation
High current shunt CO4 Power Point

8. K2 Presentation
CO4 Power
Digital techniques
9. in high voltage K2 Point
measurement Presentation
13
E Books
14
VIDEO LINKS
TITLE LINK
Introduction to high voltage https://youtu.be/D-OZJkk51Jw
measurement
Series resistance Micro https://youtu.be/w-D5gqfB0kE

ammeter
HV measurement using https://youtu.be/7Tnyj34zyMY

potential dividers
Generating voltmeter https://youtu.be/lG7DtyqDkC4
Electrostatic Voltmeter https://youtu.be/DozBX3mn9v0
Chubb Fortescue peak https://youtu.be/CN-wdyDpczI

Voltmeter
Sphere gap https://youtu.be/dOxgaH_YDL0
15
UNIT -4
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH
VOLTAGES AND CURRENT
16
Measurement of High voltages
Measurement of high d.c. voltages as in low voltage measurements, is generally
accomplished by extension of meter range with a large series resistance. The net
current in the meter is usually limited to one to ten microamperes for full-scale
deflection. For very high voltages (1000 kV or more) problems arise due to large
power dissipation, leakage currents and limitation of voltage stress per unit
length, change in resistance due to temperature variations, etc. Hence, a
resistance potential divider with an electrostatic voltmeter is sometimes better
when high precision is needed. But potential dividers also suffer from the
disadvantages stated above. Both series resistance meters and potential dividers
cause current drain from the source.
Generating voltmeters are high impedance devices and do not load the source.
They provide complete isolation from the source voltage (high voltage) as they
are not directly connected to the high voltage terminal and hence are safer. Spark
gaps such as sphere gaps are gas discharge devices and give an accurate
measure of the peak voltage. These are quite simple and do not require any
specialized construction.
High Ohmic Series Resistance with Micro ammeter
High d.c. voltages are usually measured by connecting a very high resistance (few
hundreds of mega ohms) in series with a micro ammeter as shown in Fig . Only
the current / flowing through the large calibrated resistance R is measured by the
moving coil micro ammeter. The voltage of the source is given by
V = IR
The voltage drop in the meter is negligible, as the impedance of the meter is only
few ohms compared to few hundred mega-ohms of the series resistance R. A
protective device like a paper gap, a neon glow tube, or a zener diode with a
suitable series resistance is connected across the meter as a protection against
high voltages in case the series resistance R fails or flashes over. The ohmic value
of the series resistance R is chosen such that a current of one to ten
microamperes is allowed for full-scale deflection. The resistance is constructed
from a large number of wire wound resistors in series. The voltage drop in each
resistor element is chosen to avoid surface flashovers and discharges.
SERIES RESIISTANCE MICROMETER
The limitations in the design are Power dissipation and source loading , Temperature
effects and long time stability , Voltage dependence of resistive elements, Sensitivity
to mechanical stresses .
Resistance Potential Dividers for D.C. Voltages
A resistance potential divider with an electrostatic or high impedance voltmeter is

shown in fig . The influence of temperature and voltage on the elements is
eliminated in the voltage divider arrangement. The high voltage magnitude is
given by [(R1+ R2)/R2]V2, where V2 is the d.c. voltage across the low voltage
arm R2. With sudden changes in voltage, such as switching operations, flashover
of the test objects, or source short circuits, flashover or damage may occur to the
divider elements due to the stray capacitance across the elements and due to
ground capacitances. To avoid these transient voltages, voltage controlling
capacitors are connected across the elements. A corona free termination is also
necessary to avoid unnecessary discharges at high voltage ends. A series resistor
with a parallel capacitor connection for linearization of transient potential
distribution is shown in Potential dividers are made with 0.05% accuracy up to
100 kV, with 0.1% accuracy up to 300 kV, and with better than 0.5% accuracy for
500 kV.
Generating Voltmeters
A generating voltmeter is a variable capacitor voltage generator which

generates current proportional to the voltage to be measured. It provides
loss free measurement of D.C and A.C voltages. It is driven by a
synchronous motor and does not absorb power or energy from the voltage
measuring source.
The charge stored in a capacitor of capacitance C is given by q = CV. If the
capacitance of the capacitor varies with time when connected to the source of
voltage and the current through the capacitor
I=dq/dt =V(dc/dt)+ c (dv/dt)
For d.c. voltages dV/dt = O. Hence, I =dq/dt =V (dc/dt)
If the capacitance C varies between the limits Co and (Co + Cm ) sinusoid ally
C=C0 +Cm sinɷt
Current I = im sinɷt where , im =V Cm ɷ
For a constant angular frequency to, the current is proportional to the applied
voltage V. More often, the generated current is rectified and measured by a
moving coil meter. Generating voltmeter can be used for a.c. voltage
measurements also provided the angular frequency ɷ is the same or equal to half
that of the supply frequency. A generating voltmeter with a rotating cylinder
consists of two excitation field electrodes and a rotating two pole armature driven
by a synchronous motor at a constant speed n. The a.c. current flowing between
the two halves of the armature is rectified by a commutator whose arithmetic
mean may be calculated from i= n /30 (∆CV)
This device can be used for measuring a.c. voltages provided the speed of the drive-
motor is half the frequency of the voltage to be measured. Thus a four-pole
synchronous motor with 1500 rpm is suitable for 50 Hz. For peak value
measurements, the phase angle of the motor must also be so adjusted that Cmax
and the crest value occur at the same instant. Generating voltmeters employ
rotating sectors or vanes for variation of capacitance. Figure . gives a schematic
diagram of a generating voltmeter. The high voltage source is connected to a disc
electrode S3 which is kept at a fixed distance on the axis of the other low voltage
electrodes S0 ,S1, S2 .The rotor S0 driven at a constant speed by a synchronous
motor at a suitable speed (1500,1800,3000, or 3600 rpm).
The rotor vanes of S0 cause periodic change in capacitance between the insulated
disc S2 and the h.v. electrode S3.. The shape and number of the vanes of S0 and S1
are so designed that they produce sinusoidal variation in the capacitance. The
generated a.c. current through the resistance R is rectified and read by a moving
coil instrument An amplifier is needed, if the shunt capacitance is large or longer
leads are used for connection to rectifier and meter. The instrument is calibrated
using a potential divider or sphere gap. The meter scale is linear and its range can
be extended by extrapolation
Advantages of Generating Voltmeters

No source loading by the meter,
No direct connection to high voltage electrode,
scale is linear and extension of range is easy, and
A very convenient instrument for electrostatic devices such as Van de Graaff
Generator and particle accelerators
Limitations
Requires calibration , careful construction and disturbance in position will effect
calibration
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH A.C. AND IMPULSE VOLTAGES
The voltage V2 (meter voltage) will be in phase with the input voltage V1
Capacitance potential divider
Capacitive voltage transformer (CVT) Equivalent circuit

The phasor diagram of CVT under resonant conditions is shown in Fig
The meter is taken as a resistive load, and Xm’ is neglected. The voltage across the
load referred to the divider side will be V2’ = (Im’ +Rm’) and VC2 = V2’ + Im (Xe +Re) .
It is clear from the phasor diagram that V1 (input voltage) = (VC1 +VC2) and is in
phase with V2’, the voltage across the meter. Re and Xe the potential transformer
resistance and leakage reactance. Under this condition, the voltage ratio becomes
a = (V1 /V2 ) =( Vc1 + VRi + V2’ )/V2’

natural frequency of the moving system,
resonant frequency of the lead and stray inductances with meter capacitance,
and
the R-C behavior of the retaining or control spring (due to the frictional
resistance and elastance).
An upper frequency limit of about one MHz is achieved in careful designs. The
accuracy for a.c. voltage measurements is better than ±0.25%, and for d.c.
voltage measurements it may be ±0.1% or less.
Absolute electrostatic voltmeter m — mirror Light beam arrangement

M —Mounting plate B —Balance
G —Guard plate C —Capacitance divider
F — Fixed plate D — Dome
H —Guard hoops or rings R — Balancing weight
The schematic diagram of an absolute electrostatic voltmeter or electrometer is

given in Fig.. It consists of parallel plane disc type electrodes separated by a small
distance. The moving electrode is surrounded by a fixed guard ring to make the
field uniform in the central region. In order to measure the given voltage with
precision, the disc diameter is to be increased, and the gap distance is to be made
less. The limitation on the gap distance is the safe working stress (V/s) allowed in
air which is normally 5 kV/cm or less.
The main difference between several forms of voltmeters lies in the manner in which
the restoring force is obtained. For conventional versions of meters, a simple spring
control is used, which actuates a pointer to move on the scale of the instruments. In
more versatile instruments, only small movements of the moving electrodes is
allowed, and the movement is amplified through optical means (lamp and scale
arrangement as used with moving coil galvanometers). Two air vane dampers are
used to reduce vibrational tendencies in the moving system, and the elongation of
the spring is kept minimum to avoid field disturbances. The range of the instrument
is easily changed by changing the gap separation so that V/s or electric stress is the
same for the maximum value in any range. Multi-range instruments are constructed
for 600 W rms and above The constructional details of an absolute electrostatic
voltmeter is given in Fig. The control torque is provided by a balancing weight .The
moving disc M forms the central core of the guard ring G which is of the same
diameter as the fixed plate F. The cap D encloses a sensitive balance B, one arm of
which carries the suspension of the moving di sc.
The balance beam carries a mirror which reflects a beam of light. The movement of
the disc is thereby magnified. As the spacing between the two electrodes is large,
the uniformity of the electric field is maintained by the guard rings H which surround
the space between the discs F and M. The guard rings H are maintained at a
constant potential in space by a capacitance divider ensuring a uniform special
potential distribution Some instruments are constructed in an enclosed structure
containing compressed air, carbon dioxide, or nitrogen. The gas pressure may be of
the order of I5 atm. Working stresses as high as 100 kV/cm may be used in an
electrostatic meter in vacuum. With compressed gas or vacuum as medium, the
meter is compact and much smaller in size.
Series Capacitor Peak Voltmeter or Chubb-Frotscue method
In determining the error, the actual value of the angular frequency co has to be
determined.
The different sources that contribute to the error are the effective value of the
capacitance being different from the measured value of C
Imperfect rectifiers which allow small reverse currents
Non-sinusoidal voltage waveforms with more than one peak or maxima per half
cycle
Deviation of the frequency from that of the value used for calibration
Spark Gaps for Measurement of High d.c., a.c. and Impulse

Voltages (Peak Values)
A uniform field spark gap will always have a spark over voltage within a known
tolerance under constant atmospheric conditions. Hence a spark gap can be used
for measurement of the peak value of the voltage, if the gap distance is known. A
spark over voltage of 30 kV (peak) at 1 cm spacing in air at 2O*C and 760 torr
pressure occurs for a sphere gap . Normally, only sphere gaps are used for
voltage measurements. In certain cases uniform field gaps and rod gaps are also
used, but their accuracy is less.
The sphere gap method of measuring high voltage is the most reliable and is used
as the standard for calibration purposes. The breakdown strength of a gas depends
on the ionization of the gas molecules, and on the density of the gas. As such, the
breakdown voltage varies with the gap spacing; and for a uniform field gap, a high
consistency could be obtained, so that the sphere gap is very useful as a measuring
device. By precise experiments, the breakdown voltage variation with gap spacing,
for different diameters and distances, have been calculated and represented in
charts. In the measuring device, two metal spheres are used, separated by a gas-
gap. The potential difference between the spheres is raised until a spark passes
between them. The breakdown strength of a gas depends on the size of the
spheres, their distance apart and a number of other factors.
A spark gap may be used for the determination of the peak value of a voltage wave,
and for the checking and calibrating of voltmeters and other voltage measuring
devices. The density of the gas (generally air) affects the spark-over voltage for a
given gap setting. Thus the correction for any air density change must be made. The
air density correction factor δ=0.386P/(273+t) .The spark over voltage for a given
gap setting under the standard conditions (760 torr pressure and at 20*C) must be
multiplied by the correction factor to obtain the actual spark-over voltage.
The breakdown voltage of the sphere gap is almost independent of humidity of the
atmosphere, but the presence of dew on the surface lowers the breakdown voltage
and hence invalidates the calibrations.
The breakdown voltage characteristic has been determined for similar pairs of
spheres (diameters 62.5 mm, 125 mm, 250 mm, 500 mm, 1 m and 2 m) When the
gap distance is increased, the uniform field between the spheres becomes distorted,
and accuracy falls.
The limits of accuracy are dependent on the ratio of the spacing d to the sphere
diameter D, as follows. d < 0.5 D, accuracy = ± 3 %; 0.75 D > d > 0.5 D, accuracy
= ± 5 % For accurate measurement purposes, gap distances in excess of 0.75D are
not used.
The breakdown voltage characteristic is also dependent on the polarity of the high
voltage sphere in the case of asymmetrical gaps (i.e. gaps where one electrode is at
high voltage and the other at a low voltage or earth potential). If both electrodes
are at equal high voltage of opposite polarity (i.e. + ½ V and - ½ V), as in a
symmetrical gap, then the polarity has no effect. The fig shows these breakdown
voltage variations. In the case of the symmetrical gap, there are two breakdown
characteristics; one for the positive high voltage and the other for the negative high
voltage. Since the breakdown is caused by the flow of electrons, when the high
voltage electrode is positive, a higher voltage is generally necessary for breakdown
than when the high voltage electrode is negative. However, when the gaps are very
far apart, then the positive and the negative characteristics cross over due to various
space charge effects. But this occurs well beyond the useful operating region. Under
alternating voltage conditions, breakdown will occur corresponding to the lower
curve (i.e. in the negative half cycle under normal gap spacing's). Thus under
normal conditions, the a.c. characteristic is the same as the negative characteristic.
In sphere gaps used in measurement, to obtain high accuracy, the minimum
clearance to be maintained between the spheres and the neighboring bodies and
the diameter of shafts are also specified, since these also affect the accuracy
(figure). There is also a tolerance specified for the radius of curvature of the
spheres. "The length of any diameter shall not differ from the correct value by more
than 1% for spheres of diameter up to 100 cm or more than 2% for larger spheres".
Peak values of voltages may be measured from 2 kV up to about 2500 kV by means
of spheres. One sphere may be earthed with the other being the high voltage
electrode, or both may be supplied with equal positive and negative voltages with
respect to earth (symmetrical gap). When spark gaps are to be calibrated using a
standard sphere gap, the two gaps should not be connected in parallel. Equivalent
spacing should be determined by comparing each gap in turn with a suitable
indicating instrument.
Needle gaps may also be used in the measurement of voltages up to about 50 kV,
but errors are caused by the variation of the sharpness of the needle gaps, and by
the corona forming at the points before the gap actually sparks over. Also the effect
of the variation of the humidity of the atmosphere on such gaps is much greater.
Usually, a resistance is used in series with the sphere gap, of about 1ohm/V spark
over conditions to about a maximum of 1 A
However for impulse measurements, a series resistance must not be used since this
causes a large drop across the resistance. In measuring impulse voltages, since the
breakdown does not occur at exactly the same value of voltage each time, what is
generally specified is the 50 % breakdown value. A number of impulses of the same
value is applied and a record is kept of the number of times breakdown occurs, and
a histogram is plotted with the peak value of the impulse voltage and the
percentage of breakdown
Factors Influencing the Spark over Voltage of Sphere Gaps
Various factors that affect the spark over voltage of a sphere gap are:
nearby earthed objects,
atmospheric conditions and humidity,
irradiation, and
polarity and rise time of voltage waveforms
Potential Dividers for Impulse Voltage Measurements

Potential or voltage dividers for high voltage impulse measurements, high frequency
max. measurements, or for fast rising transient voltage measurements are usually
either resistive or capacitive or mixed element type. The low voltage arm of the
divider is usually connected to a fast recording oscillograph or a peak reading
instrument through a delay cable. A schematic diagram of a potential divider with its
terminating equipment is given in Fig. . Z 1is usually a resistor or a series of
resistors in case of a resistance potential divider, or a single or a number of
capacitors in case of a capacitance divider. It can also be a combination of both
resistors and capacitors. Z2 will be a resistor or a capacitor or an R-C impedance
depending upon the type of the divider. Each element in the divider, in case of high
voltage dividers, has a self resistance or capacitance. In addition, the resistive
elements have residual inductances, a terminal stray capacitance to ground, and
terminal to terminal capacitances
When a step or fast rising voltage is applied at the high voltage terminal, the voltage
developed across the element Z2 will not have the true waveform as that of the
applied voltage. The cable can also introduce distortion in the wave shape. The
following elements mainly constitute the different errors in the measurement:
residual inductance in the elements;
stray capacitance occurring
between the elements,
from sections and terminals of the elements to ground,
from the high voltage lead to the elements or sections;
the impedance errors due to
connecting leads between the divider and the test objects, and
ground return leads and extraneous current in ground leads; and
parasitic oscillations due to lead and cable inductances and capacitance of high
voltage terminal to ground.
Resistive Dividers
The resistance potential dividers are the first to appear because of their simplicity of
construction, less space requirements, less weight and easy portability. These can be
placed near the test object which might not always be confined to one location. The
length of the divider depends upon two or three factors. The maximum voltage to
be measured is the first and if height is a limitation, the length can be based on a
surface flash over gradient in the order of 3–4 kV/cm irrespective of whether the
resistance R1 is of liquid or wire wound construction. The length also depends upon
the resistance value but this is implicitly bound up with the stray capacitance of the
resistance column, the product of the two (RC) giving a time constant the value of
which must not exceed the duration of the wave front it is required to record. It is to
be noted with caution that the resistance of the potential divider should be matched
to the equivalent resistance of a given generator to obtain a given wave shape.
Capacitive Dividers
Capacitance potential dividers are more complex than the resistance type. For
measurement of impulse voltages not exceeding 1 MV capacitance dividers can be
both portable and transportable. In general, for measurement of 1 MV and over, the
capacitance divider is a laboratory fixture. The capacitance dividers are usually made
of capacitor units mounted one above the other and bolted together.
It is this failure which makes the small dividers portable. A screening box similar to
that described earlier can be used for housing both the low voltage capacitor unit C2
and the matching resistor if required. The low voltage capacitor C2 should be non-
inductive. A form of capacitor which has given excellent results is of mica and tin foil
plate, construction, each foil having connecting tags coming out at opposite corners.
This ensures that the current cannot pass from the high voltage circuit to the delay
cable without actually going through the foil electrodes. It is also important that the
coupling between the high and low voltage arms of the divider be purely capacitive.
Hence, the low voltage arm should contain one capacitor only; two or more
capacitors in parallel must be avoided because of appreciable inductance that would
thus be introduced. Further, the tappings to the delay cable must be taken off as
close as possible to the terminals of C2.
Mixed R-C Potential Dividers

Mixed potential dividers use R-C elements in series or in parallel. One method is to
connect capacitance in parallel with each R'\ element This is successfully employed
for voltage dividers of rating 2 MV and above. A better construction is to make an R-
C series element connection. The equivalent circuit of such a construction is shown
in Fig. Such dividers are made for 5 MV with response times less than 30 n s. The
low voltage arm R2 is given ―L peaking" by connecting a variable inductance L in
series with R2- The step response of the divider and the schematic connection of
low voltage arm are shown in Fig. . However, for a correctly designed voltage divider
L peaking will not be necessary.
Measurement of High Direct Currents
High currents are used in power system for testing circuit breakers, cables lightning
arresters etc. and high currents are encountered during lightning discharges,
switching transients and shunt faults. These currents require special techniques for
their measurements.
High Direct Currents
Low resistance shunts are used for measurement of these currents. The voltage
drop across the shunt resistance is measured with the help of a milli-voltmeter. The
value of the resistance varies usually between 10 micro ohm and 13 milliohm. This
depends upon the heating effect and the loading permitted in the circuit. The
voltage drop is limited to a few millivolts usually less than 1 V. These resistances are
oil immersed and are made as three or four terminal resistances to provide separate
terminals for voltage measurement for better accuracy.
Hall Generators for D.C. Current Measurements
Hall effect is used to measure very high direct current. Whenever electric current
flows through a metal plate placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to it, Lorenz
force will deflect the electrons in the metal structure in a direction perpendicular to
the direction of both the magnetic field and the flow of current. The charge
displacement results in an e.m.f. in the perpendicular direction called the Hall
voltage. The Hall voltage is proportional to the current I, the magnetic flux density B
and inversely proportional to the plate thickness d i.e., VH = RBI/d where R is the
Hall coefficient which depends upon the material of the plate and temperature of the
plate. For metals the Hall coefficient is very small and hence semiconductor
materials are used for which the Hall coefficient is high.
When large d.c. currents are to be measured the current carrying conductor is
passed through an iron cored magnetic circuit (Fig. (b)). The magnetic field intensity
produced by the conductor in the air gap at a depth d is given by H =1/(2πd) The
Hall element is placed in the air gap and a small constant d.c. current is passed
through the element. The voltage developed across the Hall element is measured
and by using the expression for Hall voltage the flux density B is calculated and
hence the value of current I is obtained.
High Power Frequency Currents
High Power frequency currents are normally measured using current transformers as
use of low resistance shunts involves unnecessary power loss. Besides, the current
transformers provide isolation from high voltage circuits and thus it is safer to work
on HV circuits Fig. below shows a scheme for current measurements using current
transformers and electro-optical technique.
A voltage signal proportional to the current to be measured is produced and is

transmitted to the ground through the electro-optical device. Light pulses
proportional to the voltage signal are transmitted by a glass optical fibre bundle to
a photo detector and converted back into an analog voltage signal. The required
power for the signal convertor and optical device are obtained from suitable
current and voltage transformers.
High Frequency and Impulse Currents
In power system the amplitude of currents may vary between a few amperes to a
few hundred kilo amperes and the rate of rise of currents can be as high as 1010
A/sec and the rise time can vary between a few micro seconds to a few macro
seconds. Therefore, the device to be used for measuring such currents should be
capable of having a good frequency response over a very wide frequency band. The
methods normally employed are—(i) resistive shunts; (ii) elements using induction
effects; (iii) Faraday and Hall effect devices. With these methods the accuracy of
measurement varies between 1 to 10%. Fig. shows the circuit diagram of the most
commonly used method for high impulse current measurement
The voltage across the shunt resistance R due to impulse current i(t) is fed to the
oscilloscope through a delay cable D. The delay cable is terminated through an
impedance Z equal to the surge impedance of the cable to avoid reflection of the
voltage to be measured and thus true measurement of the voltage is obtained. Since
the dimension of the resistive element is large, it will have residual inductance L and
stray capacitance C. The inductance could be neglected at low frequencies but at
higher frequencies the inductive reactance would be comparable with the resistance
of the shunt. The effect of inductance and capacitance above 1 MHz usually should
be considered. The resistance values range between 10 micro ohm to a few
milliohms and the voltage drop is of the order of few volts. The resistive shunts used
for measurements of impulse currents of large duration is achieved only at
considerable expense for thermal reasons. The resistive shunts for impulse current
of short duration can be built with rise time of a few nano seconds of magnitude.
The resistance element can be made of parallel carbon film resistors or low
inductance wire resistors of parallel resistance wires or resistance foils
Assuming the stray capacitance to be negligibly small the voltage drop across the
shunt in complex frequency domain may be written as V(s) = I(s)[R + Ls] It is to be
noted that in order to have flat frequency response of the resistive element the stray
inductance and capacitance associated with the element must be made as small as
possible. In order to minimize the stray field effects following designs of the resistive
elements have been suggested and used
Bifilar flat strip shunt.
Co-axial tube or Park’s shunt
Co-axial squirrel cage shunt.
Bifilar Strip Shunt
The bifilar design (Fig. ) consists of resistor elements wound in opposite directions
and folded back, with both ends insulated by a teflon or other high quality
insulation. The voltage signal is picked up through a ultra high frequency (UHF)
coaxial connector. The shunt suffers from stray inductance associated with the
resistance element, and its potential leads are linked to a small pan of the magnetic
flux generated by the current that is measured. To overcome these problems,
coaxial shunts are chosen.
Coaxial Tubular or Park's Shunt
In the coaxial design (Fig.) the current is made to enter through an inner cylinder or
resistive element and is made to return through an outer conducting cylinder of copper or
brass. The voltage drop across the resistive element is measured between the potential
pick-up point and the outer case. The space between the inner and the outer cylinder is air
and hence acts like a pure insulator. With this construction, the maximum frequency limit is
about 1000 MHz and the response time is a few nanoseconds. The upper frequency limit is
governed by the skin effect in the resistive element. The coaxial tubular shunts were
constructed for current peaks up to 2OO kA; shunts constructed for current peaks as high as
200 kA with di/dt of about 5x 1010 A/s have induced voltages less than 5OVand the voltage
drop across the shunt was about 100 V.
Elements using Induction Effects( Rogowski coil)

If the current to be measured is flowing through a conductor which is surrounded by
a coil as shown in Fig., and M is the mutual inductance between the coil and the
conductor, the voltage across the coil terminals will be: v(t) = M(di/dt) Usually the
coil is wound on a non-magnetic former in the form of a toroid and has a large
number of turns, to have sufficient voltage induced which could be recorded. The
coil is wound criss-cross to reduce the leakage inductance. If M is the number of
turns of the coil, A the coil area and lm its mean length, the mutual inductance is
given by M =μ0NA/lm
Usually an integrating circuit RC is employed as shown in Fig. to obtain the output
voltage proportional to the current to be measured. The output voltage is given by
v0(t) =Mi(t)/(RC) Integration of v(t) can be carried out more elegantly by using an
appropriately wired operational amplifier. The frequency response of the Rogowski
coil is flat upto 100 MHz but beyond that it is affected by the stray electric and
magnetic fields and also by the skin effect.
Magnetic Links
These are used for the measurement of peak magnitude of the current flowing in a
conductor. These links consist of a small number of short steel strips on high
retentivity. The link is mounted at a known distance from the current carrying
conductor. It has been found through experiments that the remanant magnetism of
the link after impulse current of 0.5/5 micro sec shape passes through the conductor
is same as that caused by a direct current of the same peak value. Measurement of
the remanance possessed by the link after the impulse current has passed through
the conductor enables to calculate the peak value of the current. For accurate
measurements, it is usual to mount two or more links at different distances from the
same conductor. Because of its relative simplicity, the method has been used for
measurement of lightning current especially on transmission towers.
Other Techniques for Impulse Current Measurements
To measure the waveform of a large current in a EHV system an arrangement shown
in Fig. may be employed. A beam of light from a stabilized light source is passed
through a polarizer P1 to fall on a crystal F placed parallel to the magnetic field
produced by the current I. The light beam undergoes rotation of its plane of
polarization. After passing through the analyzer, the beam is focused on a
photomultiplier the output of which is fed to a CRO. The output beam is filtered
through a filter M, which allows only the monochromatic light The relation between
the oscillograph display and the current to be measured are complex but can be
determined. The advantages of this method are that 1) there is no electric
connection between the source and the device, (2) no thermal problems even for
large currents of several kilo amperes, and (3) as the signal transmission is through
an optical system, no insulation problems or difficulties arise for EHV systems.
However, this device does not operate for d.c. currents.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOGRAPHS FOR IMPULSE VOLTAGE
AND CURRENT MEASUREMENTS
Modern oscillo graphs are sealed tube hot cathode oscilloscopes with photographic
arrangement for recording the waveforms. The cathode ray oscilloscope for impulse
work normally has input voltage range from 5 m V/cm to about 20 V/cm. In
addition, there are probes and attenuators to handle signals up to 600 V (peak to
peak). The bandwidth and rise time of the oscilloscope should be adequate. Rise
times of 5 n s and bandwidth as high as 500 MHz may be necessary With rapidly
changing signals, it is necessary to initiate or start the oscilloscope time base before
the signal reaches the oscilloscope deflecting plates, otherwise a portion of the
signal may be missed. Such measurements require an accurate initiation of the
horizontal time base and is known as triggering. Oscilloscopes are normally provided
with both internal and external triggering facility. When external triggering is used,
as with recording of impulses, the signal is directly fed to actuate the time base and
then applied to the vertical or Y deflecting plates through a delay line. The delay is
usually 0.1 to 0.5 s. The delay is obtained by:
A long interconnecting coaxial cable 20 to 50 m long. The required triggering is

obtained from an antenna whose induced voltage is applied to the external trigger
terminal.
The measuring signal is transmitted to the CRO by a normal coaxial cable.
The delay is obtained by an externally connected coaxial long cable to give the
necessary delay. This arrangement is shown in Fig.
The impulse generator and the time base of the CRO are triggered from an
electronic tripping device. A first pulse from the device starts the CRO time base
and after a predetermined time a second pulse triggers the impulse generator.
Problems
Problems
Two Mark Questions
1.What is the Specialty of high voltage / current measurement? [CO4 K1]
Safety of men & materials.
Accuracy
Induction of over voltage, due to stray coupling.
Proper location.
Linear extrapolation not valid.
Electro magnetic interference.
2. Explain Different devices used for High DC voltages [CO4 K2]
Series resistance micro ammeter.
Resistance potential dividers
Generating of Voltmeters
Sphere gap & Spark gaps.
3. What are the various methods used for measurement of power
frequency AC voltages. [CO4 K1]
Series impedance ammeter.
Potential dividers, resistance or capacitive Type.
Potential Transformers electromagnetic or C. V. T.
4.What is the method available for measurement & High frequency AC
voltages or Impulse voltages or other rapidly rising voltages? [CO4 K1]
Potential dividers, resistance Type or capacitance Type with CRO.
Peak Voltmeter.
Sphere gaps.
5.What are the various methods available for measurement of High direct
currents? [CO4 K1]
Resistive shunt with mille ammeter
Hall effect generators,
Magnetic links
6.What are the methods available for measurement of High alternating
current? [CO4 K1]
Resistive shunts with milli ammeters

Electro magnetic current Transformers.
7.What are the Various methods of measurement of High Impulse currents
or High frequency ac or fast rising ac? [CO4 K1]
Resistive shunts
Magnetic pot cut meter.
Magnetic links
Hall Effect generators.
Faraday generators
8. What are the limitations of resistance potential dividers? [CO4 K1]
Power dissipation
Source loading
Temperature effect & long term stately
Sensitivity to Mechanical strain.
Direct connection to HV terminals
9. What is the principle of generating voltmeters? [CO4 K1]
It is a variable capacitance electrostatic voltage generator, generating current
proportional to the applied voltage. It does not absorb power from the voltage
measuring source. It is driven by external synchronous / constant speed motor.
10.What are the advantages of generating voltmeters? [CO4 K1]

No source loading
No direct contact with HV terminals.
Scale is linear & extension easy.
Very convenient, to measure voltages for Van de graff generators.
11.What are the limitations of generating voltmeters? [CO4 K1]
They require calibrations
Careful construction necessary
Disturbance in mounting make calibrations invalid.

12.What is the principle of a ‘Sphere gap’ for measurement of High
voltages? [CO4 K1]
A uniform field sphere gap will always have a spark over voltage within known
tolerance under constant atmospheric conditions. Hence it can be used for
measurement of the voltage wave form and hence suitable for all types of wave
forms, from dc to Impulse voltages of short 1MHz frequency.
13.What are the factors influencing the spark over voltage of a sphere
gap? [CO4 K1]
Nearby earthed object
Atmospheric conditions and humidity
irradiation
Polarity and rise time of voltage wave forms.

14.What are advantages of faraday generators [CO4 K1]
No electric connection between source and load
No thermal problems
Transmission is done through optical system. So no insulation problems
15.What are problems associated with impulse and very high frequency
voltage Measurements? [CO4 K1]
The magnitude of impulse voltages and currents are high
Their rise time is less

Part B
1. Explain various methods of high DC voltage measurements?

[CO4 K1]
2. Explain the methods to measure High AC voltages? [CO4 K1]
3. Explain the Peak Voltmeters with Potential Dividers [CO4 K1]
4. Explain the methods to measure impulse voltages? [CO4 K1]
5. Explain in detail about CRO for impulse voltage and current
measurement. [CO4 K1]
6.Explain various digital methods to measure high voltages [CO4 K1]
7. Explain how a sphere gap can measure the peak voltages? [CO4
K1]
8. Explain generating voltmeters in detail? [CO4 K1]
9. Explain how a CVT can be used to measure high AC voltages?
[CO4 K1]
Part C
1.A generating voltmeter is to read 250 kV with an indicating meter having a range
of (O - 20) μ.A calibrated accordingly. Calculate the capacitance of the generating
voltmeter when the driving motor rotates at a constant speed of 1500 r.p.m.
[CO4 K2]
2. Explain the necessity of earthing and shielding arrangements in impulse

measurements and in high voltage laboratories. Give a sketch of the multiple
shielding arrangements used for impulse voltage and current measurements.
[CO4 K1]
3. What are the usual sources of errors in measuring high impulse voltages by
resistance potential dividers? How are they eliminated? An impulse resistance divider
has a high voltage arm with a 5000 ohm resistance and the L.V. arm with a 5 ohm
resistance. If the oscilloscope is connected to the secondary arm through a cable of
surge impedance 75 ohms, determine, (i) the terminating resistance, and (ii) the
effective voltage ratio.
[CO4 K2]
Assignment
1. Analyse the characteristic and limitations of different resistive
shunts used for impulse current measurements [CO4 K3]
High voltage Engineering –NPTEL Web
based course
Protection and control of high
voltage power
circuit
58
In industrial testing and research laboratories, it is essential to measure the
voltages and currents accurately, ensuring perfect safety to the personnel and
equipment. Hence a person handling the equipment as well as the metering
devices must be protected against over voltages and also against any induced
voltages due to stray coupling. Therefore, the location and layout of the devices
are important. Secondly, linear extrapolation of the devices beyond their ranges
are not valid for high voltage meters and measuring instruments, and they have to
be calibrated for the full range. Electromagnetic interference is a serious problem
in impulse voltage and current measurements, and it has to be avoided or
minimized. Therefore, even though the principles of measurements may be same,
the devices and instruments for measurement of high voltages and currents differ
vastly from the low voltage and low current devices.
59
Thank you
Disclaimer:
HIGH VOLTAGEENGINEERING

Prepared by: K.Praveen Kumar Reddy M.E (Ph.D)

4
Table of Contents
Page
S. No. TOPIC
No.
2 Pre Requisites 8
3 Syllabus 9
7 CO/PO Mapping 12
8 CO/PSO Mapping 12
UNIT – 5 HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING
& INSULATION COORDINATION
9 Lecture Plan 13
10 E-Book 14
11 Video Links 15
High voltage testing of electrical power apparatus as per
12 17
International and Indian standards
13 Power frequency, impulse voltage and DC testing of 19
Insulators,
14 Testing of bushing 21
Testing of isolators and circuit breakers
15 22
16 Testing of transformers 31
17 Insulation Coordination 35
5
Table of Contents
Page
S. No. TOPIC
No.
25 Assignment 42

27 44
Activity Based Learning

28 45
6
Course Objectives
1. Various types of over voltages in power system and protection methods.

5. Testing of power apparatus
6. insulation coordination
7

8
SYLLABUS
EE8701 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING L T PC
3003
OBJECTIVES:
methods.
•Generation of over voltages in laboratories.
•Measurement of over voltages.
•Nature of Breakdown mechanism in solid, liquid and gaseous dielectrics.
•Testing of power apparatus and insulation coordination
UNIT I OVER VOLTAGES IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS
UNIT II DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN
equipments.
UNIT V HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING & INSULATION COORDINATION
cabilitys.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
9
COURSE OUTCOME

Knowledge
CO1 To impart knowledge on the following Topic K1
Understand Various types of over voltages in power
system and protection methods.
CO2 Breakdown Mechanism in Gases, Liquids, Solids K1

CO3 Generation of over voltages in laboratories. K2
CO4 Measurement of over voltages. K2
CO5 Testing of power apparatus K2
CO6 insulation coordination K2
10
a.Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
b.Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
c.Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex
d.Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based
conclusions.
e.Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
limitations.
f.The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
g.Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
h.Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
i.Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
j.Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
k.Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
l.Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and
11
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)
PSO 1: Analyze, design and implement control, instrumentation and power systems
for satisfying industry needs.
PSO 2 : Use modern tools and appropriate solutions for the real time problems for
promoting energy conservation and sustainability.
PSO 3 : Possess the capacity to embrace new opportunities of emerging

technologies, leadership and teamwork opportunities, all affording sustainable
engineering career in Electrical and Electronics related fields.
COs PO PSO
CO1 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 - - - - 2 3 2 2
CO2 3 2 1 2 1 2 2 - - - - 2 3 2 -
CO3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - 2 3 2 2
CO4 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - 2 3 2 2
CO5 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - 2 3 2 2
CO6 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - 2 3 2 2
12
UNIT-I
LECTURE PLAN

Peri Date ing level
ods CO
High voltage testing

of electrical power Power Point
1 apparatus as per CO4 K1Presentation
International and
Indian standards
Power frequency, CO4 Power
2 impulse voltage and K2 Point
DC testing of Presentation
Insulators,
CO4
Testing of bushing Power Point
3 K2 Presentation
Testing of isolators CO4

Power
and circuit breakers
4 K1 Point
Presentation
CO4 Power
Testing of
5 transformers K2 Point
Presentation
Insulation CO4 Power

6 Coordination K2 Point
Presentation
13
E Books
14
VIDEO LINKS
TITLE LINK
High voltage testing of https://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/high-voltage-tester.html
electrical power apparatus as
per International and Indian
standards
Power frequency, impulse https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4pTWi8jgqd0
voltage and DC testing of
Insulators,
Testing of bushing https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4pTWi8jgqd0
Testing of isolators and https://testguy.net/content/257-high-voltage-bushing-

circuit breakers maintenance-techniques
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U-xA6yvp1Wk
Testing of transformers
Insulation Coordination https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vCcvDZCJ6Ik
15
UNIT -5
HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING

& INSULATION COORDINATION
16
5. High Voltage Testing of Electrical Apparatus
5.1 Introduction
In High voltage operation, its mandatory to ensure that the electrical apparatus is capable
of withstanding over voltages. So testing of electrical equipment for overvoltage is
necessary.
The general terminology of the technical terms used is high voltage testing
(a) Disruptive Discharge Voltage
This is defined as the voltage which produces the loss of dielectric strength of an
insulation. It is that voltage at which the electrical stress in the insulation causes a failure
which includes the collapse of voltage and passage of current. In solids, this causes a
permanent loss of strength, and in liquids or gases only temporary loss may be caused.
When a discharge takes place between two electrodes in a gas or a liquid or over a solid
surface in air, it is called flashover. If the discharge occurs through a solid insulation, it is
called puncture.
(b) Withstand Voltage
The voltage which has to be applied to a test object under specified conditions in a
withstand test is called the withstand voltage.
(c) Fifty Per Cent Flashover Voltage
This is the voltage which has a probability of 50% flashover, when applied to a test object.
This is normally applied in impulse tests in which the loss of insulation strength is
temporary.
(d)Hundred Per Cent Flashover Voltage

The voltage that causes a flashover at each of its applications under specified conditions
when applied to test objects is specified as hundred per cent flashover voltage.
(e) Creepage Distance
It is the shortest distance on the contour of the external surface of the insulator unit or
between two metal fittings on the insulator.
(f) a.c Test Voltages
Alternating test voltages of power frequency should have a frequency range of 40 to 60 Hz
and should be approximately sinusoidal. The deviation allowed from the standard sine
curve is about 7%. The deviation is checked by measuring instantaneous values over
specified intervals and computing the rms value, the average value, and the form factor.
(g) Impulse Voltages
Impulse voltages are characterized by polarity, peak value, time to front (tf), and time to
half the peak value after the peak (tt). The time to front is defined as 1.67 times to time
between 30% and 90% of the peak value in the rising portion of the wave.
According to IS: 2071 (1973), standard impulse is defined as one with tf = 1.2μs, tt =
50μs (called 1/50μs wave). The tolerances allowed are ±3% on the peak value,
±30% in the front time (tf), and ±20% in the tail time (tt).
(h) Reference Atmospheric Conditions
The electrical characteristics of the insulators and other apparatus are normally
referred to the reference atmospheric conditions. According to the Indian Standard
Specifications, they are:
Temperature : 270C
Pressure : 1013 millibars (or 760 torr)
Absolute humidity : 17 gm/m3
Since it is not always possible to do tests under these reference conditions, correction
factors have to be applied. In some cases, the following test conditions are also used
as reference (British Standard Specifications) conditions.
Temperature : 2O0C
Pressure : 1013 millibars (760 Torr)
Absolute humidity : 11 g/m3 (65% relative humidity at 2O0C)
5.2 Tests on Insulators
The tests that are normally conducted are usually subdivided as

Type tests, and
Routine tests.
Type tests are intended to prove or check the design features and the quality. The
routine tests are intended to check the quality of the individual test piece.
Type tests are done on samples when new designs or design changes are introduced,
whereas the routine tests are done to ensure the reliability of the individual test
objects and quality and consistency of the materials used in their manufacture.
High voltage tests include

Power frequency tests, and
Impulse tests.
All the insulators are tested for both categories of test.
5.2.1 Power Frequency Tests
Dry and Wet Flashover Tests: In these tests the a.c. voltage of power frequency is
applied across the insulator and increased at a uniform rate of about 2 per cent per
second of 75% of the estimated test voltage, to such a value that a breakdown
occurs along the surface of the insulator. If the, test is conducted under normal
conditions without any rain or precipitation, it is called "dry flashover test". If the test
is done under conditions of rain, it is called "wet flashover test". In general, wet tests
are not intended to reproduce the actual operating conditions, but only to provide a
criterion based on experience that a satisfactory service operation will be obtained.
The test object is subjected to a spray of water of given conductivity by means of
nozzles. The spray is arranged such that the water drops fall approximately at an
inclination of 45° to the vertical. The test object is sprayed for at least one minute
before the voltage application, and the spray is continued during the voltage
application.
Wet and Dry Withstand Tests (One Minute) In these tests, the voltage specified in the
relevant specification is applied under dry or wet conditions for a period of one
minute with an insulator mounted as in service conditions. The test piece should
withstand the specified voltage.
5.2.2. Impulse Tests
(a) Impulse Withstand Voltage Test: This test is done by applying standard
impulse voltage of specified value under dry conditions with both positive and
negative polarities of the wave. If five consecutive waves do not cause a flashover or
puncture, the insulator is deemed to have passed the test. If two applications cause
flashover, the object is deemed to have failed. If there is only one failure, additional
ten applications of the voltage wave are made. If the test object has withstood the
subsequent applications, it is said to have passed the test.
(b) Impulse Flashover Test: The test is done as above with the specified voltage.
Usually, the probability of failure is determined for 40% and 60% failure values or
20% and 80% failure values, since it is difficult to adjust the test voltage for the
exact 50% flashover values. The average value of the upper and the lower limits is
taken. The insulator surface should not be damaged by these tests, but slight
marking on its surface or chipping off of the cement is allowed.
(c) Pollution Testing: Because of the problem of pollution of outdoor electrical

insulation and consequent problems of the maintenance of electrical power systems,
pollution testing is gaining importance.
The normal types of pollution are dust, micro-organisms, bird secretions, flies, etc.,
industrial pollution like smoke, petroleum vapours, dust, and other deposits, coastal
pollution in which corrosive and hygroscopic salt layers are deposited on the insulator
surfaces, desert pollution in which sand storms cause deposition of sand and dust
layers, ice and fog deposits at high altitudes and in polar countries.
These pollutions cause corrosion, non-uniform gradients along the insulator strings
and surface of insulators and also cause deterioration of the material. Also, pollution
causes partial discharges and radio interference. Hence, pollution testing is important
for extra high voltage systems.
At present there is no standard pollution test available. The popular test that is
normally done is the salt fog test. In this test, the maximum normal withstand
voltage is applied on the insulator and then artificial salt fog is created around the
insulator by jets of salt water and compressed air. If the flashover occurs within one
hour, the test is repeated with fog of lower salinity, otherwise, with a fog of higher
salinity. The maximum salinity at which the insulator withstands three out of four
tests without flashover is taken as the representative figure.
5.3 Testing of Bushings
5.3.1 Power Frequency Tests
(a) Power Factor—Voltage Test: In this test, the bushing is set up as in service or
immersed in oil. It is connected such that the line conductor goes to the high voltage
side and the tank or earth portion goes to the detector side of the high voltage
Schering bridge. Voltage is applied up to the line value in increasing steps and then
reduced. The capacitance and power factor (or tan δ) are recorded at each step. The
characteristic of power factor or tan δ versus applied voltage is drawn. This is a
normal routine test but sometimes may be conducted on percentage basis.
(b) Internal or Partial Discharge Test: This test is intended to find the
deterioration or failure due to internal discharges caused in the composite insulation
of the bushing. This is done by using internal or partial discharge arrangement. The
voltage versus discharge magnitude as well as the quadratic rate gives an excellent
record of the performance of the bushing in service. This is now a routine test for
high voltage bushings.
(c) Momentary Withstand Test at Power Frequency: This is done as per the
Indian Standard Specifications, IS: 2099, applied to bushings. The test voltage is
specified in the specifications. The bushing has to withstand without flashover or
puncture for a minimum time (~30s) to measure the voltage. At present this test is
replaced by the impulse withstand test.
(d) One Minute Wet Withstand Test at Power Frequency: The most common
and routine tests used for all electrical apparatuses are the one minute wet, and dry
voltage withstand tests. In wet test, voltage specified is applied to the bushing
mounted as in service with the rain arrangement as described earlier. A properly
designed bushing has to withstand the voltage without flashover for one minute. This
test really does not give any information for its satisfactory performance in service,
while impulse and partial discharge tests give more information.
5.4 TESTING OF ISOLATORS AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS
5.4.1 Introduction
In this section, the testing of isolators and circuit breakers is covered, giving common
characteristics for both. While these characteristics are directly relevant to the testing of
circuit breakers, they are not much relevant as far as the testing of isolators are concerned
since isolators are not used for interrupting high currents. At best, they interrupt small
currents of the order of 0.5 A (for rated voltages of 420 k V and below) which may be the
capacitive currents of bushings, bus bars etc. In fact, the definition of an Isolator or a
Disconnector as per IS: 9921 (Pan I) -1981 is as follows:
An isolator or a disconnector is a mechanical switching device, which provides in the open

position, an isolating distance in accordance with special requirements. An isolator is capable
of opening and closing a circuit when either negligible current is broken or made or when no
significant change in the voltage across the terminals of each of the poles of the isolator
occurs. It is also capable of carrying currents under normal circuit conditions, and carrying for
a specified time, currents under abnormal conditions such as those of a short circuit.
Thus, most of the discussion here refers to the testing of circuit breakers. Testing of circuit
breakers is intended to evaluate (a) the constructional and operational characteristics, and (b)
the electrical characteristics of the circuit which the switch or the breaker has to interrupt or
make. The different characteristics of a circuit breaker or a switch may be summarized as per
the following groups.
(i) (a) The electrical characteristics which determine the arcing voltage, the current chopping
characteristics, the residual current, the rate of decrease of conductance of the arc space and
the plasma, and the shunting effects in interruption.
(b) Other physical characteristics including the media in which the arc is extinguished, the
pressure developed or impressed at the point of interruption, the speed of the contact travel,
the number of breaks, the size of the arcing chamber, and the materials and configuration of
the circuit interruption.
(ii) The characteristics of the circuit include the degree of electrical loading, the normally
generated or applied voltage, the type of fault in the system which the breaker has to clear,
the time of interruption, the time constant, the natural frequency and the power factor of the
circuit, the rate of rise of recovery voltage, the restriking voltage, the decrease in the a.c.
component of the short circuit current, and the degree of asymmetry and the d.c. component
of the short circuit current.
To assess the above factors, the main tests conducted on the circuit breakers and isolator
switches are
(i) the dielectric tests or overvoltage tests,
(ii) the temperature rise tests,
(iii) the mechanical tests, and
(iv) the short circuit tests
Dielectric tests consist of overvoltage withstand tests of power frequency, lightning and
switching impulse voltages. Tests are done for both internal and external insulation with the
switch or circuit breaker in both the open and closed positions. In the open position, the test
voltage levels are 15% higher than the test voltages used when the breaker is in closed
position. As such there is always the possibility of line to ground flashover. To avoid this, the
circuit breaker is mounted on insulators above the ground, and hence the insulation level of
the body of the circuit breaker is raised.
The impulse tests with the lightning impulse wave of standard shape are done in a similar
manner as in the case of insulators. In addition, the switching surge tests with switching
overvoltages are done on circuit breakers and isolators to assess their performance under
overvoltages due to switching operations.Temperature rise and mechanical tests are tube
tests on circuit breakers and are done according to the specifications.
5.4.2 Short Circuit Tests

The most important tests carried out on circuit breakers arc short circuit tests, since these
tests assess the primary performance of these devices, i.e. their ability to safely interrupt the
fault currents. These tests consists of determining the making and breaking capacities at
various load currents and rated voltages. In the case of isolators, the short circuit tests are
conducted only with the limited purpose to determine their capacity to carry the rated short
circuit current for a given duration; and no breaking or making current test is done.
The different methods of conducting short circuit tests are
(I) Direct Tests
(a) using a short circuit generator as the source
(b) using the power utility system or network as the source.
(II) Synthetic Tests
(a) Direct Testing in the Networks or in the Fields Circuit breakers are sometimes tested for
their ability to make or break the circuit under normal load conditions or under short
circuit conditions in the network itself. This is done during period of limited energy
consumption or when the electrical energy is diverted to other sections of the network
which are not connected to the circuit under test.
The advantages of field tests are:

(i) The circuit breaker is tested under actual conditions like those that occur in a given
network.
(ii) Special occasions like breaking of charging currents of long lines, very short line faults,
interruption of small inductive currents, etc. can be tested by direct testing only.
(iii) to assess the thermal and dynamics effects of short circuit currents, to study applications
of safety devices, and to revise the performance test procedures, etc.
The disadvantages are:

(i) The circuit breaker can be tested at only a given rated voltage and network capacity.
(ii) The necessity to interrupt the normal services and to test only at light load conditions.
(iii) Extra inconvenience and expenses in installation of controlling and measuring equipment
in the Held.
(b) Direct Testing in Short Circuit Test Laboratories in order to test the circuit
breakers at different voltages and at different short circuit currents, short circuit
laboratories are provided. The schematic layout of a short circuit testing laboratory is
given in Fig. 5.4. It consists of a short circuit generator in association with a master
circuit breaker, resistors, reactors and measuring devices. A make switch initiates the
short circuit and the master circuit breaker isolates the test device from the source at
the end of a predetermined time set on a test sequence controller. Also, the master
circuit breaker can be tripped if the test device fails to operate properly. Short circuit
generators with induction motors as prime movers are also available.
Fig. 5.4 Schematic diagram showing basic elements of

a short circuit testing laboratory
(c) Synthetic Testing of Circuit Breakers: Due to very high interrupting capacities of
circuit breakers, it is not economical to have a single source to provide the required short
circuit and the rated voltage. Hence, the effect of a short circuit is obtained as regards to
the intensity of the current and the recovery voltage as a combination of the effects of two
sources, one of which supplies the a.c. current and the other the high voltage.
In the initial period of the short circuit test, the a.c. current source supplies the heavy
current at a low voltage, and then the recovery voltage is simulated by a source of
comparatively high voltage of small current capacity. A schematic diagram of a synthetic
testing station is shown in Fig.5.5.
Schematic diagram of synthetic testing of circuit breakers

Current and recovery voltage waveforms across the test circuit breaker
With the auxiliary breaker (3) and the test breaker (T) closed, the closing of the
making switch (1) causes the current to flow in the test circuit breaker. At some
instant say to, the test circuit breaker (T) begins to operate and the master circuit
breaker (1) becomes ready to clear the generator circuit. At some times t1, just
before the zero of the generator current, the trigger gap (6) closes and the higher
frequency current from
the discharging capacitor Cv also flows through the arc. At time t2, when the
generator current is zero, the circuit breaker (1) clears that circuit, leaving only
the current from Cv which has the required rate of change of current at its zero
flowing in the test circuit breaker. At the zero of this current/full test voltage will
be available. The closing of gap (6) would be a little earlier in time than shown in
Fig. 10.4, but it has been drawn as shown for clarity at current zeros. It is
important to see that the high-current source is disconnected and a high-voltage
source applied with absolute precision (by means of an auxiliary circuit breaker) at
the instant of circuit breaking.
(d) Composite Testing In this method, the breaker is first tested for its rated
breaking capacity at a reduced voltage and afterwards for rated voltage at a low
current. This method does not give a proper estimate of the breaker performance.
(e) Unit Testing When large circuit breakers of very high voltage rating (220 kV
and above) are to be tested and where more than one break is provided per pole,
the breaker is tested for one break at its rated current and the estimated voltage.
In actual practice, the conditions of arc in each gap may not be identical and the
voltage distribution along several breaks may be uneven. Hence, certain
uncertainty prevails in the testing of one break.
(f) Testing Procedure The circuit breakers are tested for their (i) breaking capacity B,
and (ii) making capacity M. The circuit breaker, after the calibration of the short circuit
generator, is tested for the following duty cycle.
(1) B-3-B-3-B at 10% of the rated symmetrical breaking capacity
(2) B-3-J3-3-B at 30% of the rated symmetrical breaking capacity
(3) B-3-J3-3-B at 60% of the rated symmetrical breaking capacity
(4) B-3-MB-3MB-MB at 100% breaking capacity with the recovery voltage not less
than 95% of the rated service voltage.
The power factor in these tests is generally between 0.15 and 0.3. The numral 3 in
the above duty cycle indicates the time interval in minutes between the tests.
(g) Asymmetrical Tests One test cycle is repeated for the asymmetrical breaking
capacity in which the d.c. component at the instant of contact separation is not less
than 50% of the a.c. component.
TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are very important and costly apparatus in power systems. Great care
has to be exercised to see that the transformers are not damaged due to transient
overvoltages of either lightning or power frequency. Hence, overvoltage tests become
very important in the testing of transformers. Here, only the overvoltage tests are
discussed, and other routine tests like the temperature rise tests, short circuit tests,
etc. are not included and can be found in the relevant specifications.
(a) Induced Overvoltage Test

Transformers are tested for overvoltages by exciting the secondary of the transformer
from a high frequency a.c. source (100 to 400 Hz) to about twice the rated voltage.
This reduces the core saturation and also limits the charging current necessary in
large power transformers. The insulation withstand strength can also be checked.
(b) Partial Discharge Tests

Partial discharge tests on the windings are done to assess the discharge magnitudes
and the radio interference levels. The transformer is connected in a manner similar to
any other equipment and the discharge measurements are made. The location of the
fault or void is sometimes done by using the travelling wave technique similar to that
for cables. So far, no method has been standardized as to where the discharge is to
be measured. Multi-terminal partial discharge measurements are recommended.
Under the application of power frequency voltage, the discharge magnitudes greater
than 104pico coulomb are considered to be severe, and the transformer insulation
should be such that the discharge magnitude will be far below this value.
Impulse Testing of Transformers

The purpose of the impulse tests is to determine the ability of the insulation of the
transformers to withstand the transient voltages due to lightning, etc. Since the
transients are impulses of short rise time, the voltage distribution along the
transformer winding will not be uniform. The equivalent circuit of a transfomer
winding for impulses is shown in Fig. . If an impulse wave is applied to such a
network (shown in Fig. ) the voltage distribution along the element will be uneven,
and oscillations will be set in producing voltages much higher than the applied
voltage.
Impulse testing of transformers is done using both the full wave and the chopped
wave of the standard impulse, produced by a rod gap with a chopping time of 3 to
6μs. To prevent large overvoltages being induced in the windings not under test, they
are short circuited and connected to ground. But the short circuiting reduces the
impedance of the transformer and hence poses problems in adjusting the standard
wave shape of the impulse generators. It also reduces the sensitivity of detection.
Equivalent circuit of transformer winding for impulses
(a) Procedure for Impulse Testing
The schematic diagram of the transformer connection for impulse testing is shown in
Fig. , and the wave- ground shapes of the full and chopped waves are shown in Fig. .
In transformer testing it is essential to record the waveforms of the applied voltage
and current through the windings under test. Sometimes, the transferred voltage in
the secondary and the neutral current are also recorded.
Arrangement of transformer for impulse testing

Impulse testing is done in the following sequence:
(j) applying impulse voltage of magnitude 75% of the Basic Impulse
Level (BIL) of the transformer under test,
(ii) one full wave voltage of 100% BIL,
(iii) two chopped waves of 100% BIL,
(iv) one full wave of 100% BIL, and
(v) one full wave of 75% BIL.
It is very important to see that the grounding is proper and the windings not under
test are suitably terminated.
Full wave and chopped wave
(c)Detection and Location of Fault During Impulse Testing
The fault in a transformer insulation is located in impulse tests by any one of the following
methods.
General observations: The fault can be located by general observations like noise in the
tank or smoke or bubbles in breather. Voltage oscillogram method : Fault or failure appears
as a partial or complete collapse of the applied voltage wave. Figure … gives the typical
waveform. The sensitivity of this method is low and does not detect faults which occur on
less than 5% of the winding.
Neutral current method : In the neutral current method, a record of the impulse
current flowing through a resistive shunt between the neutral and ground point is used for
detecting the fault. The neutral current oscillogram consists of a high frequency oscillation,
a low frequency disturbance, and a current rise due to reflections from the ground end of
the windings. When a fault occurs such as arcing between the turns or from turn to the
ground, a train of high frequency pulses similar to that in the front of the impulse current
wave are observed in the oscillogram and the waveshape changes.
If the fault is local, like a partial discharge, only high frequency oscillations are observed
without a change of waveshape. The sensitivity of the method decreases, if other windings
not under test are grounded.
Transferred surge current method: In this method, the voltage across a resistive shunt
connected between the low voltage winding and the ground is used for fault location. A
short high frequency discharge oscillation is capacitively transferred at the event of failure
and is recorded. Hence, faults at a further distance from the neutral are also clearly
located. The waveshape is distorted depending on the location and
type of fault, and hence can be more clearly detected.
After the location of the fault, the type of fault can be observed by dismantling the winding
and looking for charred insulation or melted parts on the copper winding.
This is successful in the case of major faults. Local faults or partial discharges are
selfhealing and escape observation.
INSULATION COORDINATION ON HIGH VOLTAGE
Insulation coordination means the correlation of the insulation of the various
equipments in a power system to the insulation of the protective devices used for the
protection of those equipments against overvoltages. In a power system various
equipments like transformers, circuit breakers, bus supports etc. have different
breakdown voltages and hence the volt-time characteristics. In order that all the
equipments should be properly protected it is desired that the insulation of the
various protective devices must be properly coordinated. The basic concept of
insulation coordination is illustrated in Fig. . Curve A is the volt-time curve of the
protective device and B the volt-time curve of the equipment to be protected. Fig.
7.27 shows the desired positions of the volt-time curves of the protecting device and
the equipment to be protected. Thus, any insulation having a withstand voltage
strength in excess of the insulation strength of curve B is protected by the protective
device of curve A.
Fig: Volt-time curve A (protecting device and)

volt-time curve B (device to be protected)
The ‘volt-time curve’ expression will be used very frequently in this chapter. It is,
therefore, necessary to understand the meaning of this expression.
Volt-Time Curve
The breakdown voltage for a particular insulation of flashover voltage for a gap is a
function of both the magnitude of voltage and the time of application of the voltage.
The volt-time curve is a graph showing the relation between the crest flashover
voltages and the time to flashover for a series of impulse applications of a given wave
shape. For the construction of volt-time curve the following procedure is adopted.
Waves of the same shape but of different peak values are applied to the insulation
whose volt-time curve is required. If flashover occurs on the front of the wave, the
flashover point gives one point on the volt-time curve. The other possibility is that the
flashover occurs just at the peak value of the wave; this gives another point on the V-T
curve. The third possibility is that the flashover occurs on the tail side of the wave. In
this case to find the point on the V-T curve, draw a horizontal line from the peak value
of this wave and also draw a vertical line passing through the point where the flashover
takes place. The intersection of the horizontal and vertical lines gives the point on the
V-T curve. This procedure is nicely shown in Fig.
Fig: Volt-time curve (construction)
The overvoltages against which coordination is required could be caused on the

system due to system faults, switching operation or lightning surges. For lower
voltages, normally upto about 345 kV, over voltages caused by system faults or
switching operations do not cause damage to equipment insulation although they
may be detrimental to protective devices. Overvoltages caused by lightning are of
sufficient magnitude to affect the equipment insulation whereas for voltages above
345 kV it is these switching surges which are more dangerous for the equipments
than the lightning surges.
The problem of coordinating the insulation of the protective equipment involves not
only guarding the equipment insulation but also it is desired that the protecting
equipment should not be damaged.
To assist in the process of insulation coordination, standard insulation levels have

been recommended. These insulation levels are defined as follows.
Basic impulse insulation levels (BIL) are reference levels expressed in impulse crest
voltage with a standard wave not longer than 1.2/50 μ sec wave. Apparatus insulation
as demonstrated by suitable tests shall be equal to or greater than the basic
insulation level.
The problem of insulation coordination can be studied under three steps:
1. Selection of a suitable insulation which is a function of reference class voltage (i.e.,

1.05 × operating voltage of the system). Table 5.1 gives the BIL for various reference
class voltages.
Basic impulse insulation levels
2. The design of the various equipments such that the breakdown or flashover
strength of all insulation in the station equals or exceeds the selected level as in (1).
3. Selection of protective devices that will give the apparatus as good protection as
can be justified economically.
The above procedure requires that the apparatus to be protected shall have a
withstand test value not less than the kV magnitude given in the second column of
Table 5…. irrespective of the polarity of the wave positive or negative and irrespective
of how the system was grounded. The third column of the table gives the reduced
insulation levels which are used for selecting insulation levels of solidly grounded
systems and for systems operating above 345 kV where switching surges are of more
importance than the lightning surges. At 345 kV, the switching voltage is considered
to be 2.7 p.u., i.e., 345 × 2.7 = 931.5 kV which corresponds to the lightning level. At
500 kV, however, 2.7 p.u. will mean 2.7 × 500 = 1350 kV switching voltage which
exceeds the lightning voltage level.
Therefore, the ratio of switching voltage to operating voltage is reduced by using the
switching resistances between the C.B. contacts. For 500 kV it is has been possible to
obtain this ratio as 2.0 and for 765 kV it is 1.7. With further increase in operating
voltages, it is hoped that the ratio could be brought to 1.5. So, for switching voltages
the reduced levels in third column are used i.e., for 345 kV, the standard BIL is 1550
kV but if the equipment can withstand even 1425 kV or 1300 kV it will serve the
purpose.
Fig. 5.. gives the relative position of the volt-time curves of the various equipments in
a substation for proper coordination. To illustrate the selection of the BIL of a
transformer to be operated on a 138 kV system assume that the transformer is of
large capacity and its star point is solidly grounded. The grounding is such that the
line-to-ground voltage of the healthy phase during a ground fault on one of the
phases is say 74% of the normal L-L voltage. Allowing for 5% overvoltage during
operating conditions, the arrester rms operating voltage will be 1.05 × 0.74 × 138 =
107.2 kV. The nearest standard rating is 109 kV. The characteristic of such a L.A. is
shown in Fig. 5….. From the figure the breakdown value of the arrester is 400 kV.
Assuming a 15% margin plus 35 kV between the insulation levels of L.A. and the
transformer, the insulation level of transformer should be at least equal to 400 + 0.15
× 400 + 35 = 495 kV. From Fig. 7.30 (or from the table the reduced level of
transformer for 138 kV is 550 kV) the insulation level of transformer is 550 kV;
therefore a lightning arrester of 109kV rating can be applied.
Volt-time curves
It is to be noted that low voltage lines are not as highly insulated as higher voltage
lines so that lightning surges coming into the station would normally be much less
than in a higher voltage station because the high voltage surges will flashover the line
insulation of low voltage line and not reach the station.
The traditional approach to insulation coordination requires the evaluation of the

highest overvoltages to which an equipment may be subjected during operation and
selection of standardized value of withstand impulse voltage with suitable safety
margin. However, it is realized that overvoltages are a random phenomenon and it is
uneconomical to design plant with such a high degree of safety that they sustain the
infrequent ones. It is also known that insulation designed on this basis does not give
100% protection and insulation failure may occur even in well designed plants and,
therefore, it is desired to limit the frequency of insulation failures to the most
economical value taking into account equipment cost and service continuity.
Insulation coordination, therefore, should be based on evaluation and limitation of the
risk of failure than on the prior choice of a safety margin.
The modern practice, therefore, is to make use of probabilistic concepts and statistical
procedures especially for very high voltage equipments which might later on be
extended to all cases where a close adjustment of insulation to system conditions
proves economical. The statistical methods even though laborious are quite useful.
5….. Statistical Methods for Insulation Coordination

Both the over voltages due to lightning or switching and the breakdown strength of
the insulating media are of statistical nature. Not all lightning or switching surges are
dangerous to the insulation and particular specimen need not necessarily flashover or
puncture at a particular voltage. Therefore, it is important to design the insulation of
the various equipments to be protected and the devices used for protection not for
worst possible condition but for worst probable condition as the cost of insulation for
system of the voltage more than 380 kV are proportional to square of the voltage
and, therefore any small saving in insulation will result in a large sums when
considered for such large modern power system. This, however, would involve some
level of risk failure. It is desired to accept some level of risk of failure than to design a
risk-free but a very costly system.
Fig: Overvoltage distribution and Insulation
breakdown probability
The statistical methods, however, call for a very rigorous experimentation and
analysis work so as to find probability of occurence of overvoltages and probability of
failure of insulation. It is found that the distribution of breakdown for a given gap
follows with some exceptions approximately normal or Gaussian distribution. Similarly
the distribution of over voltages on the system also follows the Gaussian distribution.
In order to coordinate electrical stresses due to overvoltages with the electrical
strengths of the dielectric media, it has been found convenient to represent
overvoltage distribution in the form of probability density function and the insulation
breakdown probability by the cumulative distribution function as shown in Fig. The
statistical methods, however, call for a very rigorous experimentation and analysis
work so as to find probability of occurence of overvoltages and probability of failure of
insulation. It is found that the distribution of breakdown for a given gap follows with
some exceptions approximately normal or Gaussian distribution. Similarly the
distribution of over voltages on the system also follows the Gaussian distribution. In
order to coordinate electrical stresses due to overvoltages with the electrical strengths
of the dielectric media, it has been found convenient to represent overvoltage
distribution in the form of probability density function and the insulation breakdown
probability by the cumulative distribution function as shown in Fig. 5..
Insulation Co-ordination in EHV and UHV Systems

The insulation design of EHV and UHV stations is based on the following principles
stations have transformers and other valuable equipment that have non-self restoring
insulation, and
the protective levels for lightning surges and switching surges are almost equal and
even overlap. If the basic impulse level for the equipment or the system is chosen,
then this level cannot give protection against the switching impulses.
Hence, a separate switching impulse level (SIL) has to be chosen. It is, therefore,
desirable to use protective devices for limiting both lightning and switching
overvoltages. As such, the switching impulse Insulation Coordination of Substation
above the controlled switching surge level has to be adopted so that the surge
arresters operate only rarely on switching overvoltages when the controls of the
control devices for switching voltages fail. A general guideline that can be adopted for
different EHV and UHV system for maximum switching surge levels are given in Table
.
It is now necessary to allow a suitable margin in the Insulation Coordination of
Substation above the maximum switching surge overvoltage and also permit a little
risk for failure in the interest of economical adoption of insulation levels. Usually
statistical methods are adopted based on a given risk of flashover which is calculated
by combining the flashover voltage distribution function of the insulation structures
with the overvoltage probability density function.
Two Mark Questions
1. What are the necessities of High voltage testing?
To check whether they are as per the design and as per specifications and
standards.
To ensure that the HV equipment is able to withstand over voltages produced
naturally or within the system.
2. What is the specialty of HV Testing?

The H.V. lab requires higher space.
Special equipments are required.
Special Techniques are required.
Name how standards for HV Testing

B I S - Bureau of Indian Standards.
I E C - International Electro Tech. Commission.
B S I - British Standard Institution.
I E E E - Instituting Electrical & Electronics Engineering.
I S O P - International Standards Organization.
A N S I - American Standards Institute
C I G R E - International council on large electrical system.
ISS - Indian Standard Specifications
3. What is disruptive discharge voltage?

The Voltage that produces loss of dielectric strength of equipment is called disruptive
discharge voltage. In solid-it is called puncture. In liquid or air-it is called Flashover.
4. What is Flashover?
When a loss of dielectric strength occurs inside a liquid or gaseous insulation or along the
surface of a solid Insulation, it is called flashover.
5. What is Puncture?
When a loss of dielectric strength occurs inside a solid it is called puncture.
6. What are self restoring and Non self restoring insulation?

Insulation which completely regains its dielectric strength after a disruptive Discharge is
called a self restoring insulation. Insulation which does not regain its insulating property
after a disruptive discharge is a Non self restoring insulation.
7. What is withstand voltage.

Withstand Test is a Test in which the specified voltage is applied to the test object under
specified conditions to check whether the equipment withstands W/o. any discharge/ flash
over . The test voltage which is applied to a Test object in a withstand Test is called
withstand voltage. It is the voltage that the equipment is capable of withstanding under
specified conditions.
8. What is withstand voltage 50% Flashover voltage

The Test voltage which has 50% probability for flashover is called 50% flashover voltage.
9. What is withstand voltage 100% Flashover voltage

The test voltage which causes flashover of the test object at each of its application.
10. How are the Testing of insulators classified
1. Type Test
Done whenever a new brand is introduced and a new design is adopted.
1. Routine Test
Whenever the quality of the individual equipment is to be
established say at the time of purchase.
11. What is meant by atmospheric correction with reference to High Voltage Testing?
Normally HV Tests are done under Normal Temperature, pressure
& humidity conditions and then the values are corrected to the
following conditions.
Temp : 27oC
Pressure : 1013 Millibar 760 torr Absolute humidity : 17gram/m3
This is done by applying the following correction factors. h = humidity

correction factor, d = air density correction factor
If Then
Va = Voltage under Test conditions
& Vs = Voltage under reference atmospheric candidate
Vs = Va x h/d
d = 0.289 b/ (273+t)
where
b = atmospheric Pressure in millibar t = atmospheric temp in degree C.
h = Can be obtained form graph.
(Humidity / Dry bulb thermometer reading)
12. What are the various HV Test done on Bushings?

Power frequency Tests
Power factor Test
Partial Discharge Test
1 Minute W.S. Test
Visible discharge Test
Impulse Voltage Test
Impulse with stand Test –
Full wave (Positive & Negative Polarity)
Impulse with stand Test
Chopped wave (Positive & Negative polarity)
Switching surge Flashover Test
Impulse Flash over Test under oil.
13. What are the steps for Impulse withstand Test on Power Transformer
Apply one full Impulse of 75% BIL of Power Transformer
Apply one full Impulse of 100% BIL of Power Transformer
Apply Two chopped wave of 100% BIL
Apply one full wave of 100% BIL
Apply one full wave of 75% BIL The Power Tr should stand. Then, it
passes the Test.
14. What are the various HV Tests done one circuit Breakers?
Power frequency WS Test, 1 minute, dry.
Power frequency WS Test, wet
Impulse voltage WS Test dry.
Switching impulse WS Test
15. What are the various Tests (HV Tests) done on surge diverters.
Insulation withstand Test, power frequency both dry and wet.
Power frequency voltage spark over Test.
Standard Impulse voltage spark over Test.
Front of wave voltage spark over Test.
Switching Impulse voltage spark over Test.
Residual voltage Test.
Current Impulse withstand Test.
High current
Long duration.
Pressure relief Test (When fitted)
Pollution Tests
16. What is the necessity for measurement of RIV?

Sometimes electrical equipment like power Transformer, conductors,
rotating machines etc. produce unwanted electrical signals in the radio
frequency range of 150k Hz to 30 M Hz, where as the power frequency
being 50 Hz. These signals affect the communication systems & should
be prevented. Hence RIV measurement is necessary.
17. What is meant by insulation co-ordination in EHV power system?

Insulation co-ordination is the grading of the insulation level of
Various equipments in a power system
Various parts of the equipments
Protection devices in such a way that, in the event of a serious
over voltage, less vital, less important, less costlier, easy to
repair equipment/part of equipment breaks down first and
thereby avoiding major breakdown & interruption to consumers, cost of
replacement etc.
For e.g.
In the event of an over voltage, a string insulator on Transmission line
should breakdown before the bushing of a power Transformer.
The bushing of the power Tr. should breakdown first before the
Breakdown of the winding of the Power Transformer.
18. What is system protection level and its selection depend on what factors?
In the power system, system protection level is established considering
the, Location of the station
Protection level of arrester
Line shielding
19. What is BIL?
The basic insulation levels are reference levels fixed by standards for each voltage
levels. Basic impulse levels are reference levels expressed in terms of impulse crest
voltage(Vp) with a standard lightning impulse voltage(1.2/50 micro seconds wave) for
any apparatus the insulation level as demonstrated by suitable tests should be
greater than or equal to the BIL.
While selecting an equipment for a power system what should he its BIL. when
compared to the system protection level.
For any equipment insulation level should be more than the BIL
For proper insulation coordination its insulation level should be greater than the
system protection level over the margin determined by the following factor
Atmospheric Condition
Station Location
Protection level of arresters.
Importance of the equipments etc.
Hence the system protection level will be less than BIL
20. While selecting an equipment for a power system what should he its BIL.when
compared to the system protection level.
For any equipment insulation level should be more than the BIL
For proper insulation coordination its insulation level should be greater than the
system protection level over the margin determined by the following factor
Atmospheric Condition
Station Location
Protection level of arresters.
Importance of the equipments etc.
Hence the system protection level will be less than BIL
PART – B
1. With a neat sketch explain the impulse testing on the power transformer.
2. Discuss the various test carried out in a circuit breaker at HV labs.
3. What are the different power frequency tests done on bushings? Mention the
procedure for testing.
4. Briefly discuss the various tests carried out the insulator.
5. What is meant by insulation coordination? How are the protective devices chosen
for optimal insulation level in a power system?
6. Explain the terms:
(i) With stand voltage
(ii) Flash over voltage
(iii)50% flash over voltage
(iv)Wet and dry power frequency tests as referred to HV testing.
7. Explain the following terms used in HV testing as per the standards:
(i) Disruptive discharge voltage
(ii) Creepage distance
(iii)Impulse voltage
(iv)100% flash over voltage.
8. (i)What are the tests conducted on circuit breakers and isolator switches? Explain
about any one of the tests.
(ii)What are different tests conducted on cables? Explain any one of them.
Part C
1. Explain the complete test procedure for conducting impulse voltage withstand
test on 33KV post insulator. (15) [CO5 K2]
2. Explain the direct and synthetic testing of isolators and circuit breakers in detail.
(15) [CO5 K2]
3. Explain the different high voltage tests done on bushing? (15) [CO5 K2]
4. What are the tests to be conducted on cables as IS10810. Explain them in detail.
(15) [CO5 K1]
5. (i) Elaborately discuss about various types of standards for HV power apparatus
testing of electrical power apparatus(8) ( ii)write short notes on statistical
methods for insulation Coordination(7) [CO6 K2]
Assignment
1. Explain in detail the testing of Transformer with Indian standard
and International Standard [CO5 K3]
2. Explain in detail of Insulation coordination for various working
voltages ranges with electrical power apparatus . [CO5 K3]
Supportive online Materials
https://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/high-voltage-tester.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4pTWi8jgqd0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4pTWi8jgqd0
https://testguy.net/content/257-high-voltage-bushing-
maintenance-techniques
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U-xA6yvp1Wk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vCcvDZCJ6Ik
43
In industrial testing and research laboratories, it is essential to measure the
voltages and currents accurately, ensuring perfect safety to the personnel and
equipment. Hence a person handling the equipment as well as the metering
devices must be protected against over voltages and also against any induced
voltages due to stray coupling. Therefore, the location and layout of the devices
are important. Secondly, linear extrapolation of the devices beyond their ranges
are not valid for high voltage meters and measuring instruments, and they have to
be calibrated for the full range. Electromagnetic interference is a serious problem
in impulse voltage and current measurements, and it has to be avoided or
minimized. Therefore, even though the principles of measurements may be same,
the devices and instruments for measurement of high voltages and currents differ
vastly from the low voltage and low current devices.
44
Activity Based Learning
Create a concept Mapping to Understand the Various Techniques used for
Measurement of High Voltages.
Steps For Building Concept Mapping
Step 1: List key concepts/terms related to the topic
Step 2: Build up concepts to elaborate key concepts
Step 3: Identify links between concepts
Template design:
https://creately.com/diagram/example/jd2ke4en1/Blank+Concept+Map+Template
Thank you
Disclaimer:

Hve Notes PDF

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Hve Notes PDF

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1

Department: Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Created by: K.GUNALAN M.E.,(Ph.D)

6 Program Specific Outcomes 12

14 Mathematical modelling of lightning 22

16 Bewley lattice diagram 24

17 Problems on Bewley lattice diagram 35

25 Supportive online courses 60

To impart knowledge on the following Topics

1. Various types of over voltages in power system and protection

2. Generation of over voltages in laboratories.

3. Measurement of over voltages.

4. Nature of Breakdown mechanism in solid, liquid and

5. Testing of power apparatus and insulation coordination

EE8402- Transmission and Distribution

Course Outcome Level of

COs - POs/PSOs MATRICES

Relevance: 1: Slight (Low) 2: Moderate (Medium) 3: Substantial (High)

S. TOPIC No. Proposed Actual Per Taxo Mode of

Lightning physics https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JJubgrI0T0g

Switching surges https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4-Lu1vnH_d8

Surge Arrestors https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vpcRY0SLt1o

Lightning Arrestor- how its https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFTns1TBQ5s

OVER VOLTAGES IN ELECTRICAL

Lightning has been a source of wonder to mankind for thousands of years.

Simpson’s theory is based on the temperature variations in the various regions of

Mechanism of Lightning Stroke

(i) De-energizing of transmission lines, cables, shunt capacitor, banks, etc.

(ii) Disconnection of unloaded transformers, reactors, etc.

(iii) Energization or reclosing of lines and reactive loads,

(i v) Sudden switching off of loads.

(v) Short circuits and fault clearances.

(w) Resonance phenomenon like ferro-resonance, arcing grounds, etc

obtained. The principles observed in the lattice diagrams are as follows:

Whenever there is an abrupt change in the parameters of a transmission line, such as an

Attenuation factor α to be defined corresponding to the length of a particular line i.e.

α = e-attenuation constant x length of the line

Surge impedance and Velocity of Propagation

Let the incoming voltage wave or step function surge of amplitude be V.

Let the reflected voltage at the point of discontinuity be V1,

(i) Determine reflected voltage V1 in terms of a:

Applying KVL and KCL, we have

V1’ = V + V1 & I1’=I-I1

where, a = Reflection coefficient

iii) Relation between a and b:

iv) Transmitted or refracted current:

𝑉 𝑍2−𝑍1 𝑉 𝑍1 +𝑍2 −𝑍2 +𝑍1

Reflection and Refraction or Transmission at a T-Junction

𝑉 𝑉1′ − 𝑉 𝑉1′ 𝑉1′

Refracted transmitted voltage,

The refracted or transmitted currents are

Voltage at the receiving end = 2 [α – α3 + α5 + ……..+ α2n-1] u(t)

Z1 = 250Ω, Z2 = 50Ω, V= 400kV

Voltage build at the junction = V - V1

= 400 – (-266.67) = 666.67kV

Solution: For the open circuited at the receiving end,

Let the time of travel be 1unit.

At the sending end,

Protection of transmission lines against natural or lightning over voltages

Over voltages due to lightning strokes can be avoided or minimized in practice by

Ground wire is a conductor run parallel to the

The conducting tower structure serves the

With the ground wire present, both the ground

The effective protection or shielding given by the

The Shielding Angle is defined as

The shielding angle 30° was

Lightning current injected into an

Lightning may bypass an overhead

Thus the ground wire reduces the

The instantaneous potential to which

Where ZT = Surge impedance of the

When a line is shielded, the lightning

(a) through the tower frame to ground

(b) through the ground line in

Thus the ground wire reduces the

Pipe type Earthing