gfras good practice note for extension and advisory services

NOTE 0: Overview of Extension

Philosophies and Methods
Compiled by: Kristin Davis and Rasheed Sulaiman V, September 2016

The Global Good Practices Initiative aims to facilitate access to information and know-how on agricultural
extension for a wide audience of practitioners. It does so by providing Good Practice Notes, which are
descriptions of key concepts, approaches, and methods in an easy-to-understand format. They give an overview
of the main aspects, best-fit considerations, and sources for further reading. The notes are openly available at
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Introduction yields, training, and transferring technology. Today’s

Extension (also known as rural advisory services) has understanding of extension goes beyond technology
risen and fallen on the global development agenda. The transfer to facilitation; beyond training to education; and
focus on extension increased during the green revolution includes assisting farmer groups to form, dealing with
era. Today, due to factors such as food price crises and marketing issues, and partnering with a broad range of
climate change, extension is increasingly recognised as service providers1.
critical for rural development. This note aims to introduce
programme managers to extension philosophies and Philosophy and principles
methods over the past decades. It demonstrates that each Depending on the underlying political, economic, and
approach originated in specific circumstances, and has social philosophies and programme goals, there are
both merits and demerits. varying philosophies and methods of advisory services.

There are many philosophies and methods for extension, The dominant paradigm in the 1970s and 1980s (which
and views on what it is all about have changed over time. still exists today) was transfer of technology, a linear
Extension originally was conceived as a service to ‘extend’ approach (Figure 1) that aims to persuade farmers to
research-based knowledge to the rural sector to improve adopt new technologies, such as high-yielding varieties of
farmers’ lives. It includes components of technology rice and maize.
transfer, rural development goals, and non-formal
education. The traditional view of extension in developing As practitioners saw that this approach was not
countries was focused on increasing production, improving necessarily meeting farmers’ needs, more participatory
approaches came about, where farmers articulate
demand and are involved in research and extension
BOX 1: WHAT IS EXTENSION?
activities.
GFRAS defines extension as all the institutions from
different sectors that facilitate farmers’ access to
knowledge, information, and technologies; their
interaction with markets, research, and education;
and the development of technical, organisational, Research Extension Farmer
and management skills and practices. Thus
extension includes not only technical knowledge, but
also functional elements such as communication,
facilitation, and empowerment.
Figure 1. Linear approach

1
Davis, K. 2008. Extension in sub-Saharan Africa: Overview and assessment of past and current models and future prospects. Journal of International
Agricultural and Extension Education 15 (3): 15–28.

Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS) www.betterextension.org  1

The linear philosophy was replaced by systems Research
approaches such as farming systems research and
extension, which merges research and extension
in multi-disciplinary teams. A spin-off of this was the
agricultural knowledge and information systems
approach (Figure 2), emphasising links between research,
education, extension, and farmers.
Farmer

During the 2000s, these systems approaches evolved

into the agricultural innovation systems approach. An
innovation system includes all the actors that bring new Extension Education
products, processes, and forms of organisation into
economic use2. The framework includes the institutions
and policies that affect how the actors interact. For more Figure 2. Agricultural knowledge and information
information see Global Good Practice Note 133. systems approach

Other extension philosophies are based on adult Demonstrations

education. These include the United States cooperative Crops and practices can be demonstrated in a farmer’s
extension system, farmer field schools (FFS) (Note 2), and field, on a research station, or at an agricultural show
farmer study circles (Note 20). Many of these approaches or fair. While demonstrations can be convincing, there
are based on work of the Brazilian educator Paulo Freire, are drawbacks. One is that people must be present
who called for empowerment through education rather to see them; another is that people may feel unable
than a ‘banking’ approach to learning where the empty to follow suit because they don’t have the resources.
learner receives ‘deposits’ from the teacher. One way to deal with this is to hold demonstrations by
farmers on their own fields. This is especially useful when
There are many more philosophies that are based trying to reach women and other marginalised groups.
on empowerment principles. These include farmer Demonstrations can be quite expensive in terms of setting
first, farmer-to-farmer extension (Note 7), and other up the practice and bringing people to the site; and
participatory approaches. they have little sustainability unless they are permanent
fixtures on farmers’ fields.
Implementation
Here we define methods as specific tools or mechanisms Training-and-visit system (T&V)
to achieve a programme goal. This section describes Under the transfer-of-technology approach, the T&V
a number of extension methods, their strengths and system was introduced to transfer the latest technologies
weaknesses, implications for gender and marginalised and practices from research to farmers. The T&V
groups, cost implications where known, best-fit system was used to address a lack of professionalism
considerations, and sustainability. and improve the accountability of extension agents.
Advantages include regular farm visits, continuous
Extension methods can be divided into individual training for agents, and a more professional approach to
approaches (one-on-one advisory services either extension. Disadvantages are that it is top-down, rigid,
face-to-face, by telephone, or via the internet) and and financially unsustainable. The costs include large
group approaches. Group approaches, which include numbers of personnel, and their continuous training and
demonstrations and mass media, are used by methods management.
such as FFS. They are more cost-effective than individual
approaches. However, many farmers do need individual Farmer field schools (FFS)
advice. Farmer field schools take an adult education,
participatory, group-based approach. They are used
Mass media in over 90 countries on many different topics, from
Mass media approaches include leaflets, pamphlets, integrated pest management to business management.
posters, radio (Note 18), television (Note 22), websites Farmer field schools are especially good for teaching
(Note 16), and text or audio messages via mobile phones complex practices that must be experienced to be
(Notes 3 and 17). Mass media can reach many people at understood, and experiential learning and discovery
little cost. However, it is difficult to communicate complex learning are critical elements of this method. The
information via mass media; they work better with simple approach can also be used for empowerment, and for
messages. Also, some people (especially women) do not building social capital. Farmer field schools do require
have access to mass media, or cannot read or speak the a different mindset than most extension agents have –
language used. facilitation rather than lecturing. They have been shown

2
Hall, A., Janssen, W., Pehu, E. and Rajalahti, R. 2006. Enhancing agricultural innovation: How to go beyond the strengthening of research systems.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
3
All Global Good Practice Notes can be downloaded from www.betterextension.org
4
Davis, K., Nkonya, E., Kato, E., Mekonnen, D.A., Odendo, M., Miiro, R. and Nkuba, J. 2012. Impact of farmer field schools on agricultural productivity and
poverty in East Africa. World Development 40 (2): 402–413.

2 Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS) www.betterextension.org

to be effective at reaching women and those with less include facilitation and coordination. For more information
education4. The intensive training offered over a long see Note 1.
period is costly in terms of human and financial resources,
and FFS have been criticised for being financially Governance, funding, and delivery
expensive. However, self-financed and semi-self-financed In this section we cover more recent developments in
models can help to deal with sustainability issues and extension over the past few decades. The governance
the costs of an external facilitator, transport, and setting of extension methods depends on each country’s
up and maintaining demonstration plots – for example, governmental structure and administration of its
farmers may pay back the costs of the facilitator using extension programme.
proceeds from sales from their plots.
In economic theory in general, and international
Theatre development in particular, the 1980s and 1990s was a
Theatre is a useful tool to put across key messages in period of focus on the market to solve economic and
a powerful, memorable way. While it has been used for development problems. There was criticism of ‘bloated’
some time for HIV/AIDS messages, it is now being used civil service functions such as government extension,
for climate change and other complex topics. Theatre is where the outcomes and impact did not necessarily
effective because it is entertaining and has an impact, but justify the costs of salaries and operations. Around
it is time- and resource-intensive. Special skills are needed that time, institutions loaning money to countries for
to put together good scripts, and unless local capacity is development, including the International Monetary
developed and used, sustainability is non-existent. Fund and the World Bank, began to introduce structural
adjustment programmes – policies attached to new loans
Videos and ICTs that encouraged economic reforms such as privatisation
Videos, especially digital ones, are a relatively new and deregulation. Criticisms of the existing models of
technology. Videos may help to meet the challenges extension led to various types of reform, described below.
of disseminating information to farmers and reaching
the poor, marginalised, women, and youth. Different Privatisation and pluralism
types of video include documentary (describing events), Privatisation involves the transfer of some or all
institutional (promoting a project or organisation), ownership and operational control of extension from
instructional (developed by researchers with limited input government to the private sector. Privatisation results
from farmers), farmer-learning (made with farmers), from the desire to reduce the role of government due
and participatory (made by farmers). Videos have many to central government failings or the complexity of local
benefits: entertainment value, the power of ‘seeing is issues; inability of governments to finance services;
believing’, clips can be readily available, and they are or the view that democracy is best served through
easily made in many local languages. However, drawbacks devolved functions with more participation at local
include the fact that equipment and power are required to level6. However, experience has been mixed. While the
view them. Also, they must be in a language that is easy process has led to the emergence of private consulting
to understand, and they are more costly to produce than companies, small farms – especially those with limited
a flyer or poster. Special technical capacities are needed. resources to buy extension services – are left out by the
In terms of sustainability, video can be made locally, and private sector unless special public funding is provided
one DVD can be shown multiple times to thousands of to support them.
people. And Digital Green has shown, using a controlled
evaluation, that video-enabled behaviour-change methods In this context, recognising the potential contributions
can bring a 10-fold increase in cost-effectiveness relative of other extension players has led to the concept of
to a conventional extension system5. For more information pluralism in extension. Pluralism is essentially the
see Note 6 (videos). coexistence of a number of extension providers and
approaches from different sectors. Pluralistic systems
On other ICTs see Note 11 (navigating ICTs), Note 15 recognise the comparative advantages of different types
(social media), Note 17 (mobile phones), and Note 18 of provider. Coordination is essential in pluralism to
(radio). prevent duplication of effort and to ensure synergy.

Innovation platforms Decentralisation

Finally, innovation platforms can be a useful tool, Decentralisation means transferring control of programme
especially for problem solving with relevant actors in planning and management to the level of implementation.
value chains or innovation systems. This tool can be This is thought to improve accountability to local users
very empowering for farmers. However, it takes a lot and provide more appropriate programming. However,
of time and effort to coordinate, and the high number in many countries decentralisation has resulted in
of stakeholders makes management a bottleneck, and weakening of financial and technical support, and many
sustainability an issue. Capacities needed by extension local governments lack the necessary capacity.

5
Gandhi, R., Veeraraghavan, R. and Toyama, K. 2009. Digital Green: Participatory video and mediated instruction for agricultural extension. Information
Technologies & International Development 5 (1): 1–15. Available at: http://itidjournal.org/index.php/itid/article/view/322
6
Rivera, W.M. 2011. Public sector agricultural extension system reform and the challenges ahead. Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 17 (2):
165–180. Available at: www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1389224X.2011.544457

Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS) www.betterextension.org  3

Demand-driven approaches Sulaiman V, R. and Hall, A.J. 2002. Beyond technology
In this type of approach, farmers are given space to dissemination – Can Indian agricultural extension re-invent
identify their needs and their requirements of extension itself? Policy Brief 16. New Delhi: National Centre for
programmes. Thus they need sufficient capacity and Agricultural Economics and Policy Research. Available at:
organisation to aggregate their demands, which means www.ncap.res.in/upload_files/policy_brief/pb16.pdf
strengthening the capacities of farmer groups to articulate
their needs and monitor service provision. Participatory Training materials
extension approaches ensure that services are relevant New Extensionist Learning Kit, Module 2 – Adult learning
and responsive to local conditions, and meet actual user and behavioural change: www.g-fras.org/en/activities/the-
needs7. Service providers are accountable to users, and new-extensionist.html#learning-kit
ideally users should have a choice of service providers.
Ochola, W., Heemskerk, W. and Wongtschowski, M.,
Market-oriented services eds. 2013. Changing agricultural education from
Market-oriented extension provides services focused on within: Lessons and challenges from the GO4IT
linking farmers to markets, often to improve their income. programme. Amsterdam: RUFORUM and KIT Publishers.
This type of extension may also involve providing services Available at: http://213ou636sh0ptphd141fqei1.
to other actors in the value chain. Currently there is an wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/sed/wp-content/uploads/
increasing demand for such market-oriented services. publications/5373318064d97_KIT_GO4IT_final.pdf

In conclusion, all philosophies – and methods – have

advantages and disadvantages. It is up to each extension
manager to decide what works best in their own context, This paper was produced by the International Food Policy
keeping in mind the nature of the challenge, the clients’ Research Institute (IFPRI) and the Centre for Research
demands, and the resources available for intervention. on Innovation and Science Policy (CRISP) with financial
support provided by the agencies with the logos below.
Further reading
Davis, K. and Heemskerk, W. 2012. Investment This work was undertaken as part of the CGIAR Research
in extension and advisory services as part of Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM) led by
agricultural innovation systems. In World Bank (ed.) the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
Agricultural innovation systems: An investment This publication has not gone through IFPRI’s standard
sourcebook. Washington, DC: World Bank. Available peer-review procedure. The opinions expressed here
at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTARD/ belong to the authors, and do not necessarily reflect those
Resources/335807-1330620492317/9780821386842.pdf of IFPRI.

Davis, K., Nkonya, E., Kato, E., Mekonnen, D.A., Odendo, Author information: Kristin Davis is a Research Fellow
M., Miiro, R. and Nkuba, J. 2010. Impact of farmer field with the International Food Policy Research Institute. Her
schools on agricultural productivity and poverty in East work involves research and capacity strengthening on
Africa. IFPRI Discussion Paper 992. Washington, DC: agricultural extension, education, and innovation systems.
International Food Policy Research Institute. Available at: Rasheed Sulaiman V is the Director of the Centre for
www.ifpri.org/publication/impact-farmer-field-schools- Research on Innovation and Science Policy (CRISP),
agricultural-productivity-and-poverty-east-africa Hyderabad, India. He has more than 20 years’ research
experience in agricultural extension and the application of
Hoffmann, V., Gerster-Bentaya, M., Christinck, A. and the innovation systems framework in agriculture.
Mamusha Lemma, M. 2009. Rural extension handbook,
Volume I: Basic issues and concepts. Weikersheim, Correct citation: Davis, K. and Sulaiman V, R. 2016.
Germany: Margraf Publishers. Overview of Extension Philosophies and Methods. Note 0.
GFRAS Good Practice Notes for Extension and Advisory
Rivera, W.M. and Sulaiman V, R. 2009. Extension: object Services. GFRAS: Lausanne, Switzerland.
of reform, engine for innovation. Outlook on Agriculture
38 (3): 267–273.

7
Rivera, 2011. Op. cit.

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