KIKANI VIDHYA MANDIR

BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

“DNA FINGERPRINTING”

Submitted in partial fulfilment of

AISSCE 2023-2024

By,
NEVETHA MVM
Grade 12 “B”
Register Number
Under the guidance of,
Ms. Kanagadurga M.Sc., B.Ed., PGDCB
PGT Biology, Kikani Vidhya Mandir,
Coimbatore.
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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this ‘Biology Investigatory Project’ on

the topic “DNA FINGERPRINTING” has been successfully

completed by NEVETHA MVM of Class XII under the

guidance of, Ms. Kanagadurga, PGT Biology, in partial

fulfilment of the curriculum of Central Board of Secondary

Education (CBSE) leading to the award of AISSCE of the year

2023-2024.

Internal Examiner Principal External Examiner

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I have sincerely taken efforts in this project. However, it would not

have been possible without the kind support and help of many

individuals.

I would like to thank my beloved Principal Mrs. Geetha Raj,

Vice Principal Mrs. Jayalatha Rosalin and the school for providing me

with facilities required to do my project.

I am highly indebted to my biology teacher, Ms. Kanagadurga for her

invaluable guidance which has sustained my efforts in all the stages of

this project work.

I would also like to thank my parents for their continuous support and

encouragement.

My thanks and appreciations to my fellow classmates and the

laboratory assistant in developing the project and to the people who

have willingly helped me out with their abilities.

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 INDEX

S.NO TOPICS
1. Introduction
2. DNA fingerprinting
3. The accidental discovery of DNA fingerprinting
4. Stages involved in DNA fingerprinting
5. Principles of DNA fingerprinting
6. Application of DNA fingerprinting
7. uses of mitochondrial gens in DNA fingerprinting
8. DNA profiling process
9. Methods of DNA fingerprinting
10. DNA fingerprinting in plants
11. Advantages and disadvantages of DNA fingerprinting
13. Impact of genetic identification in justice
14. DNA fingerprinting in forensic implication
15. Conclusion
16. Webliography

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 INTRODUCTION
The process of DNA fingerprinting was invented by Alec Jeffrey at the university of
Leicester in 1985 he was knighted in 1994. DNA fingerprinting, one of the great
discoveries of the late 20th century, has revolutionized forensic investigations. As the
technique became more sensitive, the handling simple and automated and the statistical
treatment straightforward, DNA profiling, as the method was renamed, entered the forensic
routine laboratories around the world in storm.

DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique used to determine the probable identity of a

person nucleotide sequences are similar in case on twins. Based on the nucleotide
sequences of certain regions of human DNA that are unique to individuals. The procedure
for creating a DNA fingerprint consists of first obtaining a sample of cells, such as skin,
hair, or blood cells, which contain DNA. The DNA is extracted from the cells and
purified.DNA fingerprinting is used in a variety of situations, such as criminal
investigations, other forensic purposes and paternity testing. In these situations, one aims
to “match” two DNA fingerprints with one another, such as a DNA sample from a known
person and one from an unknown person. The technique proved applicable in many
biological disciplines, namely in diversity and conservation studies among species, and in
clinical and anthropological studies. But the true political and social dimension of genetic
fingerprinting became apparent far beyond academic circles when the first applications in
civil and criminal cases were published.

Figure 1 ALEC JEFFREYS

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 DNA FINGERPRINTING
DNA fingerprinting is a method used to identify an individual from a sample of DNA by
looking at unique patterns in their DNA. Forensic genetic fingerprinting can be defined as
the comparison of the DNA in a person’s nucleated cells with that identified in biological
matter found at the scene of a crime or with the DNA of another person for the purpose of
identification or exclusion.

DNA fingerprinting or DNA profiling test is a highly advanced form of a genetic

identification test. Despite the 99.9 % similarity in the DNA of all the people on earth, no
two person’s DNA profiles match (except for identical twins), owing to this mere 0.1%
dissimilarity. Despite being different by only a fraction, this slight variation is enough to
distinguish every human being on the earth from the other. About 99.9 per cent of the
DNA between two humans is the same. The remaining percentage is what makes us unique
(unless you are an identical twin!).Although this might sound like a small amount, it means
that there are around three million base pairs? That is different between two people. These
differences can be compared and used to help distinguish you from someone else.

Minisatellites are short sequences (10-60 base pairs long) of repetitive DNA that show
greater variation? From one person to the next than other parts of the genome?. This
variation is exhibited in the number of repeated units or ‘stutters’ in the minisatellite
sequence. The first minisatellite was discovered in 1980.

Figure 2 DNA FINGERPRINTING

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 THE ACCIDENTAL DISCOVERY OF DNA FINGERPRINTING
On the 7th March, 1985, a paper was published in the scientific journal Nature that
changed the world.Written by a team of three researchers at the University of Leicester:
Alec Jeffreys, Victoria Wilson and Swee Lay Thein, the title, Hypervariable ‘minisatellite’
regions in human DNA’, and the jargon-filled results, talking about dispersed tandem-
repeats and allelic variations, don’t provide much of a clue unless you know what you’re
looking at. But it’s this last sentence of the abstract that’s the real giveaway: “A probe
based on a tandem-repeat of the core sequence can detect many highly variable loci
simultaneously and can provide an individual-specific DNA ‘fingerprint’ of general use in
human genetic analysis.”So what did this team do, what did it mean, and what happened
next?Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys has always had the spirit of science and invention running
in his DNA (if you believe in that kind of genetics…). His Grandfather was an engineer
and a prolific inventor who held many patents. One of them was for a method of creating
photorealistic sculptures, where a customer could come into his shop, have a few photos
taken, and then come back the next day to pick up a picture-perfect statuette of their face,
long before 3-D printing was even an inkling of an idea. Prime Minister Neville
Chamberlain even counted among the happy clientele.Grandpa Jeffreys’ inventiveness
rubbed off on his son, and young Alec grew up in a household full of his dad’s gadgets and
gimmicks. And it was his dad who bought Alec his first microscope and chemistry set -
essential tools for any budding scientist.

Unfortunately, this enthusiasm for chemistry outweighed Alec’s sense of health and safety,
resulting in the detonation of his aunt's apple tree and some nasty acid burns that still leave
their scars today. “You learn science very fast that way, but it was quite fun,” said Jeffreys
in an interview in 2006. Fortunately, this explosive incident didn’t put young Alec off
science at all. He ended up at Oxford University for a degree in biochemistry and PhD in
human genetics, and from there to a lab in Amsterdam, where he started working with
some of the early tools that researchers were developing to study DNA. In 1977 - the year
that Fred Sanger invented his eponymous DNA sequencing technique - Jeffreys arrived in
Leicester, complete with suitably 70s hair and beard, taking up the position of lecturer in
the Department of Genetics. Rather than focusing on investigating how information was
stored within the sequence of DNA, he decided to take a different tack, instead looking at
how DNA varied between people, so he could trace how different versions of genes linked
to traits and diseases were inherited down the generations.

He and his colleagues started a systematic survey of one section of the human genome,
trying to spot how it differed between individuals. But he soon realised this task was a lot
tougher than he first imagined. The variations between people were very hard to detect
with the tools at the time, and not particularly informative. Surely, he figured, there must
be other regions in the genome that were more variable - and easier to work on.

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In the summer of 1984, Jeffreys and his team started working on a technique to detect so-
called mini-satellites: short, stuttering sequences of DNA that are repeated over and over at
certain places in the genome, like the same word repeated again again again again again at
multiple points within a book. But while the word is the same between all humans, the
number of times it gets repeated in various locations throughout the genome is highly
variable.

Their method for looking at mini-satellites worked like this. First extract DNA from cells
and chop it into small bits using an enzyme that cuts DNA at specific sequences around the
mini-satellite clusters. Run it all through a large slab of special science jelly, which
separates all the fragments by size, from the largest to the smallest. Then you stick all that
DNA onto a piece of glorified paper, exactly preserving that pattern of fragments. Next,
wash it with radioactively labelled mini-satellite DNA, slap a piece of X-ray film on top
and leave it for a few days to see what you’ve got. On the morning of 10th September
1984, at 9.05 am, Jeffreys developed the X-ray film from his latest experiment. As well as
looking at DNA samples from related humans, he’d also included a few animal species
too, just for kicks, really. What he saw on that pale blue film covered with rows of fuzzy
black blobs and lines was absolutely astounding.

He realised that the DNA from each species had its own particular pattern of mini-
satellites, exactly like a personal bar code. Not only that, but each human had its own
unique pattern: Even more importantly, he saw that an individual person’s pattern was a
composite containing elements of each of their parents mini-satellite patterns, and could be
used to identify relatives from the same family. This was something he figured out thanks
to DNA samples donated by his lab technician and her mum and dad. Without intending to,
Jeffreys had created the world’s first genetic fingerprint, as he and his team soon came to
describe it. Not bad for a completely accidental discovery, or as Jeffrey’s grandson Ewan
described it in a school project .

The Leicester team published their paper describing the technique in March 1985. It got a
fair bit of pick-up in the media, and almost immediately the university switchboard was
jammed with calls from people desperate to use DNA fingerprinting to solve their
problems. Within a month, Jeffreys and his team had taken on and solved his first case -
the Ghana immigration dispute, which we’ll come to a bit later. By mid-1985 they had
taken on their first paternity case, kick-starting an industry that’s still keeping dubious
daytime TV shows fed with drama to this day. This was also the first time DNA
fingerprinting was used in a court of law, in a magistrate’s court, signalling that the legal
profession was going to have to embark on a pretty steep learning curve to get to grips with
all this genetics stuff.

By 1987 the first DNA profiling company, Cellmark, was set up by licensing Jeffreys’
technology from the University. In the same year came the first criminal case, when a

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combination of DNA evidence and outstanding police work was used to solve the murders
of two Leicestershire schoolgirls, Lynda Mann and Dawn Ashworth, who I’ll talk about
later on. This case was the launchpad for forensic genetics, and within a year DNA
profiling was being used by police forces worldwide.

By the early 90s, the techniques for DNA profiling took a leap forward with the invention
of the polymerase chain reaction, or PCR. Exactly how this works - and the curious drug-
fuelled story behind its discovery - is a topic for a future podcastBasically it’s a kind of
‘photocopier’ for DNA, allowing scientists to see how many copies of each mini-satellite
Are present at various locations in the genome in a matter of hours, rather than the days or
weeks required for Jeffrey’s original technique.

PCR-based fingerprinting also needed far smaller amounts of DNA to get a decent
profile,making it feasible for use in situations like crime scene investigations where only
tiny samples could be gathered. And it’s not just human crimes that can be solved with
DNA fingerprints…When I heard him speak at a recent event in Leicester celebrating the
35th anniversary of his seminal paper, Jeffreys told the story of one a man in the UK who
had an adult male and female golden eagle, both of which he was licensed to keep. But he
also had three fluffy little eaglets.The applications of genetic fingerprinting are almost
endless. Today it’s used in agriculture, medicine, biodiversity research, and much, much
more. DNA profiling has confirmed the identities of remains of the great and the not-so-
great, from the murdered Russian Romanov dynasty to the infamous Nazi Josef Mengele.

Genetic fingerprinting has solved horrific crimes and exonerated innocent prisoners. It was
used to confirm that Dolly the sheep was a true clone, and is being put to work proving the
pedigree (or otherwise) of prize puppies and other valuable animals. There are even ‘poo-
printing’ services that use DNA profiling to identify dogs with irresponsible owners who
persistently fail to scoop that poop. Unsurprisingly, Jeffreys has received many honours
and awards all over the world. But the strangest recognition by far is from Sir Alexander
Fleming College, a British school in

Figure 3

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 STAGES INVOLED IN DNA FINGERPRING

Step 1

DNA is taken from the cell and purified via chemical processing and
centrifugation.

Figure 4 ISOLATION OF FINGERPRINT

Step 2

Using the polymerase chain reaction, many copies of the extracted

DNA are produced (PCR).

Step 3

The restriction endonuclease enzyme breaks down the DNA into

smaller pieces. These enzymes cut the DNA at particular locations,
chopping it up into different lengths.

Figure 5 BREAKING DOWN OF DNA INTO SMALL

PIECES

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Step 4

Depending on their size, the DNA fragments are next separated using a
process called electrophoresis.In the presence of an electric field, a
technique called electrophoresis is used to separate charged molecules.
DNA fragments are positioned on a transparent gel bed on a plate for
electrophoresis, which involves applying an electric current to the gel.
DNA pieces gravitate toward the positive electrode because each one of

Figure 6 GEL ELECTOPHORESIS

their negative charges is unique. Eventually, the pieces and gel are
distributed at various locations by their sizes.

Step 5

The agents that separate the DNA fragments into single strands are then
introduced.

Step 6

The isolated DNA fragments are then transferred from the gel to a
nylon membrane or nitrocellulose, and this method is known as
Southern blotting. In this method, the gel is coated with a nylon
membrane that attracts the DNA fragments, much as how blotting
paper dries wet ink.

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Step 7

In this stage, the radioactive isotope is added to the DNA fragments via
hybridization so that their positions may be seen on an X-ray image. To
accomplish this, a nylon membrane is added to a bath that contains
probes (probes are short pieces of single standard complementary
DNA, tagged with radioactivity that bind to a specific chain of DNA
VNTR sequences according to the base-pairing rule).

Figure 8 RADIO ACTIVED PRODE

Step 8:

The excess radioactive prode is washed .at this stage radioactivity

prode is bound to the DNA pattern on the membrane.

Step 9:

X ray film is placed next to the membrane to detect the radioactive

pattern.

Figure 9 X RAY FILM

Step 10:

The x ray film is developed to make visible the pattern of bands which
is known as a DNA fingerprinting.

Figure 10 DNA FINGERPRINTING BAND

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TOTAL PROCESS OF DNA FINGERPRINTING:

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 PRINCIPLE OF DNA FINGERPRINTING

 The DNA of every human being on the planet is 99.9% same.

However, about 0.1% or 3 x 106base pairs (out of 3 x 109 bp) of DNA
is unique in every individual.
 Human genome pos-sesses numerous small non-coding but inheritable
sequences of bases which are repeated many times. They do not code
for proteins but make-up 95% of our genetic DNA and therefore called
the ―junk DNA.
 They can be separated as satellite from the bulk DNA during density
gradient centrifugation and hence called satellite DNA.
 In satellite DNA, repetition of bases is in tandem. Depending upon
length, base composition and numbers of tandemly re-petitive units,
satellite DNAs have subcat-egories like microsatellites and mini-
satellites.
 Satellite DNAs show poly-morphism. The term polymorphism is used
when a variant at a locus is present with a frequency of more than 0.01
population.
 Variations occur due to mutations. These mutations in the non-coding
sequences have piled up with time and form the basis of DNA
polymorphism (variation at genetic level arises due to mutations).
 The junk DNA regions are thus made-up of length polymorphisms,
which show variations in the physical length of the DNA molecule.
 At specific loci on the chromosome the number of tandem repeats
varies between individuals. There will be a certain number of repeats
for any specific loci on the chromosome.
 Depending on the size of the repeat, the repeat regions are classified
into two groups. Short tandem repeats (STRs) contain 2-5 base pair
repeats and variable number of tandem repeats (VNTRs) have repeats
of 9-80 base pairs.
 Since a child receive 50% of the DNA from its father and the other
50% from his mother, so the number VNTRs at a particular area of the
DNA of the child will be different may be due to insertion, deletion or
mutation in the base pairs.

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  As a result, every individual has a distinct composition of VNTRs and
this is the main principle of DNA fingerprinting.
 As single change in nucleotide may make a few more cleavage site of a
given nucleotide or might abolish some existing cleavage site.
 Thus, if DNA of any individual is digested with a restriction enzyme,
fragments pattern (sizes) will be produced and will be different in
cleavage site p osition. This is the basics of DNA fingerprinting.

Figure 11

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 APPLICATION OF DNA FINGERPRINTING

Forensic Science:
Biological samples such as blood, hair, saliva, sperm, and body tissue cells are used
for DNA profiling. It is possible to compare the DNA recovered from the evidence
sample using the VNTR (Variable number of tandem repeats) prototype. It aids in
the investigation of crimes like rape and murder.

Personal Identification:

Figure 12 DNA FINGERPRINTING IN FORENSIC

SCIENCE

It makes use of the idea that DNA fingerprints can be used to identify people,
acting as a kind of genetic bar code.

Determining Paternity and Maternity:

A person accepts their VNTRs from their parents. Cases that were in disagreement
have been resolved via parent-child VNTR prototype analysis. Additionally,
immigration and inheritance proceedings may make use of this information.

Figure 13 DNA FINGERPRINGING IN

DETERMINING PATERNITY .

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Breeding Program:
Breeders typically assess a plant or animal’s genotype using its phenotype. Since
homozygous or heterozygous dominance is difficult to distinguish from
appearance, the genotype can be determined with great care and accuracy using
DNA fingerprinting. Hunting dogs and racehorses can both benefit from it.

Figure 14 DNA FINGERPRINTING IN BREEDING

PROGRAM

Diagnosis of Hereditary Disorders:

It can be used to identify inherited diseases in both newborn and prenatal children.
Cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, Huntington’s disease, familial Alzheimer’s, sickle cell
anemia, thalassemia, and a host of other conditions may fall under this category.

The creation of treatments for inherited diseases:

DNA prototypes linked to the disease can be identified by examining the DNA
fingerprints of family members who have a history of a particular disorder.

Detection of AIDS:
A person with AIDS can be diagnosed by comparing the HIV “RNA” band
(converted to DNA via RTPCR) with the bands formed by the man’s blood.

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 USE OF MITOCHONDRIAL GENES IN DNA FINGERPRINTING
• Older biological samples that lack nucleated cellular material, such as hair, bones, and
teeth, cannot be analyzed with STR and RFLP, but they can be analyzed with mtDNA.

• Comparing the mtDNA profile of unidentified remains with the profile of a potential
maternal relative can determine whether they share the same mtDNA profile and are
related.

• Since mtDNA remains virtually the same from generation to generation, changing only
about 2% to 4% every million years due to random mutation.

• Consequently relationships can be traced through the unbroken maternal line, as shown in
Figure.

• It has been shown that forensic scientists can amplify the HV1 and HV2 regions of the
mtDNA, and then sequence each region and compare single nucleotide differences to a
reference sample.

• Also, mtDNA that is maternally inherited come from the mother and can be directly
linked to maternal relatives and can be used as match references to establish family
relationships through the mother’s side.

Figure 15 MITOCHONDRIAL CELL

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 DNA PROFILING PROCESS
 Variation number of tandem repeats (VNTRs)
 Amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs)

VARAITION NUMBER OF TANDEM REPEATS (VNTRs)

Variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) are composed of consecutive repetitive DNA
with hyper variable repeat count and composition. They include protein coding sequences
and associations with clinical disorders. It has been difficult to incorporate VNTR analysis
in disease studies that use short-read sequencing because the traditional approach of
mapping to the human reference is less effective for repetitive and divergent sequences. In
this work, we solve VNTR mapping for short reads with a repeat-pan genome graph
(RPGG), a data structure that encodes both the population diversity and repeat structure of
VNTR loci from multiple heliotype-resolved assemblies. We develop software to build a
RPGG, and use the RPGG to estimate VNTR composition with short reads. We use this to
discover VNTRs with length stratified by continental population and expression
quantitative trait loci, indicating that RPGG analysis of VNTRs will be critical for future
studies of diversity and disease

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AMPLIFIED FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISIS

Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) is a PCR-based technique that

uses selective amplification of a subset of digested DNA fragments to generate and
compare unique fingerprints for genomes of interest. The power of this method
relies mainly in that it does not require prior information regarding the targeted
genome, as well as in its high reproducibility and sensitivity for detecting
polymorphism at the level of DNA sequence. Widely used for plant and microbial
studies, AFLP is employed for a variety of applications, such as: to assess genetic
diversity within species or among closely related species, to infer population-level
phylogenies and biogeographic patterns, to generate genetic maps and to determine
relatedness among cultivars. Variations of standard AFLP methodology have been
also developed for targeting additional levels of diversity, like transcriptomic
variation and DNA methylation polymorphism.

Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) is a PCR-based fingerprinting technique

that was first described by Vos et al.

Since then several modified protocols have been reported, but all typically include five
main steps:

 restriction of genomic DNA and ligation of adaptors (most often performed

together) to restricted fragments;
 preselective PCR amplification of a subset of the restricted fragments;
 selective PCR amplification, reducing further fragment number;
 electrophoretic separation of amplified DNA fragments;
 Scoring and interpretation of the data. We detail below one of the protocols that
uses a RedTaq polymerase

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 METHODS OF DNA FINGERPRINTING
Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
amplification of short tandem repeats (STRs) are two main DNA tests widely used for
DNA fingerprinting.

RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)is a difference in homologous DNA
sequences that can be detected by the presence of fragments of different lengths after
digestion of the DNA samples in question with specific restriction endonucleases. RFLP,
as a molecular marker, is specific to a single clone/restriction enzyme combination.Most
RFLP markers are co-dominant (both alleles in heterozygous sample will be detected) and
highly locus-specific.

An RFLP probe is a labeled DNA sequence that hybridizes with one or more fragments of
the digested DNA sample after they were separated by gel electrophoresis, thus revealing a
unique blotting pattern characteristic to a specific genotype at a specific locus. Short,
single- or low-copy genomic DNA or cDNA clones are typically used as RFLP probes.The
RFLP probes are frequently used in genome mapping and in variation analysis
(genotyping, forensics, paternity tests, hereditary disease diagnostics, etc.).

Advantages

The RFLP is considered to be more accurate than the PCR, mainly because the size of the
sample used more, use of a fresh DNA sample, and no amplification contamination.

Limitation

The RFLP, however, require longer time period to complete the analysis and is costly.

Figure 16 RFLP

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POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) AMPLIFICATION OF
SHORT TANDEM REPEATS (STRs)
Thousands of copies of a particular variable region are amplified by PCR which forms the
basis of this detection.

STR with a known repeat sequence is amplified and separated using gel-electrophoresis.

The distance migrated by the STR is examined.

For the amplification of STRs using PCR, a short synthetic DNA, called primers are
specially designed to attach to a highly conserved common nonvariable region of DNA
that flanks the variable region of the DNA.

By comparing the STR sequence size amplified by PCR with the other known samples,
will give the final result of the DNA fingerprinting.

Advantages

 Small amount of specimen is sufficient for the test.

 Takes a shorter time to complete.
 Less costly.

Limitation

 Less accurate than RFLP.

 Possibility of amplification contamination.

Figure 17

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 DNA FINGERPRINTING IN PLANTS
Nowadays, DNA typing is a widely used technique in the field of genetics. This tool has
not only been useful in forensic and scientific studies of animals, but has also proved
important in studying plants. Read on to know more.

Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that is passed on genetically in all living

organisms. Also found in plants, DNA stores all the information with the help of four
chemical bases; adenine(A), guanine(G), cytosine(C), and thymine(T). These base pairs are
attached to a sugar and a phosphate molecule. Thus, a base pair, sugar molecule, and
phosphate molecule form a nucleotide. The two long strands of nucleotides forming a
spiral is called a double helix. The sequence in which these base pairs occur determine the
formation of various traits and structure of an organism.

DNA is also found in plants and is unique to each individual specimen. Thus, it can be
mapped to reveal the genetic make up of an organism. DNA fingerprinting in plants is used
for protection of the ecosystem, identification of marker traits, gene diversity and variation,
and mutations. There are various methods for plant DNA fingerprinting like Restriction
Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs), Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNAs
(RAPDs), Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP), and Simple Sequence
Repeats (SSRs).

DNA profiling involves the extraction of DNA from plant cells for quantification, and
quality assessment. While carrying out the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based
duplication of DNA in RAPD, ISSR or SSR, diluted DNA is mixed with a master mix. The
master mix contains PCR buffer, DNTPS, primer, water, and Taq polymerase enzyme in a
PCR eppendorf tube.

The PCR machine is programmed in advance for the number of cycles. The mixture is then
loaded and the cycle is carried out. After the cycle is completed, electrophoresis of the
samples is carried out. AGE or PAGE electrophoresis can be used depending upon the
technique. The samples are stained to reveal the banding patterns. After the DNA has been
isolated and enough copies are replicated, various methods explained below are used for its
profiling.

Figure 18 DNA FINGERPRINTING IN PLANTS

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 ADVANTAGES OF DNA FINGERPRINTING
 DNA fingerprinting provides another layer of forensic evidence.
 It offers a greater level of certainty than standard fingerprinting.
 DNA fingerprinting is unobtrusive
 The evidence collected from DNA fingerprinting can be stored indefinitely.
 DNA fingerprints have more than a criminal justice emphasis
 It could become the foundation of genetic treatments
 DNA fingerprinting does not require a specific sample size.

DISADVANTAGES OF DNA FINGERPRINTING

 DNA fingerprinting is still an imperfect science
 People are overly influenced by DNA evidence.
 Data protection issues create additional storage and privacy issues
 There are privacy addresses we have not yet addressed.
 It requires information obtained to be properly interpreted.
 We could use DNA fingerprinting to create new classes within our societies.
 DNA fingerprinting information could be stored without personal permission.
 International agencies may have DNA fingerprints without personal permission.
 It could result in ethnic targeting
 DNA fingerprinting relies on human accuracy.

Figure 19

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 Impact of Genetic Identification in Justice
Genetic testing using DNA has been widely applicable to the field of justice. This method
is being used for the following:

 Identification of accused and confirmation of guilt.

 Exculpation of innocent ones.
 Identification of persons who commit crimes or serial killers.
 Identification of victims in disasters.
 Establishing consanguinity in complex cases.

Figure 20 DNA FINGERPRINTING JUSTICE

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 DNA FINGERPRINING IN FORENSIC IMPLICATION
At this time the forensic implications of genetic fingerprinting were emerging. The
original process proved to be inadequate for this, and so from 1985 Sir Alec and his team
developed a variation which they called "genetic profiling" for forensic use.

Again, its first application caught the public mood. Two young girls were raped and
murdered in the Enderby area of Leicestershire. A man who had been arrested had
confessed to one murder but not the other, and the police decided to use genetic profiling,
thinking to prove him guilty of both cases. Against all expectation he was found to be
innocent of both. Then the hunt was on to find a genetic profile among the entire male
population of the area that matched samples taken from the two victims. No match was
found, until Colin Pitchfork was overheard boasting of how he had persuaded a friend to
give a sample on his behalf. The case was solved.

Isn’t it amazing to find out a criminal just by examining a trace of blood or a part of hair
found on the crime site as evidence. Well, I know it’s not that easy but yes it is one of the
most trusted tests done in the forensic science department. DNA fingerprinting technique
have created wonders from the time it has been invented. It is also known as DNA
profiling, DNA testing, DNA typing and genetic fingerprint. Now the very obvious
question is who invented DNA fingerprinting? An English geneticist, Dr. Alec J. Jeffreys
invented this technique in the year 1984. He found that in the DNA there are DNA
sequences which are repeated again and again and the number of repeated sequence is
different in different people. By finding out the length of the DNA and the number of DNA
sequences one can perform the identity test.

Figure 21 FORENSIC DEPARTMENT

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 FORENSIC USE OF Y CHROMOSOMES

The male-specific part of the human Y chromosome is widely used in forensic DNA
analysis, particularly in cases where standard autosomal DNA profiling is not informative.
A Y-chromosomal gene fragment is applied for inferring the biological sex of a crime
scene trace donor. Haplotypes composed of Y-chromosomal short tandem repeat
polymorphisms (Y-STRs) are used to characterise paternal lineages of unknown male trace
donors, especially suitable when males and females have contributed to the same trace,
such as in sexual assault cases. Y-STR haplotyping applied in crime scene investigation
can

 exclude male suspects from involvement in crime

 identify the paternal lineage of male perpetrators
 highlight multiple male contributors to a trace, and
 provide investigative leads for finding unknown male perpetrators.

Y-STR haplotype analysis is employed in paternity disputes of male offspring and other
types of paternal kinship testing, including historical cases, as well as in special cases of
missing person and disaster victim identification involving men. Y-chromosome
polymorphisms are applied for inferring the paternal bio-geographic ancestry of unknown
trace donors or missing persons, in cases where autosomal DNA profiling is
uninformative. In this overview, all different forensic applications of Y-chromosome DNA
are described. To illustrate the necessity of forensic Y-chromosome analysis, the
investigation of a prominent murder case is described, which initiated two changes in
national forensic DNA legislation both covering Y-chromosome use, and was finally

Figure 22 Y CHROMOSOMES

solved via an innovative Y-STR dragnet involving thousands of volunteers after 14 years.

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 CONCLUSION
DNA evidence is easy to obtain because genetic material is found in all human cells, save
red blood cells. As a result, when we leave behind small biological bits of ourselves, these
bits can be used to identify us and link us to the places we've been. With modern
technology, the amount of DNA required for analysis can be obtained from even a
miniscule biological sample, which allows police to match crime scene evidence with
suspects. However, because forensics is a science largely rooted in probabilities, even a
confirmed "match" does not supply concrete proof of guilt. In addition, DNA databases
designed to simplify the process of connecting past offenders to recent crimes are fraught
with concerns involving individual genetic rights, as well as problems related to delayed
sample entry, both of which hinder the ultimate usefulness of these databases. As a result,
even though forensics is undeniably important to the modern justice system, its personal
ramifications and ethical questions are topics of continuing discussion within the scientific,
law enforcement, and legal communities.

Figure 23

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