LO1.

Write Basic SQL statement to retrieve and sort data

1.1. Concepts in Basic SQL system
A database system is a way of organizing information on a computer, implemented by a set
of computer programs. This kind of organization should offer:
* Simplicity - an easy way to collect, access-connects, and display information;
* Stability - to prevent unnecessary loss of data;
* Security - to protect against unauthorized access to private data;
* Speed - For fast results in a short time and for easy maintenance in case of
changes in the organization that stores the information.
1.2. SQL Structured Query Language
 Standard for relational database management systems
 Specify syntax/semantics for data definition and manipulation.
 Define data structures
 Enable portability
 Specify minimal standards
 Allow for later growth/enhancement to standard
Benefits of a standardized relational language
 Reduced training costs
 Productivity
 Application portability
 Application longevity
 Reduced dependence on a single vendor
 Cross-system communication
SQL Environment
 Catalog: a set of schemas that constitute the description of a database.
 Schema: the structure that contains descriptions of objects created by a user (base
tables, views, constraints …)
 DDL: commands that define a database, including creating, altering, and dropping
tables and establishing constraints
 DML: commands that maintain and query a database.
 ACL (Data Control Language): commands that control a database,
including administering privileges and committing data.
Some SQL Data Types
 strings type
- Char(n) - fixed length character data, n characters long. Maximum length=
2000 bytes.
- varchar(n) - variable length character data
- Maximum length=4000 bytes
- long – variable length character data, up to 4 GB . Maximum 1 per table.
 Numeric types
- Number(p,q) – general purpose numeric data type
- Integer(p) – signed integer, p digits wide
- Float(p) - floating point in scientific notation with p binary.
- Date/Time type - Date - fixed length date/time in dd-mm-yyyy form
SQL Database Definition
DDL: The Major create statements include:
- Create schema – defines a portion of the database owned by a particular
user
- Create table - defines a table and its columns
- Create views - defines a logical table from one or more tables.
- Other creates statements such as create function, create trigger, create

index, and so on.

Data Integrity Controls
Data integrity controls refer to the consistency and accuracy of data
that is stored in a database. Data Integrity validates the data before
getting stored in the columns of the table.
types of data integrity:
- Domain Integrity
- Entity Integrity
- Referential Integrity
Each type of data integrity – domain, Entity, and referential – is enforced with separate types
of constraints.
 Domain Integrity:
Domain integrity is the validity of entries for a given column.
You can enforce domain integrity by restricting the type (through data types), the format
(through CHECK constraints and rules), or the range of possible values (through FOREIGN
KEY constraints, CHECK constraints, DEFAULT definitions, NOT NULL definitions, and
rules).
 Entity Integrity:
Entity integrity defines a row as a unique entity for a particular table. We can enforce the
Entity Integrity through the indexes, UNIQUE constraints, PRIMARY KEY constraints, or
IDENTITY properties
 Referential Integrity
Referential integrity maintains the defined relationships between tables when
records are entered or deleted. When you enforce referential integrity, SQL Server
prevents users from:
- Adding records to a related table if there is no associated record in the primary table.
- Changing values in a primary table that result in orphaned records in a related table.
- Deleting records from a primary table if there are matching related records.
Changing and Removing Tables
- Alter table statement allows you to change column specifications.
- Drop table statement allows you to remove tables from your schema.
1.2. SQL query keywords
 SELECT clause
 WHERE Clause
 ORDER BY Clause
 INNER JOIN Clause
 INSERT Statement
 UPDATE Statement
 DELETE Statement

Insert statement: - Insert statement is used to add/insert new records or from another tables
to a particular table.
 Delete statement: - Remove/delete row/s from a table.
Update statement: - Modifies data in existing rows
Select statement: - Used to queries from a single or multiple tables.
- Select - lists the column/s that should be returned from the query.
- From - indicate the table/s or view/s from which data will be obtained
- Where - indicate the conditions under which row/s will be included in the result.
- Group by – indicate categorization of results.
- Having – indicate the conditions under which a category (group) will be included.
- Order by – sorts the result according to specified criteria.
Use Aggregate function: - Use aggregate function such as sum, average, product, count,
max, min, and so on.
Use Boolean operators: - Use AND, OR, and NOT operators for customizing conditions in
where clause.
1.3. Basic SELECT (Query) statement
You can write SQL statements on one line or on many lines.
 The SQL statements can be run on SQL tables and views, and database physical and
logical files.
 Character strings specified in an SQL statement (such as those used with WHERE
or VALUES clauses) are case sensitive; that is, uppercase characters must be
entered in uppercase and lowercase characters must be entered in lowercase.
WHERE ADMRDEPT='a00' (does not return a result)
WHERE ADMRDEPT='A00' (returns a valid department number)
A SELECT statement can include the following:
1. The name of each column you want to include
2. The name of the table or view that contains the data
3. A search condition to uniquely identify the row that contains the information you want
4. The name of each column used to group your data
5. A search condition that uniquely identifies a group that contains the information you
want
6. The order of the results so a specific row among duplicates can be returned.
The general syntax of SELECT statement looks like this:
SELECT column names
FROM table or view name
WHERE search condition GROUP BY column names
HAVING search condition ORDER BY column-name
The SELECT and FROM clauses must be specified. The
other clauses are optional. With the SELECT clause, you
specify the name of each column you want to retrieve.
The FROM clause specifies the table that you want to select data from. You can select
columns from more than one table.
You can specify that only one column be retrieved or as many as 8000 columns. The
value of each column you name is retrieved in the order specified in the SELECT
clause.
If you want to retrieve all columns (in the same order as they appear in the table's
definition), use an asterisk (*) instead of naming the columns.

1.4. Basic SELECT Query

 Simple selects
 Joins/ join types
 Aggregate operators

Simple selects
  Aggregation by groups and groups condition
 Sub queries/ sub queries in FROM
 Union, Intersect, Except
The simple select statement select clause which used to specify the columns you want to
retrieve, from clause which used to specify the tables from which the columns are to be
retrieved, and the where clause which used to limits the rows returned by your query.
Here is the basic syntax: SELECT <column_list> FROM <table_list> <[WHERE <search_criteria>]>

Example: SELECT distinct salary FROM Employee where Gender ='female'

Joins/ join types
Joining data from more than one table
Sometimes the information you want to see is not in a single table. To form a row of the
result table, you might want to retrieve some column values from one table and some
column values from another table. You can retrieve and join column values from two or
more tables into a single row.
Several different types of joins are:
 inner join
 left outer join
 right outer join
 left exception join
 right exception join
 Cross join

Simple Selects
The simple select statement select clause which used to specify the columns you want to
retrieve, from clause which used to specify the tables from which the columns are to be
retrieved, and the where clause which used to limits the rows returned by your query.
Here is the basic syntax: SELECT <column_list> FROM <table_list> <[WHERE <search_criteria>]>

Example: SELECT distinct salary FROM Employee where Gender ='female'

Joins/ join types
Joining data from more than one table
Sometimes the information you want to see is not in a single table. To form a row of the
result table, you might want to retrieve some column values from one table and some
column values from another table. You can retrieve and join column values from two or
 more tables into a single row.
Several different types of joins are:
 inner join
 left outer join
 right outer join
 left exception join
 right exception
 Cross join
 An Inner Join returns only the rows from each table that have matching values in the join
columns. Any rows that do not have a match between the tables will not appear in the result
table.
 A Left Outer Join returns values for all of the rows from the first table (the table on the left)
and the values from the second table for the rows that match. Any rows that do not have a
match in the second table will return the null value for all columns from the second table.
 A Right Outer Join return values for all of the rows from the second table (the table on the
right) and the values from the first table for the rows that match. Any rows that do not have a
match in the first table will return the null value for all columns from the first table.
 Left Exception Join returns only the rows from the left table that do not have a
match in the right table. Columns in the result table that come from the right
table have the null value.
 A Right Exception Join returns only the rows from the right table that do not
have a match in the left table. Columns in the result table that come from the left
table have the null value.
 A Cross Join returns a row in the result table for each combination of rows from
the tables being joined (a Cartesian product).
Subqueries:
A Subquery or Inner query or Nested query is a query within another SQL query, and
embedded within the WHERE clause.
- You use subqueries to break down a complex query into a series of logical steps
and, as a result, to solve a problem with single statements.
- Each select statement in the subquery has its own:
. select list
 . where clause
A subquery is used to return data that will be used in the main query as a condition to
further restrict the data to be retrieved.
Subqueries can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
statements (or inside another subquery) along with the operators like =, <, >, >=,
<=, IN, BETWEEN etc.
There are a few rules that subqueries must follow:
 Subqueries must be enclosed within parentheses.
 A subquery can have only one column in the SELECT clause, unless multiple
columns are in the main query for the subquery to compare its selected columns.
 An ORDER BY cannot be used in a subquery, although the main query can
use an ORDER BY. The GROUP BY can be used to perform the same
function as the ORDER BY in a subquery.
 Subqueries that return more than one row can only be used with multiple value
operators, such as the IN operator.
 A subquery cannot be immediately enclosed in a set function.
 The BETWEEN operator cannot be used with a subquery; however, the
BETWEEN can be used within the subquery.
Example: For each department that has more than five employees, retrieve the
department number and the number of its employees who are making more than $40,000.
SELECT DNUMBER, COUNT (*) FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE WHERE
DNUMBER=DNO AND SALARY>40000 AND
DNO IN (SELECT DNO FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY DNO
HAVING COUNT (*) > 5) GROUP BY DNUMBER
1.5. Basics of the SELECT Statement and conditional selection
The SELECT statement is used to
select data from a database. The
result is stored in a result table,
called the result-set.
Syntax of the basic select statement includes: Select-From-Where Statements
SELECT desired attributes FROM one or more tables
WHERE condition about tuples of the tables
A conditional selection statement allows to choose a set of statements for execution
depending on a condition.
If statement and switch...case statements are the two conditional selection statements.
SELECT
if (selectField1 = true) Field1 ELSE do not select Field1
if (selectField2 = true) Field2 ELSE do not select
Field2 FROM Table
If the condition is true, statement1 and statement2 is executed; otherwise statement 3 and
statement 4 is executed. The expression or condition is any expression built using
relational operators which either yields true or false condition.
1.6. Operators in SQL
1.7.1. Comparison operators
A comparison (or relational) operator is a mathematical symbol or a keyword which is
used to compare between two values.
- Comparison operators are used in conditions that compare one expression with
another.
- The result of a comparison can be TRUE, FALSE, or UNKNOWN.
- SQL Comparison operator is used mainly with the SELECT statement to filter data based
on specific conditions.

Comparison operator Description

= equal to
<>, != is not equal to
< less than
> greater than
>= greater than or equal to
<= less than or equal to
In "Equivalent to any member of" test, Equivalent to "= ANY".
Not In Equivalent to "! = ANY".
All Compares a value with every value in a list
[Not] between [Not] greater than or equal to x and less than or equal to y.
Is [not]null Tests for nulls
Note: The != operator is converted to <> in the parser stage.
1.7.2. Boolean operators in SQL
Boolean Operators are simple words (AND, OR, or NOT) used as conjunctions to combine or exclude
keywords in a search.
. When you want retrieving data using a SELECT statement, you can use logical
operators in the WHERE clause to combine more than one condition.
Example: Retrieve all students’ first name, last name, subject who are studying either
‘Maths’ or ‘Science’.
SELECT first_name, last_name,subject FROM
student WHERE subject = 'Maths' OR
subject = 'Science'
The AND and OR operator combines two logical operands.
. The NOT operator inverts the result of a comparison expression or a logical expression.

1.7.3. SQL Equality Operator Query

Operators are the mathematical and equality symbols which are used to compare,
evaluate, or calculate values. Equality operators include the (<), (>), and (=) symbols,
which are used to compare one value against another. Equality involves comparing
two values. To do so requires the use of the (<), (>), or (=) special characters.
Does X = Y? Is Y < X?
These are both questions that can be answered using a SQL Equality Operator
expression.
SQL operators are generally found inside of queries-- more specifically, in the conditional
statements of the
WHERE clause.
SELECT
customer,day_of_order
FROM orders WHERE
day_of_order > '7/31/08'
1.7.4. SQL - Mathematical Operators
SQL mathematical operators are reserved words or characters which are used primarily in a
SQL statement's WHERE
clause to perform operation(s), such as comparisons and arithmetic operations.
SQL mathematical operations can be performed using mathematical operators (+, -,
*, /, and % (Modulo) and comparisons operators ((<, >, and =)).
SELECT EmpID, FirstName, LastName FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE (Salary + Bonus)>5000;
LO2: Write Basic SQL statements that use functions
2.1. Arithmetical operators in SQL
Arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical functions in SQL—the same as in
most other languages.
Arithmetic Addition in SQL:
Select Salary, (salary+100) ,(salary+1000),(salary+5000) from EMPLOYEE
Arithmetic subtraction in SQL:
Select Salary, (salary-100) ,(salary-1000),(5000-salary) from EMPLOYEE
Arithmetic Multiplication in SQL:
Select Salary, (salary*100) ,(salary*1000),(salary*5000) from EMPLOYEE
Arithmetic Division in SQL:
Select Salary, (salary/100) ,(salary/1000),(salary/5000) from EMPLOYEE
You can do all kinds of Arithmetic combinations in this.
select (100+Salary)*200 ,salary,(salary-Bonus),( (Salary+Bonus)/0.100) from EMPLOYEE
2.2. Mathematical functions in SQL
A function is a predefined formula which takes one or more arguments as input then
processes the arguments and returns an output.
SQL mathematical function executes a mathematical operation usually based on input
values that are provided as arguments, and return a numeric value as the result of the
operation. Mathematical functions operates on numeric data such as decimal, integer,
float, real, smallint, and tinyint.
Some of the Arithmetic functions are:
- abs()
- floor()
- sqrt()
- exp()
- power()
- Round()

 abs() : This SQL ABS() returns the absolute value of a

number passed as argument Example: SELECT ABS(-17.36)FROM
TRAINEE
 floor() : The SQL FLOOR() rounded up any positive or negative decimal value
 down to the next least integer value. SQL DISTINCT along with the SQL
FLOOR() function is used to retrieve only unique value after rounded
down to the next least integer value depending on the column specified.
Example: SELECT floor(17.26)FROM TRAINEE
 exp() : The SQL EXP() returns e raised to the n-th power(n is the numeric
expression), where e is the base of natural algorithm and the value of e is
approximately 2.71828183.
Example: SELECT EXP(2) AS e_to_2s_power FROM TRAINEE
 power() : This SQL POWER() function returns the value of a number raised to
another, where both of the numbers are passed as arguments.
Example: SELECT POWER(2,3)FROM TRAINEE
 sqrt() : The SQL SQRT() returns the square root of
given value in the argument. Example: SELECT
SQRT(Credit)FROM TRAINEE
SQL Character Function
SQL character or string function is a function which takes one or more characters as
parameters and returns a character value. Some Character functions are -
 lower() : The SQL LOWER() function is used to convert all characters of a string to
lower case.
Syntax: SELECT LOWER('TESTING FOR LOWER FUNCTION')
AS Testing_Lower FROM TRAINEE
 upper(): The SQL UPPER() function is used to convert all
characters of a string to uppercase. syntax: SELECT
UPPER('testing for upper function')
AS Testing_Upper
FROM TRAINEE

2.3. Date functions in SQL

The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the format of the date you
are trying to insert, matches the format of the date column in the database.
As long as your data contains only the date portion, your queries
will work as expected. The following table lists the most
important built-in date functions in SQL Server:
 - GETDATE()
- DATEPART()
- DATEADD()
- DATEDIFF()
 GETDATE() : The GETDATE() function returns the current date and time from the
SQL Server.
Syntax: GETDATE()
Example: CREATE TABLE Orders(
OrderId int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
ProductName varchar(50) NOT NULL,
OrderDate datetime NOT NULL
DEFAULT GETDATE()) SELECT GETDATE() AS
CurrentDateTime
DATEPART() : The DATEPART() function is used to return a single part of a
date/time, such as year, month, day, hour, minute, etc.
Syntax: DATEPART(datepart,date)
Example: SELECT
DATEPART(yyyy,OrderD
ate) AS OrderYear,
DATEPART(mm,OrderDat
e) AS OrderMonth,
DATEPART(dd,OrderDate
) AS OrderDay
FROM Orders
WHERE OrderId=1

Note: the dateparts include:

Datepart Abbreviation Datepart Abbreviatio
. Year yy, yyyy . hour hh
. quarter qq, q . minute mi, n
. month mm, m . second ss, s
. dayofyear dy, y . millisecond ms
. day dd, d . microsecond mcs
. week wk, ww . nanosecond ns
. weekday dw, w
  DATEADD() : The DATEADD() function adds or subtracts a specified time interval
from a date.
Where date is a valid date expression and number is the number of interval you want to
add. The number can either be positive, for dates in the future, or negative, for dates in the
past.
Syntax:
DATEADD(datepart,number,date)
Example: SELECT OrderId,DATEADD(day,45,OrderDate) AS
OrderPayDate FROM Orders
 DATEDIFF() : The DATEDIFF() function returns the time between two dates.
Syntax:
DATEDIFF(datepart,startdate,end
date)
Example: Now we want to get the number of days between two dates. We use the following
SELECT statement:
SELECT DATEDIFF(day,'2008-06-05','2008-08-05') AS DiffDate
Result: 61
Now we want to get the number of days between two dates (notice that the second date is
"earlier" than the first date, and will result in a negative number). We use the following
SELECT statement:
SELECT DATEDIFF(day,'2008-08-05','2008-06-05') AS DiffDate

SQL Date Data Types

SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the
database:
 DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD
 DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
 SMALLDATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
SQL Working with Dates
You can compare two dates easily if there is no
time component involved! Assume we have the
following "Orders" table:

OrderId ProductName OrderDate

 1 computer 2008-11-11
2 Digital Camera 2008-11-09
3 Printer 2008-11-11
4 Scanner 2008-10-29
Now we want to select the records with an OrderDate of "2008-11-11"
from the table above. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'
The result-set will look like this:
OrderId ProductName OrderDate
1 Computer 2008-11-11
3 Printer 2008-11-11
Now, assume that the "Orders" table looks like this (notice the time component in the
"OrderDate" column):
OrderId ProductName OrderDate
1 Computer 2008 11-11 13:23:44
2 Digital Camera 2008 11-09 15:45:21
3 Printer 2008 11-11 11:12:01
4 Scanner 2008 10-29 14:56:59
If we use the same SELECT statement as above:
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'
We will get no result! This is because the query is looking only for dates with no time portion.
Tip: If you want to keep your queries simple and easy to maintain, do not allow time
components in your dates!
2.4. SQL aggregate functions
An aggregate function operates on many records and produces a summary; works with GROUP
BY.
Useful SQL Aggregate Functions
MIN returns the smallest
value in a given column MAX
returns the largest
value in a given column
SUM returns the sum of the numeric
values in a given column AVG returns the
 average value of a given column
COUNT returns the total number of
values in a given column COUNT(*)
returns the number of rows in a table
SUM() Returns the sum
Aggregate functions are used to compute against a "returned column of numeric data" from
your SELECT statement. They basically summarize the results of a particular column of
selected data.
 The count function Returns the number of items in expression. The data type returned is of
type int.
Syntax: COUNT ( [ALL | DISTINCT] <expression> | * )
Example: select COUNT(*), AVG(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
With the exception of the COUNT (*) function, all aggregate functions return a NULL
if no rows satisfy the WHERE clause. The COUNT (*) function returns a value of
zero if no rows satisfy the WHERE clause.
 The MAX function Returns the maximum value from expression. Max ignores any
NULL values.
Syntax: MAX ( [ALL | DISTINCT] <expression> )
Example: select MAX(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
 The MIN function Returns the smallest value from expression. Min ignores any NULL
values.
Syntax: MIN ( [ALL | DISTINCT] <expression> )
Example: select MIN(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
 The SUM function Returns the total of all values in expression. Sum ignores any NULL
values.
Syntax: SUM ( [ALL | DISTINCT] <expression> )
Example: select SUM(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
 The AVERAGE function Returns the average of the values in expression. The
expression must contain numeric values. Null values are ignored.
syntax: AVG ([ ALL | DISTINCT ] <expression>)
Example: select ID, avg(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
 The Variance and Standard Deviation function
 - STDEV: Returns the standard deviation of all values in expression. Stdev
ignores any NULL
values. Syntax: STDEV( <expression> )
Example: select STDEV(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
- STDEVP: Returns the standard deviation for the population of all
values in expression. Stdevp ignores any NULL values.
Syntax: STDEVP( <expression> )
Example: select STDEVP(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
- VAR: Returns the variance of all values in expression. Var ignores any
NULL values.
syntax: VAR( <expression> )
Example: select VAR(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
- VARP: Returns the variance for the population of all values in
expression. Varp ignores any
NULL values. syntax: VARP( <expression> )
LO3. Write Basic SQL statements that use aggregation and filtering
3.1. SQL - Grouping By Multiple Columns
When an aggregate function is executed, SQL Server summarizes values for an entire table
or for groups of columns within the table, producing a single value for each set of rows for
the specified columns.
- You can use aggregate functions with the SELECT statement or in combination with
the GROUP BY clause
- Use the GROUP BY clause on columns or expression to organize rows into
groups and to summarize those groups. The GROUP BY clause groups rows on
the basis of similarities between them.
When you use the GROUP BY clause, consider the following facts and guidelines:
. SQL Server returns only single rows for each group that you specify; it does not return
detail information.
. All columns that are specified in the GROUP BY clause must be included in the select
list.
. If you include a WHERE clause, SQL Server groups only the rows that satisfy the
search conditions.
 . Do not use the GROUP BY clause on columns that contain multiple null values.
Example1: For each department, retrieve the department name, the number of employees
in the department, and their average salary; catagorize by the TraineeID, Departement and
name respectively.
SELECT DEPARTEMENT.Dname ,
COUNT
(EMPLOYEE.ID)'
number of
employee', AVG
(EMPLOYEE.salar
y)'average salary'
FROM EMPLOYEE,DEPARTEMENT
where EMPLOYEE.dnum
=DEPARTEMENT.Dnum
ber GROUP BY
DEPARTEMENT.Dname
Example2: Retrieve all trainees’ TraineeID, Name, Departement , the number of course taken by
each trainee and catagorize by the TraineeID, Departement and name.
select TRAINEE .TraineeID ,
TRAINEE .Name,
TRAINEE .Departement,
COUNT(COURSE.Course_
Code )'number of course
taken'
from TRAINEE ,GRADE_REPORT ,COURSE
where TRAINEE .TraineeID =GRADE_REPORT .TraineeID and GRADE_REPORT
.Course_Code =COURSE .Course_Code group by TRAINEE .TraineeID , TRAINEE
.Departement,TRAINEE .Name
3.1.1. SQL - Group By Aggregate
The SQL Aggregate Functions are functions that provide mathematical operations. If you
need to add, count or perform basic statistics, these functions will be of great help.
Basic syntax of Aggregate Functions:
SELECT <column_name1>, <column_name2>
<aggregate_function(s)> FROM <table_name>
GROUP BY <column_name1>, <column_name2>
HAVING <aggregate_function(column_name> < operator> <values>
Example: select customer_name,
SUM(amount),MIN(amount),MAX(amount),AVG(amount),COUNT(amount) from
customers c join purchases p on c.cid = p.cid
group by customer_name
having SUM(amount) > '20.00';
3.1.2. Filtering SQL: HAVING Clause
The Having clause is optional and used in combination with the Group By clause. It is
similar to the Where clause, but the Having clause establishes restrictions that determine
which records are displayed after they have been grouped.
The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used
with aggregate functions.
Basic syntax of having clause:
SELECT column1, ... column_n, aggregate_function (expression)
FROM table_name [WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY column1, ... column_n] HAVING condition
3.1.3. SQL: Sub-select, sorting by aggregate review data
Subquery or Inner query or Nested query is a query in a query. A subquery is usually
added in the WHERE Clause of the sql statement. Most of the time, a subquery is used
when you know how to search for a value using a SELECT statement, but do not know the
exact value.
Subqueries can be used with select, insert, update, and delete along with the comparision
operators like
=, <, >, >=, <= etc.
Example: SELECT first_name,
last_name, subject FROM student_details
WHERE games NOT IN ('Cricket', 'Football');

1) Usually, a subquery should return only one record, but sometimes it can also return
multiple records when used with operators like IN, NOT IN in the where clause. The
query would be like,

The output would be similar to:

 first_name last_name subject

Shekar Gowda Badminton

Priya Chandra Chess

2) Lets consider the student_details table which we have used earlier. If you know the
name of the students who are studying science subject, you can get their id's by using this
query below,

SELECT id, first_name FROM student_details

WHERE first_name IN ('Rahul', 'Stephen');

but, if you do not know their names, then to get their id's you need to write the query in this
manner,

SELECT id, first_name FROM student_details

WHERE first_name IN
(SELECT first_name
FROM student_details
WHERE subject= 'Science');