Environment Engineering I

• References:
Water supply engg. –B.C.Punamia
Water supply engg. – S.K. garg
Water supply and sanitation engg- G.S. Birdie
 Environment Engg
• Divided into 3 parts
1. Water supply engg.
- Uses of water: domestic, industrial ,institution
,public building, irrigation, electricity etc….
2. Sewerage system
3. Air pollution
 Water Requirement
PER CAPITA DEMAND :

• It is the annual average amount of daily water required by one

person, and includes the domestic use, industrial or commercial
use, public use, leakages etc…
• If “Q” is the total yearly water required by various purposes by a
town per year and “p” is the population of town, then per capita
demand will be
Q
Per capita demand = -------------- litres/day
P x 365
• Per capita demand of the town depends on various factors like
standard of living, no. and type of commercial places in a town etc.
For an average Indian town, the requirement of water in various
uses is as under
IS 1172:1957
 Public or civic use

Road washing – 5 lpcd

-road wash in the municipality area
Sanitation – 3 to 5 lpcd
-cleaning public sanitary blocks, flushing sewer
system etc.
Public parks – 2 to 3 litres per square metre per
day
 LOSSES AND WASTAGES
All the water, which goes in the distribution pipes does not reach the consumers. The
following are the reasons:

1.Leakage and over flow from service reservoir.

2.Leakage and losses on consumer’s premises when they get un-metered house hold
supplies

3. Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves and
fittings.

4. Losses due to, consumers keep open their taps of public taps even when they are
not using the water and allow the continuous wastage of water

5. Losses due to unauthorised and illegal connections

While estimating the total quantity of water of a town; allowance of 15 to 20% of total
quantity of water is made to compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of water
 FIRE DEMAND
• Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires by short
circuiting, fire catching materials, explosions, bad intension of
criminal people or any other unforeseen mishappenings.
• If fires are not properly controlled and extinguished in minimum
possible time, they lead to serious damage and may burn cities.
All the big cities have full fire-fighting squads. As during the fire
breakdown large quantity of water is required for throwing it
over the fire to extinguish it, therefore provision is made in the
water work to supply sufficient quantity of water or keep as
reserve in the water mains for this purpose.
• Though the total demand of water for extinguishing fire is
usually very small, the rate of consumption is very high. Fire
hydrants of 15 to 20 cm diameter are normally provided on all
street corners, and at suitable intermediate points. These are
generally connected to water supply mains.
• When fire occurs, pumps installed on fire brigade trucks are
rushed to the site and connected to fire hydrants from where
they throw jet of water under very high pressure. The
pressure varies between 1 to 2kg/cm2. The provision for fire
demand is made only for 3 to 5 hours fire flow. The total
quantity of water calculated on yearly basis is usually very
small because fire breaks out only few times in a year.
• Frequency for fire can be determined
Q= 4360 T ^(0.275) litres/minute
(t +12)^0.757
Where, t= duration of fire in minutes
T= period of occurrence of fire, in year
Recommended minimum values for t=30 minutes and T=1 year
 FIRE DEMAND
The quantity of water required for fire fighting is generally calculated by using
different empirical formulae.
kuichling’s formula :
Q=3182 √p
Where “Q‟ is quantity of water required in litres/min
“P‟ is population of town or city in thousands
Buston’s formula :
Q = 5663√p
Freeman’s formula:
Q = 1136 (P/5+10)
And F = 2.8 √p
Where F= number of simultaneous fire streams
National board of fire underwriters formula:
Q = 4637√p (1-0.01√p)
The manual on water supply and treatment by MUD recommends
For population is higher than 50,000
Q = 100 √p kilo litres per day
 Factors affecting rate of demand

1. Size and type of community

2. Standard of living
3. Climatic conditions
4. Quality of water
5. Pressure in the supply
6. System of supply
7. Sewerage
8. Metering
9. Water rates
10. Age of community
11. Lawn sprinkling
Ministry of urban development New Delhi recommends the following rates in lpcd for
domestic and non domestic needs:
 Variation in water demand

The per capita demand of town is the average consumption of water for a year. In
practice it has been seen that this demand does not remain uniform throughout the year
but it various from season to season, even hour to hour.
• SEASONAL VARIATIONS
The water demand varies from season to season. In summer the water demand is
maximum, because the people will use more water in bathing, cooling, lawn watering and
street sprinkling. This demand will becomes minimum in winter because less water will
be used in bathing and there will be no lawn watering. The maximum seasonal consumption
is usually taken as 130% of the annual average daily demand.
• DAILY VARIATIONS
This variation depends on the general habits of people, climatic conditions and
character of city as industrial, commercial or residential. More water demand will be on
Sundays and holidays due to more comfortable bathing, washing etc as compared to other
working days. The maximum daily consumption is usually taken as 180% of the annual
average daily demand of water.
• HOURLY VARIATIONS
On Sundays and other holidays the peak hours may be about 8 A.M.
due to late awakening where as it may be 6 A.M. to 10 A.M. and 4
P.M. to 8 P.M. and minimum flow may be between 12P.M. to 4P.M.
when most of the people are sleeping. But in highly industrial city
where both day and night shifts are working, the consumption in
night may be more. The maximum consumption may be rise upto
150 % that of maximum daily demand.
The determination of this hourly variations is most necessary,
because on its basis the rate of pumping will be adjusted to meet
up the demand in all hours.
• Maximum monthly consumption : It is taken as 140% of annual
average daily rate of demand.
Effect of variation in consumption on design

-Water supply system has several units, and design

of each unit should match with the hourly, daily and
seasonal variations in the demand.
1. Filters and pumps – 1.5 to 2 times of avg. daily
demand
2. Distribution mains – max. hourly demand for
max. day= 1.8x1.5=2.7 or coincident draft
whichever is more
3. Sedimentation tanks and water reservoirs- avg.
daily rate
 Coincident draft

• It is extremely improbable that a fire break

out when water is being drawn by the
consumers at maximum hourly demand. It is
taken as the sum of maximum daily demand
and fire demand or the maximum hourly
demand, whichever is more. The maximum
daily demand (i.e. 1.8 times the average daily
demand when added to fire draft for working
out total draft, is known as coincident draft).
• Absolute maximum hourly demand:
It is the consumption of maximum hour on
maximum day of maximum month of maximum
season.
- Let the annual average consumption in a city be
150 lpcd.
- The rate of consumption on maximum day will be
= 150 x 1.8 = 270 lpcd.
- Maximum hourly consumption = 150x 1.8 x 1.5 =
405 lpcd = 405/ 24 = 16.875 litres/hr.
- The absolute maximum hourly demand = 150 x
1.3 x 1.4 x 1.8 x1.5 = 737.1 lpcd
=737.1/24= 30.71 lit/hr.
 Example

Q. A water supply scheme has to be designed for having a

population of 1,00,000. Estimate the drafts which may be
required to be recorded for an average consumption of 250
lpcd. Also record the required capacities of major
components of the proposed water works system for the
using river as the source of supply. Assume suitable data
where needed.
Ans. 1. average daily demand=250 x 100000
=250 x 10^5 lit/day = 25 MLD
2. maximum daily draft= (180/100) x (25) = 45 MLD
3. maximum hourly draft of maximum day =
270/100 x (25) = 67.5 MLD
4. fire flow Q = 4637 x p ^(1/2) [ 1-0.01(P)^(1/2)] = 60 MLD
5. coincident draft= maximum daily draft+ fire demand
= 45 + 60 = 105 MLD
 Capacity of various components
• Source of supply -Intake structure/well etc.. It is designed based on
maximum daily consumption or some times for average daily
consumption. (i.e. 180% of annual average daily demand)
• Pipe mains – taking water from source upto service reservoir may be
designed for maximum daily consumption. (i.e. 180% of annual average
daily demand).
• Filter units - it is designed for maximum daily draft plus some additional
provision for reserve for breakdown and repairs. (i.e. 1.5 to 2 times the
annual avg. daily demand)
• Pumps – it is designed for maximum daily draft plus some more additional
reserve for breakdown and repairs ( i.e. twice the average daily demand
instead of 1.8 times the average daily demand)
For 24 hours
For 8 hours – (24 / no. of hours in the day for which the pumps are running)
• Distribution system including pipes carrying water from service reservoir
to the distribution system – it should be designed for maximum hourly
draft of maximum day or coincident draft whichever is more. (i.e. (1.8 x
1.5 x maximum daily demand ) or coincident draft whichever is more)
• Capacity of various components:
1. Intake structure – 45 MLD capacity is required
for design purpose
2. Pipe mains – water carrying from intake to
treatment plant and then to service reservoir is
designed for 45 MLD
3. Filters – 2 x 25 MLD = 50 MLD
4. Pump – 2x 25 = 50 MLD for 24 hours.
But pumps are not operated for 24 hours, if they
are operated for 8 hours, then design draft
= 24/8 x Normal design draft = (24/8) x 50 =150
MLD
5.Distribution system is designed for 105 MLD.
 Tutorial
Ex. 1.
Solution:
1. Domestic water requirements = 135 x 6,50,000 = 87.75 MLD

2. Institutional requirements
a. Hospital of 300 beds = 450 x 300= 0.135 MLD
b. Hotel of 250 beds = 180 x 250 = 0.045 MLD
c. Offices of 6000 person’s staff = 45 x 6000 = 0.27 MLD
d. Bus terminal of 5000 person = 45 x 5000 = 0.225 MLD

3. Fire demand
a. kuichling’s formula:
Q=3182 √p = 3182 ( 650)^(1/2)
= 81125.40 lpm = 81125.40 x 10^-3 /60 = 1.352 m3/sec
b. Buston’s formula: Q = 5663√p = 2.406 m3/sec
c. Free man’s formula:
Q = 1136 (P/5+10) = 2.65 m3/sec
No. of fire streams F = 2.8 (P)^(1/2)
= 2.8 (650) ^(1/2)
= 71 nos.
d. National board of fire underwriter’s formula
Q = 4637√p (1-0.01√p)
= 1.46 m3/sec
Ex. Compute the fire demand for a city having population of
1,40,000 using various formula.

kuichling’s formula :
Q=3182 √p = 37650 lpm = 0.627 cumec
Buston’s formula :
Q = 5663√p = 67000 lpm = 1.117 cumec
Freeman’s formula:
Q = 1136 (P/5+10) = 43168 lpm = 0.719 cumec
And F = 2.8 √p = 33
Where F= number of simultaneous fire streams
National board of fire underwriters formula:
Q = 4637√p (1-0.01√p) = 48374 lpm = 0.806 cumec
Ex 2. If the population of city is 1,56,000 and 325 lpcd of water
is supplied, then the distribution system is designed for
148.49__________ MLD. Calculate fire demand using kuchling’s
formula.

Solution : Population =1,56,000

Water consumption = 325 lpcd
Avg. daily demand = 1,56,000 x 325
= 50.7 x 10^6 lit/day
= 50.7 MLD
Now, for distribution system,
Water required= MDD= 1.8 x avg. daily demand
= 1.8 x 50.7 = 91.26 MLD
= MHD = 1.5 x (MDD) = 136.89 MLD
fire demand = 3182 (P)^(1/2)= 39743.16 x 10^-6 x 60 x24 = 57.23 MLD

Total water required by system = MDD + fire demand = 91.26 + 57.23 = 148.49
MLD
and MHD =136.89 MLD
considering MDD + fire demand = 148.49 MLD
 Design period
• Water supply scheme includes huge and costly str. So it can not be
replaced or increase their capacities easily.
• For example – water mains
• In order to avoid future complications of expansions various
components of a water supply scheme are purposely made larger,
so it easy to satisfy the community needs for a reasonable number
of years to come.
• The future period or the number of years for which a provision is
made in designing the capacities of the various components of the
water supply scheme is known as design period. OR Future period
for which various service units of water supply are designed is
known as the period of design.
• It is the number of years in future for which the given facility is
available to meet the demand.
 Factors governing the Design period

• Useful life of component structure

• Ease and difficulty
• Amount and availability of additional
investment
• Rate of interest
• Material used in the water supply works
• Anticipated rate of population growth
Design period recommended by GOI
 Population forecast
1. Arithmetical increase method
2. Geometrical increase method
3. Incremental increase method
4. Simple graph method
5. Comparative graph method
6. Zoning method or master plan method
7. Ratio and correlation method
8. Growth composition analysis method
9. Decrease rate of growth method and logistic curve method
 Importance of estimating population
• The term population is used to indicate the total
number of human beings in a certain area at any
particular time.
• The present population is obtained by referring to the
statistics of census records prepared by the local body.
• The water supply projects is not designed only for
present population but it is made to accommodate the
future population.
• The growth of population may be sharp, slow or even
stationary depending upon the factors contributing to
the future development of locality such coming up of
new industries, trade expansion etc…
 ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD

• This method is based on the assumption that the population is increasing

at a constant rate. The rate of change of population with time is constant.
dP/dt =K
• In this method, the avg. increase of population for last three or four
decades is worked out and then for each successive future decades, this
avg. Is added.
The population after “n”decades can be determined by the formula.
Pn = P + n x I where,
Pn →future population at the end of n decades
P → present population
n → No. of decades
I→ average increment for a decade.

Method is suitable for those large cities, which is already developed and
reached their saturation population.
It gives lower result.
 GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD
• This method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase in
population from decade to decade remains constant. In this method the
average percentage of growth of last few decades is determined, the
population forecasting is done on the basis that percentage increase per
decade will be the same. OR
• From the available census record, this percentage is fixed and the
population of each future successive decade is worked out.
The population at the end of “n” decades is calculated by
Pn = P( 1 + Ig/100 )^n
Ig can be found by arithmetic average or geometric average method:
1. Ig= (Ig1+Ig2+-------Ign)/n
2. Ig= (Ig1.Ig2.-------Ign)^(1/N)

Where, Ig = avg. percent increase per decade

Method is suitable for old cities or rural area which having scattered
population.
It gives higher result.
 INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD
• This method is improvement over the above two
methods. The average increase in the population is
determined by the arithmetical method and then the
increment in increase for each decade is found. From
these, an average increment of increase is found. The
population in the next decade is found by adding to the
present population the average increase plus the avg.
incremental increase per decade. Rate of growth is not
constant.
Pn=P+ nI+ n(n+1).r
2
I = avg. increase per decade
r= avg. incremental increase
It gives avg. result.
 GRAPHICAL METHOD

• In this method a curve is plotted between

time on x axis and population in thousands on
y axis, the curve is then extended carefully
depending upon its previous shape and
population for the future decade is
determined from y axis.
 Comparative graphical method

• This method is based on the assumptions that

the city under consideration may be
developed as similar cities have developed.
• In this case similar 3 or 4 cities are taken
which have similar environment, similar
culture, similar population etc…after that
graph are plotted and are extended for next
30 or 40 years to estimate future population.
 Zoning method or master plan method
• This is probably a scientific method using the limitations
imposed by the town planner in the increase in density of
population of various parts of the city. For this, master plan
of the city is prepared, dividing into various zones such as
industrial, commercial, residential etc..each zone is allowed
to develop as per master plan only.

• The future population of each zone, when fully developed

can be easily found.

• For example, sector A of residential zone has 1000 plots.

Allowing 5 person per plot, the population of this sector,
when fully developed, will be 1000 x 5 = 5000 persons.
 Similarly, the development of each can be estimated.

Adv. – total water requirement of the city is not only for

domestic purposes, but also for commercial, industrial, social
health and other purposes.
 Ratio and correlation method
• The population growth of a small town or area is related
to big towns or big areas. The increase in the population
of big cities bear a direct relationship to the population
of the whole state or country.
• In this method, the local to national or state population
ratio is determined in the previous 2 or 4 decades.
• Depending upon the conditions or other factors, even
changing ratio may be adopted. These ratios may be used
in predicting the future population.
• Ex. Xcity / Ycity = 0.5
• This methods takes into account the regional and
national factors affecting population growth.
• Method is useful for only those areas whose population
growth in the past is fairly consistent with that of state or
nation.
 Growth composition analysis method

• Change in population of a city is due to 3 reasons

1. Birth 2. death 3. migration from village or other
towns.

Pn= P + natural increase + Migration

Natural increase= T (Ib.P- Id.P)
Where,
T= design period
P= present population
Ib= average birth rate per year
Id= average death rate per year
Decrease rate of growth method and logistic
curve method
 Factors affecting population growth

• Economic factor- development of new industries, discovery

of other minerals in the vicinity of the city.
• Development programmes- development of projects of
national importance, such as river valley projects etc….
• Social facilities- educational, medical, recreational and
other social facilities.
• Communication link-connection of town with other big
cities, and also to the mandies of agriculture products.
• Tourism – Tourist facilities, religious places or historical
buildings.
• Community life – living habits and general education in the
community.
• Unforeseen factors- Earthquakes, floods, epidemics,
frequent famines etc..
 Numerical
Ex 1: The following is the population data of city,
available from past census records. Determine
the population of the city in 2011 by (a)
arithmetical increase method (b) geometrical
increase method (c) incremental increase
method (d) decrease rate of growth method.

Year 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991

Populat 12000 16500 26800 41500 57500 68000 74100

ion (P)
solution
 Numerical
Ex 2- In a town, it has been decided to provide 200 lpcd
in 21st century.
Estimate the domestic water requirements of this town
in the year 2000 by projecting the population of the
town by the incremental increase method, from the
data given below:

Year 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

Population 2,50,000 4,80,500 5,50,300 6,38,600 6,95,200

 Numerical
Ex 3- A city has following recorded population:
Year Population

1951 50,000

1971 11,0000

1991 16,0000

Estimate : (a) the saturation population and (b)

expected population in 2011.