DC AND AC NETWORKS

Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. DC flows through
a conductor such as a wire, it can also flow through semiconductors, even through a vacuum as
in electron or ion beams. Direct current may be converted from an alternating current supply by
use of a rectifier. Direct current may be converted into alternating current via an inverter. Direct
current has many uses such as charging of batteries, production of large power supplies for
electronic systems such as motors, etc.

An electrical device is represented by a circuit diagram or network constructed from series and
parallel arrangements of two-terminal elements. The analysis of the circuit diagram predicts the
performance of the actual device. A two-terminal element in general form is shown in Fig.1, with
a single device represented by the rectangular symbol and two perfectly conducting leads ending
at connecting points A and B. Active elements are voltage or current sources which are able to
supply energy to the network. Resistors, inductors, and capacitors are passive elements which take
energy from the sources and either convert it to another form or store it in an electric or magnetic
field.

Figure 1: Two-Terminal Element

Generally, network analysis is any structured technique used to mathematically analyze a circuit
(a “network” of interconnected components). Quite often the technician or engineer will encounter
circuits containing multiple sources of power or component configurations that defy simplification
by series/parallel analysis techniques. In those cases, the engineer will be forced to use other
means such as circuital laws in analyzing such complex circuits.

The equivalent resistance of a circuit (or network) between its any two points (or terminals) is
given by that single resistance which can replace the entire given circuit between these two points.

Serial Arrangement of Resistance

The Fig. 2a shows two resistors connected in series between point A and point B. Part (b) shows
three resistors in series, and part (c) shows four in series. Therefore, there is no limit of number of
resistors that can make up the resistors in series.
Figure 2: series connection of (a) two resistors (b) three resistors (c) four resistors

When a voltage source is connected from point A to point B, the only way for current to get from
one point to the other in any of the connections of Figure 2 is to go through each of the resistors.
Therefore, a series circuit is defined as circuit that provides only one path for current between two
points so that the current is the same through each series resistor. Likewise, serial arrangement can
be in a form as represented in fig. 3a-e.

Figure 3a-e: further serial arrangements of ressistors.

For any number of individual resistors connected in series, the total resistance is the sum of each
of the individual values.
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛

Each parallel path in a circuit is called a BRANCH. Two resistors connected in parallel are shown
in Figure 4(a). The equivalent current distribution as shown in Fig(4b), the current out of the source
(𝐼𝑇 ) divides when it gets to point B. 𝐼1 passes through R1 and 𝐼2 passes through R2. The two
currents come back together at point A.

Figure 4 (a) Parallel arrangement of resistors (b) current distribution in the circuit.
A parallel circuit are identified if there is more than one current path (branch) between two points,
and if the voltage between those two points also appears across each of the branches, then there is
a parallel circuit between those two points. Furthermore, parallel resistors can be drawn in different
ways between two points labeled A and B, as shown in the Figure 5.

Figure5: Examples of circuits with 2 parallel paths.

The equivalent resistance (𝑅𝑇 )

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛

For the case of two resistors, the equation of for calculating the equivalent resistors are represented
as
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑇 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

The equation simply indicates that the total resistance for two resistors in parallel is equal to the
product of the two resistors divided by the sum of the two resistors. This equation can be
summarized as the “product over the sum” formula.

Certain theorems are used which when applied to the solutions of electric networks, wither
simplify the network itself or render their analytical solution very easy. These theorems can also
be applied to an A.C. system, with the only difference that impedances replace the ohmic resistance
of D.C. system. Different electric circuits (according to their properties) are defined below

We will now discuss the various network theorems which are of great help in solving complicated
networks. Incidentally, a network is said to be completely solved or analyzed when all voltages
and all currents in its different elements are determined.
There are two general approaches to network analysis:

(i) Direct Method

Here, the network is left in its original form while determining its different voltages and currents.
Such methods are usually restricted to fairly simple circuits and include Kirchhoff’s laws, Loop
analysis, Nodal analysis, superposition theorem, Compensation theorem and Reciprocity theorem
etc.

(ii) Network Reduction Method

Here, the original network is converted into a much simpler equivalent circuit for rapid calculation
of different quantities. This method can be applied to simple as well as complicated networks.
Examples of this method are: Delta/Star and Star/Delta conversions, Thevenin’s theorem and
Norton’s Theorem etc.

Kirchhoff’s Laws

Gustav Robert Kirchoff (1824 - 1887) a German physicist, published the first systematic
description of the laws of circuit analysis. These laws are known as Kirchhoff ’s current law (KCL)
and Kirchoff ’s voltage law (KVL).

1) Current law: or point law, it States that in any network of wires carrying currents the algebraic
sum of the currents meeting at Junction (or point) is zero. It is also called as point law. It can be
written as the total current leaving a junction is equal to the total current entering that junction
(Fig.5). It is obviously true because there is no accumulation of charge at the junction of the
network.

Fig. 6: Five conductors carrying current and meeting at a point

From the Fig.5, the current is entering the node A through 𝐼4 and leaving the node through 𝐼1 , 𝐼2
, 𝐼3 and 𝐼5

𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦; + 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 = 0 KCL

𝐼4 + 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼5

Using this notation, KCL can be written using a summation;

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐼𝑖 = 0

Terms used in explanation of DC Networks

Circuit: A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current either flows or is
intended flow.

Parameters: The various elements of an electric circuit are called its parameters like resistance,
inductance and capacitance. These parameters may be lumped or distributed.

Linear Circuit: A linear circuit is one whose parameters are constant i.e. they do not change with
voltage or current. Non-linear Circuit is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage or
current.
Bilateral Circuit: A bilateral circuit is one whose properties or characteristics are the same in
either direction. The usual transmission line is bilateral, because it can be made to perform its
function equally well in either direction.

Unilateral Circuit: It is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change with the direction
of its operation. A diode rectifier is a unilateral circuit, because it cannot perform rectification in
both directions.

Passive Network: is one which contains no source of e.m.f. in it. Active Network is one which
contains one or more than one source of e.m.f.

Node is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are connected together. Branch
is that part of a network which lies between two junctions. Loop. It is a close path in a circuit in
which no element or node is encountered more than once. Mesh. It is a loop that contains no other
loop within it.

For example, consider the circuit of Figure 7, determine the number of loops, branches, nodes and
the meshes in the circuit.

Figure 7: The circuit showing 6 nodes, 7 branches, 3 Loops and 2 Meshes.

Kirchhoff’s Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL)

It states that the algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances (IR) in each of the
conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs. in that
path is zero. Likewise, it can be stated as in any closed electric circuit, the sum of potential drops
(I.R) is equal to the sum of the impressed e.m.f.s.

This law represents the statement for the conservation of Energy.

In other words, Σ IR + Σ e.m.f. = 0 ...round a mesh

Figure 8: demonstrating (a) node, loop and branch (b) KCL (c) KVL

In applying KVL, attention is needed in determination of voltage drop/rise in a loop, otherwise

results will come out to be wrong as shown in Fig. 9

Figure 9: showing the voltage drop and voltage rise

Sign of Battery E.M.F.

A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a - ve sign (Figure 9). Keeping
this in mind, it is clear that as we go from the − ve terminal of a battery to its + ve terminal (Fig.
9), there is a rise in potential, hence this voltage should be given a + ve sign. If, on the other hand,
we go from + ve terminal to − ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential, hence this voltage should
be preceded by − ve sign.

It is important to note that the sign of the battery e.m.f. is independent of the
direction of the current through that branch.
Sign of IR Drop
Let’s consider the case of a resistor (Fig. 9). If we go through a resistor in the same direction as
the current, then there is a fall in potential because current flows from a higher to a lower potential.
Hence, this voltage fall should be taken as −ve. However, if we go in a direction opposite to that
of the current, then there is a rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise should be given a positive
sign (+ve)

It is clear that the sign of voltage drop across a resistor depends on the direction of current
through that resistor but is independent of the polarity of any other source of e.m.f. in the circuit
under consideration.
Consider the closed path ABCDA in Fig. 10. As we travel around the mesh in the clockwise
direction, different voltage drops will have the following signs:

Using Kirchhoff’s law,

−𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼3 𝑅3 − 𝐼4 𝑅4 − 𝐸2 + 𝐸1 = 0
Re-arranging will give;
𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 + 𝐼4 𝑅4 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2

In applying Kirchhoff’s laws to electrical networks, the question of assuming proper direction of
current usually arises. The direction of current flow may be assumed either clockwise or
anticlockwise. If the assumed direction of current is not the actual direction, then on solving the
electrical networks, this current will be found to have a minus sign. If the answer is positive, then
assumed direction is the same as actual direction

However, the important point is that once a particular direction has been assumed, the same
should be used throughout the solution of the question.
Example: What is the value of voltage Vs across the open switch in the circuit of Fig. 11

Applying KVL to the circuit in order to find Vs. Starting from point A in the clockwise direction
and using the sign convention as explained earlier, we have

+𝑉𝑠 + 10 − 20 − 50 + 30 = 0 KVL

𝑉𝑠 = 30𝑉
Applying Kirchhoff’s laws to different loops in Figure 12, find the values of V1, V2 and V3 in the
circuit

Starting from point A and applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to loop3, we get

−V3 + 5 = 0 V3 = 5V
Starting from point A and applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to loop1, we get

10 − 30 − V1 +5 = 0 V1 = −15V

The negative sign of V1 denotes that its polarity is opposite to that shown in the figure.

Starting from point B in loop 2, we get

− (− 15) − V2 + (− 15) = 0 V2 = 0
Solving Simultaneous Equations
Electric circuit analysis with the help of Kirchhoff’s laws usually involves solution of two or three
simultaneous equations. These equations can be solved by a systematic elimination of the variables
but the procedure is often lengthy and laborious and hence more liable to error. Determinants and
Cramer’s rule provide a simple and straight method for solving network equations through
manipulation of their coefficients. Of course, if the number of simultaneous equations happens to
be very large, use of a digital computer can make the task easy.

2.6. Determinants
The symbol
𝑎 𝑏
| | is called a determinant of the second order (or 2 × 2 determinant) because it contains two
𝑐 𝑑
rows (ab and cd) and two columns (ac and bd). The numbers a, b, c and d are called the elements
or constituents of the determinant. Their number in the present case is 22 = 4.

The evaluation of such a determinant is accomplished by cross-multiplication as illustrated below:

Prefix + and − sign alternately to the terms so obtained.

Add up all these terms together to get the value of the given determinant. Considering the first
column, minors of various elements are as shown in Fig.13. Expanding in terms of first column,
we get