Current Issues in Tourism

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The destination image gap – visitors' and

residents' perceptions of place: evidence from
Waiheke Island, New Zealand

Chris Ryan & Michelle Aicken

To cite this article: Chris Ryan & Michelle Aicken (2010) The destination image gap – visitors' and
residents' perceptions of place: evidence from Waiheke Island, New Zealand, Current Issues in
Tourism, 13:6, 541-561, DOI: 10.1080/13683500903215008

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500903215008

Published online: 06 Apr 2010.

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Current Issues in Tourism
Vol. 13, No. 6, November 2010, 541 –561

The destination image gap – visitors’ and residents’ perceptions

of place: evidence from Waiheke Island, New Zealand
Chris Ryan and Michelle Aicken

University of Waikato, Gate 7 Hillcrest Road, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand

(Received 15 January 2009; final version received 28 July 2009)

This paper reports results derived from a survey of 2229 residents of, and 2151 visitors
to the island of Waiheke, New Zealand. The study finds there was a close similarity of
place image held by both visitors and residents. The paper examines the proposal that
where congruency exists between visitor and resident image of place, there may be
less negative perceptions of visitor impact on the part of residents. Both qualitative
and quantitative data were collected and analysed, the former involving the use of
CatPacTM , a neural network program for analysing textual data. Little support was
found for the contention that place images shared by residents and tourists would
increase tolerance of tourists on the part of residents.
Keywords: resident perceptions; place image; New Zealand; community tourism

Introduction
The purpose of this study was to examine whether residents and visitors share the same
perception of place. It has been stated that tourist destinations are multiple products – the
same attributes being used by different market segments for different purposes (Gallarza,
Saura, & Garcı́a, 2002). Equally it has been argued that both residents and visitors can
develop feelings of place attachment (Gu & Ryan, 2008; Gross & Brown, 2008). The
research questions are therefore: (a) is there a gap between perception of place by residents
and visitors in this case study of Waiheke Island, New Zealand? (b) what are the implications
of the presence or absence of a perceptual gap on resident tolerance of tourism? and (c) is
there a seasonal difference of perceptions of tourism intrusion on the part of residents?
The potential significance of the research lies in the issue as to what degree does congruity
of perception of place between residents and visitors impact upon resident perceptions of
tourism impacts. It might be argued that if both residents and visitors share the same
value systems, then visitors will behave in ways acceptable to residents, who in turn will
look favourably upon tourism.
To examine these questions, the research draws on three related areas of literature,
namely those relating to (a) residents’ perceptions of tourism, (b) perceptions of place
and destination image, and (c) empathetic relationships of place attachment. The paper is
structured by first briefly describing the location of the study, then the literature followed
by an outlining of the research methods and sample. Subsequently, the data and findings


Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

ISSN 1368-3500 print/ISSN 1747-7603 online

# 2010 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/13683500903215008
http://www.informaworld.com
542 C. Ryan and M. Aicken

are described finally with a discussion of the degree to which there is congruity of image
between visitors and residents, and the impacts this has on residents’ tolerance of tourism.

The location of the study

The data were gathered from the island of Waiheke, in the Hauraki Gulf, near Auckland.
The study was conducted over a 12-month period. An island destination has many advan-
tages for such a study. The sole means of access is by ferry from Auckland, a service used
by both visitors and residents. This permits easy access to samples of both residents (for the
majority of whom Auckland is the primary place of employment) and visitors.
Waiheke Island lies within the Hauraki Gulf, approximately 30 min by fast ferry from
the central business district of Auckland. Its population numbers about 7000. Much of the
east of the island lies within the Conservation Estate of New Zealand. It is characterised by
sandy beaches and a benign climate that supports successful wineries. It is historically
known for a lifestyle based on arts, crafts and bookshops located within a rural community,
but this way of life has been changing for many years as the increased speed of the ferry
service, its more frequent sailings and all-weather dependability has attracted a class of
commuters whose work lies in the well-paid occupations of Auckland’s service and com-
mercial economy of the central business district. This is easily accessible by foot from the
ferry port. While holiday home ownership is not new to the island, this new class of more
affluent home ownership has added to demands for property development and better infra-
structure pertaining to roads, lighting, sewage, and refuse services. This is also evidenced
by the controversy that surrounded the development of the island’s ferry terminal that not
only provided an upgrade of shelter, but shopping, a restaurant and a new home provision.
The island is administered by the Auckland City Council. The island has a tourism business
based upon day visitation and overnight stays by both domestic and overseas tourists and
the island’s tourism resources include not only its beaches and the scenery related to the
Conservation Estate but also its wineries, various forms of accommodation ranging from
boutique hotels to backpacker hostels, retail supplies based on the aforementioned book-
shops and arts and crafts, and restaurants that range from fast food to quality cuisine.
The island thus caters for the casual day visitor from Auckland to the more up market
segment seeking quality experiences of luxurious accommodation, fine dining and contem-
plation of beautiful scenery that is often associated with sea-based activities. Visitation to
the island is seasonal with the peak being the summer months, especially over the Christmas
to New Year period as this represents a peak for both domestic and international tourism.

Literature review
Resident perceptions of tourism impacts
Early studies such as those of Sheldon and Var (1984), Long, Perdue, and Allen (1990), and
Perdue, Long, and Allen (1990) identified (a) a series of place attributes that formed the
context of resident attitudes and (b) socio-demographic determinants of attitude formation.
Examples of the former include environmental degradation, quality of life indices such as
traffic congestion and economic measures such as income and job creation (Long et al.,
1990; Perdue et al., 1990; Sheldon & Var, 1984). Socio-demographic variables, though
important, comprise not only age, gender, and occupation, but also places and nature of
contact with tourists, length of residency in the destination, employment in tourism, and
other factors (Doxey, 1975; Mathieson & Wall, 1982; Murphy, 1985). Butler’s (1980,
 Current Issues in Tourism 543

2006a, 2006b) destination life cycle model presented an associated framework of analysis.
In the initial exploration and involvement stages, relationships between visitors and hosts
are represented as generally positive. Subsequent stages are characterised by increasing
mass tourism with an implication that relationships between residents and visitors sour.
Whether this is so can depend on other factors. Young (1983) and Smith (1992) identified
changing land use patterns that might demarcate zones of little contact between residents
and visitors. Prideaux (2000) suggests factors like crime may be more common in
‘hedonistic’ resorts than ‘family oriented’ locations. The homogeneity of destination
communities has been questioned. A number of segmentation studies based on psycho-
grahics have appeared in the literature (e.g. Ap & Crompton, 1993; Davis, Allen, &
Consenza, 1988; Pèrez & Nadal, 2005; Williams & Lawson, 2001). Residents have been
found to possess opinions that range from pro-development to anti-tourism attitudes via
varying degrees of ambivalency. Ryan, Scotland, and Montgomery (1998) suggested that
in the initial stages of destination development, altruism existed on the part of those not
affected by tourism in that they believed job creation for others was a positive factor, but
as development continued attitudes became more entrenched as core values need to be exam-
ined. Ap (1992) sought to explain attitude formation in terms of social exchange theory of
mutual advantage wherein support or opposition related to perceived personal gain or loss
that emanated from tourism development. Beggs, Hurlbert, and Haines (1996) argued that
resident attitudes were formulated within the social structure of friendship, networks,
bonds, status, and community sentiment. In turn, Andereck, Valentine, Knope, and Vogt
(2005, p. 1073) suggested that attitude formation might be susceptible to ‘broad based
education and awareness campaigns’ – in short, the suggestion is that attitude formation
can be manipulated by apologists for tourism development. It can be argued that their
concept of citizen education should, of necessity, also incorporate developer education if
social sustainment of tourism is to have meaning. Their contribution replicates the debates
on stakeholder participation demonstrated by Jamal and Getz (1999) and Ryan (2002).
Petrzelka, Krannich, Brehm, and Trentelman (2005) suggest that gender differences are
important, and McGibbon (2000) provides examples of role differences in her study of
Tyrolean ski-resorts. A lack of qualitative, ethnographic studies is recognised by Jurowski
and Gursoy (2003). In a study on the impact of spatial distance from centres of tourist
attractions, they conclude that those furthest from those centres tend to hold more favour-
able attitudes towards tourism, but they note their own findings and methodology (the use
of structural equation modeling) that ‘. . . no information was gathered to explain why the
distant residents felt more favorably about the benefits of tourism’ (Jurowski & Gursoy,
2003, p. 309). Social distance between visitor and host is examined by Thyne, Lawson,
and Todd (2006), who argue that social differences between visitors and residents might
be sources of tension.

Destination image
Destination image has also been the subject of significant research. Image of place is
thought to be important in determining purchase decisions. Holiday destinations are
required to possess attributes that meet both ‘push’ and ‘pull’ motives – the latter being
specific to a given destination (Dann, 1981; Iso-Ahola, 1982; Krippendorf, 1987, 1995).
Ryan and Gu (2008) note that image of place generated by tourism organisations also
accrues other roles such as being used to attract other industries. Following Shackley
(1994), they cite Bradford as an example where a place associated previously with
decayed Victorian knitting mills and low income housing became attractive to a new
544 C. Ryan and M. Aicken

inbound industry with a remake of its image based upon tourism investment in short break
holidaying and in physical infrastructure including a refurbishment of its Victorian Variety
Theatre and the building of the Museum of Film and Photography. Place image is also
important in attracting second home purchasing, especially if it is envisaged as a final
place for retirement (Davies & O’Farrell, 1981). Destination image also has importance
for other reasons. For many tourists, the main group of people with whom they interact
are other tourists. Consequently, it becomes important that fellow travelers/tourists
possess similarities of outlook, background and expectations required for enhanced experi-
ences (Trauer & Ryan, 2005). Shared marketing images help create such homogeneity.
Given the complex nature of place as a tourist product, the composition of image has
attracted significant attention from researchers. Echtner and Ritchie (1991, 1993) argued
that destination image comprises locations on continua of (a) the place-specific attribute
and the holistic impression, (b) the functional (tangibles) and psychological (or more
emotive and intangible), and (c) that which is unique to a place, and those things that it
shares with others (the variable of commonality). Beerli and Martı́n (2004) found that deter-
minants of image formation include usage rates of information sources and the nature of
those sources, whether tourists are first-time or repeat visitors, the motives for the trip,
past experience of leisure trips, and socio-demographic variables that include age,
gender, level of income, and country of origin. A number of studies have sought to
develop meta-narratives relating to image formation and role. Gallarza et al. (2002) con-
sidered 25 key studies. Compositions of the tourist destination image include the cognitive,
affective, and conative, the acquisition of collective, shared image, and personal
impressions, the gestalt and a total of individualistic, separate pictures. Images are also
dynamic. Places are multiple products perceived differently by various market segments,
and are perceived differently over time, both by first-time and repeat visitors. Additionally
distance has an impact on place image, with those living furthest away possibly tending to
ascribe more ‘exotic’ features to a destination based on concepts of difference and a greater
gap between tourist destination and the residential site of the familiar. Arising from the
composition of image, there exist the roles and functions of destination image. Images
become strategic and tactical weapons in the establishment of brands that compete with
other destinations (Gallarza et al., 2002). In another meta-study, Pike (2002) surveyed
142 studies and concluded destination image research was overwhelmingly statistical in
nature. Using semi-structured open-ended interviews by talking to respondents in cafes,
Ryan and Cave (2005) provided support for Gallarza et al’s. (2002) thesis that different
market segments (in this instance based on nationality) occupied different spaces on under-
lying psychological dimensions. They identified these as being ‘exciting’ vs. ‘relaxing’, and
‘tense/frustrating’ vs. ‘friendly’. Both Baloglu (2001) and Prentice (2004) suggested that
tourists are not always seeking difference, but are seeking to experience places made attrac-
tive through the familiarity of image portrayals that appeal to visitors.

Empathy between residents and visitors and the role of place attachment
Doxey’s (1975) well-known ‘Irridex’ possesses the stage of antipathy. Congruence of
image of place between visitors and hosts may represent an opposite stage – namely
empathy. The nature and benefits of empathetic relationships are generally well known
and appreciated. Ickes (1997) describes empathy as cognitive awareness of another
person’s internal states – his thoughts, feelings, perceptions and intentions. Three com-
ponents have been identified within empathy. First, there is the antecedent that comprises
the empathiser’s self consideration, and an understanding of the situation, affective state
 Current Issues in Tourism 545

and intention of the other. Second, an evaluation is arrived at, and third, behavioural intent
is formed predicated upon success or failure in mimicking the target other’s state (Davis,
1994; McQiggan & Lester, 2006). In the case of tourism studies that empathy may be
created by both visitor and resident possessing shared values about the destination, of
which a proxy measure may be a shared perception of the attributes of place. For their
part, Leibetseder, Laireiter, and Kó´ller (2007) propose that empathy comprises four dimen-
sions, ‘cognitive sensitivity’, ‘emotional-sensitivity’, ‘emotional concern’, and ‘cognitive
concern’. The advantages of empathetic action are the establishment of respect for the
other, a creation of consensus where consensus is possible, an agreement to differ rather
than ‘hostile disagreement’ and a more constructive framework for problem solving.
Euwema and Van Emmerik (2006) argue that empathetic actions observed in peace-
keeping forces are able to negate potential conflicts in inter-cultural situations by establish-
ing respect for differing and initially opposing perspectives. Lakin and Mahoney (2006)
propose that these are learnable skills. It can be contended that such skills are consistent
with the advocating of green or sustainable tourism (Mason, 2003).
However, within the tourism literature, the dominant paradigm has been, historically,
one of demonstration effects and acculturation whereby tourists are often perceived as
posing threats to host patterns of living (Smith, 1989). This has been questioned.
MacNaught (1982) notes host societies do not simply absorb behaviour demonstrated by
visitors, while Ryan (1991) has also noted that (a) acculturation will only occur when
hosts perceive value in the new modes of lifestyles and values, and (b) it should not be
assumed that the impacts are uni-directional. Often, albeit not always, it has been
deemed to be advantageous to separate tourists and local communities, especially in devel-
oping countries. The Maldives is often perceived as operating good practice when restrict-
ing tourism development to uninhabited islands (Jamal & Lagiewski, 2006). Zhou and Ma
(2008) provide details of two opposing Chinese examples of in- and out-community
tourism development in the Baiyang Lake region. In the one case, the residents have
adopted an approach akin to the Maldives, but while this reduced intrusion effects it
reinforces unequal distributions of income in the community. In the second case where tour-
ists are invited into the homes of residents, it appears a better distribution of revenues
derived from tourism occurs, but the system requires methods of licensing to ensure
quality of accommodation and services. However, extending, albeit possibly dangerously,
the findings of Boisjoly, Duncan, Kremer, Levy, and Eccles (2006) with reference to affir-
mative action in US colleges, concepts of increased empathy are based upon greater degrees
of mixing of groups wherein originally significant social distances existed. On the other
hand, in this case of Waiheke Island, social distance based on income, ethnicity, language,
and culture tends to be close, and opportunities for close physical proximity exist on the
ferry, in shops, cafes and restaurants, and on the road.
An associated concept is that of place attachment and the role that it might play in the
relationships being examined in this study. Understandings of place attachment are primar-
ily derived from studies in the field of environmental psychology and refer to the relation-
ships between self identity and the physical characteristics of place. Spatial configurations
and the quality of local built infrastructure impinge upon many aspects of daily life, from ease
of movement to the aesthetics of one’s surroundings. Consequently, in this literature, distinc-
tions may be made between place identity, place dependency, and place attachment. For a
discussion of these concepts within a recreational setting, one can refer to Kyle, Graefe,
and Manning (2005), Kyle, Graefe, Manning, and Bacon (2004), and White, Virden,
and van Riper (2008). The concept of place attachment has been used within the tourism
literature to examine repeat visitation to destinations by tourists (Gross & Brown, 2008).
546 C. Ryan and M. Aicken

For their part, Gu and Ryan (2008) argued that a significant component of place attachment
for residents was an ability to attract the attention of those responsible for destination plan-
ning – that is a sense of attachment is dependent upon a sense of efficacy in shaping one’s
surroundings. This perspective reinforces the linkage between the affective and the behav-
ioural within the empathetic. The question may be, is attitudinal congruence as to place
values between residents and tourists sufficient, or does there need to be a behavioural
outcome? Figure 1 provides a means of framing the research issues. Both visitors and resi-
dents possess perceptions of place and attribute values to those attributes. An issue present
here is to what degree is there intra-group homogeneity of views. The simplest case is where
there is cohesion of views within each separate group, thereby giving rise to the question, to
what extent is there an inter-group difference of views. If the gaps are large, one potential
outcome following the Doxey style of model is that an intolerance of tourists, tourism and
its impacts might arise on the part of residents. If there is an agreement of place perception
between visitors and residents there may yet still be a continuum of tolerance exercised on the
part of residents. Thus they may tolerate but not encourage tourism, preferring to sustain the
status quo, or they more positively accept tourism development. The figure thus raises
various questions. The figure also postulates that simple patterns of causality may not
exist because neither visitors nor residents are homogenous in their perceptions of the desti-
nation, thereby creating possibilities of liaisons between groups based on shared understand-
ings, but in opposition to those with differing perceptions.

Figure 1. Congruent imagery – framework for analysis.

 Current Issues in Tourism 547

Where the gap is large between resident and visitor perceptions of place it might be
expected that residents will be less tolerant of visitors, and will tend to show apathy
towards tourism. If the destination image gap is small, it can be asked if congruency of
image alone is sufficient to generate tolerance of visitors. While overt opposition to tourism
development is unlikely, it is possible that active encouragement and support may still be
lacking. Pursuing this argument, it might appear that, in terms of Figure 1, close empathetic
perceptions if not actual behaviours may mitigate antipathy. Such a perspective is consistent
with social identity theory. This concept seeks to assess how a person identifies with others. An
individual’s sense of identity is in part derived from those with which he or she associates, and
chooses not to associate (Hogg & Terry, 2000) and thus a social identity relates to (a) groups
with which an individual wishes to associate, (b) those with which he or she would not wish to
associate and (c) those groups about which an individual is indifferent or may wish to seek
more information. Membership is associated through contacts, that is, the frequency and dur-
ation of contact, the nature of the interaction and the formation of cognitive, affective and
conative assessments (Algesheimer, Dholakia, & Herrmann, 2005; Bergami & Bagozzi,
2000) by which common interests and dissimilarities are defined. The process may also be
reversed. That is, if there are shared values, e.g. as to place image, does this shared sense
lead to empathy between two groups (e.g. residents and visitors)?

Research design
While there has been much work and research related to destination image and resident per-
ception of tourism, omissions in that area of research can still be identified. The studies of
destination are primarily of the perceptions of visitors not of residents. Mindful of Pike’s
(2002) observation relating to research led agendas in quantitative studies, open-ended
questions were incorporated in a questionnaire to obtain textual data pertaining to destina-
tion images. These questions were inserted on the front page of the respective question-
naires before the respondent turned the page and saw the items that comprised the Likert
type prompts. Respondents were asked to provide sentences or phrases that they used to
describe the island and its tourism. These data were analysed using the package,
CatPacTM , one of a number of such packages that are used in textual analysis by qualitative
researchers, and is based upon principles of neural networks where the text is analysed by
proximity and distance from clauses and phrases in the text (Salisbury, 2001). The output
from the program includes word counts based on frequency of use, dendograms that illus-
trate underlying dimensions within a body of text, and by the use of the associated package
‘Thoughtview’ a graphical representation of the results. Within this study, the package was
used not to develop any concepts of destination per se, but rather to aid comparison between
residents and visitors as to the ways in which they perceived the island, to assess the degree
of difference or similarity and to provide other than quantitative material that might help
explain the data derived from the quantitative study.
The main part of the questionnaire comprised Likert type scales. The items were initially
derived from the studies highlighted above – more specifically from Long et al. (1990),
Perdue et al. (1990) and, because of the New Zealand context, by Lawson, Williams,
Young, and Cossins (1998), Williams and Lawson (2001), and Ryan and Cooper (2004).
Two separate questionnaires were constructed – one for residents and a second for visitors.
The questionnaire that applied to residents comprised three sections. The first related to years
of residence on the island, frequency of use and rating of ferry services and an open-ended
question that asked residents to describe the island. The second section involved a 32 item
Likert type questionnaire, using a five-point scale to elicit attitudes about the impacts of
548 C. Ryan and M. Aicken

tourism. The items posed statements to which respondents indicated degrees of agreement
ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ (being attributed a value of ‘1’) to ‘strongly agree’
(having a value of ‘5’). A non-response option was also provided to avoid the use of the
neutral point of ‘3’ so as to permit distinction between ‘not knowing about an item’ and
genuine indifference as to that item. The items are listed later in Table 2.
The questionnaire for visitors sought to identify the activities undertaken by visitors and
holidaymakers in the island, the degree to which the commercial serviced accommodation
sector was used and the level and type of expenditures engaged in. Additionally, data were
collected on the duration of stay. Qualitative data were also collected in an attempt to assess
what attracted holidaymakers to the island, and what aspects of their experiences they
enjoyed best. Finally both questionnaires ended with a request for socio-demographic
data that included information on age, gender and normal place of residence.
The data were collected over a 12-month period that commenced with a pilot study.
Subsequently, in each month, either 5 or 6 days were spent in data collection, usually
covering periods from Thursday to Tuesday to obtain patterns of both weekly and
weekend use. Days were selected through using a random number generator. A total of
2229 completed questionnaires for residents and 2151 for visitors were collected.
Results from each of the questionnaires are presented in turn, each section commencing
with a brief description of the two samples. Data were collected from a random sample,
based on seats occupied on the ferry. If a seat was unoccupied, the occupied seat closest
to that selected was used. However, it is probably better to consider the sample as a
convenience sample with reference to residents inasmuch as (a) more frequent users of
the ferry had a likely probability of being selected over time and (b) while, as far as can
be assessed, the demographics of the sample with reference to age and gender are akin
to the resident population of the island, such a conclusion is not valid in terms of stated
attitudes. Potential respondents were asked if they had previously completed the question-
naire in an attempt to avoid replication of respondents. Certainly, as noted before, the
resident sample was skewed towards recent arrivals and above average incomes.
However, such a sub-sample is representative of a vocal and important grouping of the
island’s population.

Sample characteristics
Residents of Waiheke Island
Of the 2229 respondents, 56.2% were female and 43.8% were male. Two-thirds of the
sample was married and 31.7% of the total sample had children under the age of 16
years still living with them. Of these 705 respondents who had children of this age
living with them, 115 were between the ages of 25– 55 years old and indicated that they
were single. This implies that about 5% of the total sample comprised single parent
families. Of the total sample, about one-fifth indicated that they were employed in the
tourism industry (n ¼ 429). Of these, 57% were female.
Census data indicate a skew towards high household incomes when the island’s popu-
lation is compared to the general New Zealand population, and this is confirmed within
the total dataset. Of those providing information about household income (n ¼ 985,
44.2% of the total sample) 20% indicated incomes in excess of NZ$100,000 per annum.
The national household average income is approximately NZ$45,000 per annum.
Waiheke Island is often characterized as a location that has recently attracted a large
number of high income earners purchasing properties for either permanent or holiday resi-
dence. The questionnaire permitted analysis by duration of residency. Of the sample, 2068
 Current Issues in Tourism 549

respondents (92.8% of the sample) provided data showing that 44.5% had been residents for
five or less years. At the other extreme 9.7% of the respondents had lived on the island for
over 20 years.

Visitors to Waiheke Island

There were 2151 respondents. Of these respondents 43.5% were male. This division
between males and females was consistent across all of the age groups. The mean
number of visits to Waiheke Island within the last 12 months was 6.87, implying high
levels of repeat visitation. The island attracts a high level of day trip activity in addition
to longer stay holidaying. While there are visitors from overseas present in the island,
including 127 from Australia and 86 from the UK, the overwhelming majority of visitors
are not only New Zealanders but are drawn from Auckland. Indeed, approximately 70%
of the sample is resident in Auckland. The overall mean number of days spent by the
total sample was 2.0 days, but removing from the sample those who were day-trippers,
the mean number of days spent on the island was 4.5 days. Thirty percent of the total
sample and almost 70% of those staying overnight used either their own home or a
friend’s home. Visits were motivated by wishing to taking a break, relaxing and getting
away from it all, attending festivals and events, visiting wineries, visiting friends and rela-
tives and for family occasions where the island is also used as a venue for birthday and
wedding celebrations.

Research findings
Resident descriptions of the island
As previously noted, respondents were asked to provide key words or phrases that for
them summarised the characteristics of Waiheke Island. As noted, these were transcribed
into the data set and analysed using the text analysis program ‘CatPacTM ’. This program
is based upon principles of artificial neural networks (Lippmann, 1992), has been used
in past tourism research (Choi, Lehton, & Morrison, 2007; Lockyer, 2005) including
destination image studies (Stepchenkova & Morrison, 2008) and is well described in a
wider literature (Bunz & Gütschow, 1985; Maynard, 1997). The most frequently used
words were ‘beautiful’, ‘peaceful’, ‘paradise’, ‘friendly’, and ‘beaches’. A very clear
picture emerged of the nature of the island as a relaxing, beautiful place. What was
notable from the analysis was the homogeneity of the perception of the island and the
ways in which complementary concepts were almost seamlessly added to develop the
image. A contrast with Auckland was made, and Waiheke was those things Auckland
was not. Waiheke is seen as beautiful and peaceful. It possesses a friendly lifestyle
which makes it a great home and a relaxing place to live, and is inhabited by friendly
people. It is tranquil, yet close to the city. The first critical word that emerges is ‘expens-
ive’. Clustering the data derived from CatPacTM , three clear themes emerged. Basically
these can be interpreted as:
(a) Waiheke Island as home – it is peaceful, relaxing, a great place, beautiful, having a
specific lifestyle;
(b) Away from Auckland – it is natural and tranquil away from the traffic; and
(c) A place of fun, holidays, changing, scenic and expensive.

It should be noted that a logarithmic scale was used to emphasise difference and it can
be easily argued that the explanation indicated above is overlapping in its concepts.
550 C. Ryan and M. Aicken

Holidaymakers’ descriptions of Waiheke Island

Again, CatPacTM was used to analyse the descriptions of the island that were provided by
respondents. The overwhelming majority of words related to its beauty, relaxed atmos-
phere, and scenery. The words most commonly used by respondents were ‘beautiful’,
‘relaxing’, and ‘peaceful’. A dendogram was constructed and at the centre, a close relation-
ship existed between the words ‘peaceful’, ‘beautiful’, ‘friendly’, and ‘relaxing’. The
right-hand side of the diagram displayed a relationship between the island being ‘quaint’,
‘laidback’, and ‘tranquil’. To the left, lay a perception of the contrast between Auckland
and the island, and the proximity of these two very different lifestyles. Further analysis
indicated a high appreciation of the beaches of the island while a sub-theme related to
the cultural and artistic lifestyle that the island offered.
One issue that was examined was whether any difference existed between place percep-
tion and visitors as determined by the number of visits made and repeat visitation. Table 1 is
based upon word frequencies from the text provided by holidaymakers showing the most
common five words used to describe Waiheke by whether this was a first time visitor,
one who had made one prior visit, two such visits, three to five visits, and six or more
visits. The Table indicates a consistency of perceptions of the island by this criterion.
The figure below the word shows the weighting allocated by CatPacTM .

Table 1. Frequency of descriptive words used by holidaymakers by repeat visitation.

First time visitor Second time visitor Three to five prior visits Six or more prior visits
Beautiful (16.5) Beautiful (12.5) Beautiful (11.2) Beautiful (12.1)
Relaxing (7.2) Friendly (7.8) Relaxing (10.8) Relaxing (9.5)
Nice (6.1) Relaxing (7.8) Great (7.2) Peaceful (7.0)
Beaches (5.8) Great (6.5) Beaches (6.6) Beaches (6.0)
Friendly (5.7) Peaceful (6.5) Peaceful (6.6) Good (5.4)

From the quantitative data, it was found that holidaymakers enjoyed their visit to the
island. On a scale where 7 ¼ ‘very enjoyable’ and 1 ‘not at all enjoyable’ to measure
enjoyment of stay on the island – the mean score was 6.20. This figure was consistently
high across all socio-demographic groupings and by users of the different types of
accommodation.
This question was subsequently followed by two open-ended items that asked respon-
dents to indicate what were the aspects of their visit that they most enjoyed, and those that
they did not. In the results, beaches, scenery and views featured strongly in the comments
made, as did friends, friendly people, wineries and relaxing. Walking and restaurant going
are also listed among the pleasures of the island. In many ways, it could be said that some of
the dislikes about their visit arose in part from a frustrating of those things that attracted
people to the island. One such example might be a wait at a restaurant for service. From
the total sample of visitors, 1323 made a critical comment of varying severity about their
visit. A thematic analysis identified the following themes among these comments:

Expensive
This theme of the island being expensive covered the following items:

. Food served in the restaurants and wineries was expensive, and limited in range and
not being of particularly good quality.
 Current Issues in Tourism 551

. Expensive housing, and the nature of some of that housing was thought to be nega-
tively changing the nature of the island.
. Some thought the ferries were expensive.
. The Jazz festival was expensive for what was on offer.

Adverse comments about the weather

Obviously, it is not possible to reduce the number of cold or rainy days, but what emerges
from the comments is that the island offers little when the weather is inclement. For
example, there were some comments about the lack of facilities at the ferry wharf.

Unfriendly people and poor service

There were a number of comments about unfriendly people and a few expressed a feeling
that locals were unfriendly toward tourists, and this adversely affected their experience.
There were comments about poor service in the cafes and restaurants, which combined
with perceived high prices meant that some restaurants in particular were being mentioned
as failing expectations about quality.

Inappropriate housing development

Negative observations were made about the new housing developments being permitted
while at the same time holidaymakers commented on the poor state of the roads, lack of
pedestrian paths, and the absence of street lighting at night. In short, the public infrastruc-
ture was perceived as falling behind private sector development.

Comparison of images
An examination of the text using CatPacTM revealed high levels of congruency exist
between perceptions of the destination between residents and visitors. Both attribute high
value to the unspoilt nature of the place, its relaxed lifestyle and natural beauty specifically
mentioning its beauty, relaxed feel, the friendly people, its laid back lifestyle. However,
some holidaymakers did voice criticism of island development as noted above; a criticism
that was largely absent in the perceptions noted by the residents.

Residents’ attitudes towards tourism and tourists

As noted in the introductory paragraph, the main research question was what are the impli-
cations of the presence or absence of a perceptual gap on resident tolerance of tourism? The
contention that arises from Figure 1 is if there is an agreement over place or destination
image, thereby indicating a shared value system, does this translate to a tolerance of
tourism on the part of residents? The next section describes the attitudes of the residents
towards tourism and tourists.

Attitudes towards tourism

As noted, Likert types scales were used to measure these response. Before analysing the
attitudes the scales were examined for sampling adequacy and data reliability. The
Kaiser – Meyer – Olkin statistic of sampling adequacy was 0.942, which is deemed ‘meritor-
ious’ (Norusis, 2005). The reliability measures were of interest in that the split half
measures approximated to r ¼ 0.7, implying reasonable levels of reliability, but the first
552 C. Ryan and M. Aicken

Table 2. Overall resident mean scores on attitudes toward tourism.

N Mean SD
The tourism industry is good for the island economy 2189 4.05 0.87
Tourism has created jobs on the island 2128 4.05 0.81
I have no objection to visitors who spend less than one day in the area 2153 3.88 0.84
Tourism encourages a wide variety of cultural and other activities by the local 2180 3.85 1.25
population (crafts, pottery, music, festivals, etc)
The tourism planning authorities pay little attention to the views of local 2030 3.80 1.05
residents when making decisions about the future of the area
Tourists create traffic and parking problems 2169 3.72 1.16
The tourists that come to our island are usually very friendly 2128 3.67 1.20
Tourism gives you the opportunity to meet people from other countries 2152 3.63 0.99
The tourism industry provides many jobs on Waiheke Island 2103 3.60 0.91
There will be problems of traffic congestion and accidents if more tourists 2142 3.56 1.12
come to Waiheke Island
The development of tourism facilities and attractions is a threat to Waiheke 2155 3.53 1.17
Island’s environment
There are already some things that I do not do in the area at certain times 2128 3.50 1.25
because of the tourists
The main problem with Waiheke Island is that there are not enough facilities to 2104 3.46 1.30
cope with the number of tourists
Local residents are the people who mainly suffer from living in a tourist area 2117 3.40 1.11
The money spent locally to attract more tourists is a good investment 2117 3.38 0.99
Waiheke Island has a number of good quality restaurants because of tourism 2135 3.38 1.05
I think that attracting more tourists to the island is a good idea 2171 3.35 1.69
I feel that tourism is growing too fast for the area to cope with it 2121 3.33 1.26
The island has a wide selection of tourist attractions 2178 3.32 1.40
Tourism on Waiheke Island might lead to more petty crime 2095 3.15 1.08
I feel that Waiheke Island’s tourism planning authorities should consider plans 2108 3.12 1.19
to restrict the growth of tourism
The tourists I have seen on Waiheke Island generally have little consideration 2115 2.97 1.54
for the local population
I believe the tourism industry can improve the quality of life on Waiheke Island 2149 2.91 1.19
I feel the island’s tourism planning authorities should encourage further 2127 2.87 1.19
tourism developments in the area
The island’s tourism planners should invest more public money in developing 2094 2.86 1.34
tourism attractions
Shopping hours in your area should be extended to cater better for tourists 2113 2.82 1.24
Tourism means that the island is losing a number of shops that served the 2091 2.82 1.10
interests of local people
The benefits of tourism get distributed widely through the community 2053 2.75 1.30
The tourism/planning authorities do an excellent job in balancing the needs of 2008 2.52 0.96
local residents with the desire to increase tourism
Waiheke Island would be a dull place if it were not for attempts to attract 2141 2.51 1.28
tourists
I feel Waiheke Island’s tourism planning authorities do an excellent job in 1942 2.49 1.50
making the right decisions about the area I live
The area would be better off if tourists did not come 2081 2.35 1.01

half vs. second half results revealed a lower correlation of 0.5, implying that time of year at
which the data were collected might be impacting on attitudes towards tourism. In short
variance in the pattern of responses was discernable and the implication is that seasonality
might impact on attitudes. This is assessed below.
Table 2 provides the descriptive statistics for the attitudinal items used in the study,
arranged in order of descending mean score.
 Current Issues in Tourism 553

The results indicate that residents perceive tourism bringing economic benefits because
jobs are created (mean . 4.0) and a more diverse cultural lifestyle on the island results
(mean ¼ 3.85). However, it is thought that traffic and parking problems result (3.72),
and that the problems of congestion would get worse if more tourists come (3.56). Gener-
ally there is little concern about tourists’ general behaviour as respondents agree that they
are generally friendly (3.67) but there are some signs that residents feel impeded at certain
times of the year in the things they do because of the presence of tourists (3.50). Hence there
is some agreement with the statement that ‘Local residents are the people who mainly suffer
from living in a tourist area’ with a mean score of 3.40.
Some signs that social stress is beginning to emerge is evidenced by low levels of agree-
ment with a number of statements such as ‘I feel the island’s tourism planning authorities
should encourage further tourism developments in the area’ (mean ¼ 2.87) and ‘The
island’s tourism planners should invest more public money in developing tourism attractions’
(mean ¼ 2.87) but things are not so bad to cause a strong agreement with the statement ‘The
area would be better off if tourists did not come’ (2.36). On the other hand there was a ten-
dency to agree with the statement that ‘I feel that tourism is growing too fast for the area
to cope with it’ (3.33), but the standard deviation indicates a difference of opinion
(SD ¼ 1.26). However, a complicating factor known to exist within the local politics of
the island is that there exists some feeling that the local authority, Auckland City Council,
is in fact ‘distant’ and does not really appreciate the nature of the island and its problems.

Seasonality and attitudes

Past research indicates that temporal or seasonal factors might shape residents’ attitudes
towards tourism (Bender, Schumacher, & Stein, 2007; Williams & Lawson, 2001).
Given a potential matrix of 32 items in the questionnaire across 12 months of data collec-
tion, an attempt was made to simplify the data set before assessing the impacts of season-
ality. Given that the attitudinal items were based around concepts of impacts and planning,
the technique of factor analysis was used to reduce the items to underlying dimensions that
could then be used in a seasonal analysis. Table 3 indicates the results comprising six
factors. These were categorised as being ‘Social Concerns about Tourism’, ‘Insufficient
infrastructure to meet tourist demand’, ‘Tourism and the economy’, ‘Planning and the
local community’, ‘The nature of the tourists’, and ‘Wide selection of tourist attractions’.
Following Murphy (1985), it is proposed that at the commencement of the season, residents
look forward towards the summer, wishing to meet new people and acquire economic
benefit, but as the season unfolds and the congestion and ‘hassles’ of dealing with more
people than is usual increase, then residents will become less enchanted with tourists and
the social pressures they bring. Table 4 examines this scenario.
With reference to factor 1 (social concerns about tourism), it can be seen that the mid-
winter score of July is 3.26 but by March it is 3.60. With the end of the season, the scores
fall to 3.42 in April and 3.35 in May. Equally at the commencement of the season the score
is 3.35 in November. The evidence is in the predicted direction, and at levels where
p ¼ 0.045 when using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Thus, while not overwhelmingly
strong, the argument has some merit.
Equally similar trends can be seen with reference to perceptions about tourism infra-
structure. In November and January, agreement exists at levels of 3.19 and 3.16 that insuffi-
cient tourism infrastructure exists and further investment is needed but in other parts of the
year the score falls below 3.00. By comparison, in July the score is 3.18. Again the ANOVA
F-ratio is significant at p ¼ 0.03 while the data are shown to fail Levene’s test of
554 C. Ryan and M. Aicken

Table 3. Factor analysis.

1 2 3 4 5 6
There will be problems of traffic congestion 0.766
and accidents if more tourists come to
Waiheke Island
I feel that tourism is growing too fast for the 0.738
area to cope with it
Tourists create traffic and parking problems 0.681
There are already some things that I do not 0.656
do in the area at certain times because of
the tourists
I feel that Waiheke Island’s tourism 0.617
planning authorities should consider
plans to restrict the growth of tourism
Local residents are the people who mainly 0.580
suffer from living in a tourist area
Tourism on Waiheke Island might lead to 0.564
more petty crime
Tourism means that the island is losing a 0.479
number of shops that served the interests
of local people
The development of tourism facilities and 0.452
attractions is a threat to Waiheke Island’s
environment
The island’s tourism planners should invest 0.668
more public money in developing
tourism attractions
I feel the island’s tourism planning 0.655
authorities should encourage further
tourism developments in the area
The main problem with Waiheke Island is 0.634
that there are not enough facilities to
cope with the number of tourists
Shopping hours in your area should be 0.631
extended to cater better for tourists
I think that attracting more tourists to the 0.535 0.409
island is a good idea
I believe the tourism industry can improve 0.534
the quality of life on Waiheke Island
Waiheke Island would be a dull place if it 0.471 0.447
were not for attempts to attract tourists
The money spent locally to attract more 0.470 0.419
tourists is a good investment
Tourism gives you the opportunity to meet 0.372 0.365
people from other countries
Tourism has created jobs on the island 0.789
The tourism industry is good for the island 0.662
economy
The tourism industry provides many jobs 0.653
on Waiheke Island
The area would be better off if tourists did 0.448 20.457
not come
I have no objection to visitors who spend 0.397
less than one day in the area

(Continued)
 Current Issues in Tourism 555

Table 3. Continued.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Tourism encourages a wide variety of 0.387
cultural and other activities by the local
population (crafts, pottery, music,
festivals, etc.)
I feel Waiheke Island’s tourism planning 0.687
authorities do an excellent job in making
the right decisions about the area I live
The benefits of tourism get distributed 0.610
widely through the community
The tourism/planning authorities do an 0.585
excellent job in balancing the needs of
local residents with the desire to increase
tourism
The tourism planning authorities pay little 20.531
attention to the views of local residents
when making decisions about the future
of the area
The tourists that come to our island are 0.700
usually very friendly
The tourists I have seen on Waiheke Island 20.595
generally have little consideration for the
local population
Waiheke Island has a number of good 0.426 0.439
quality restaurants because of tourism
The island has a wide selection of tourist 0.735
attractions
Alpha coefficient (unadjusted) 0.85 0.79 0.79 0.23 0.20 na
Eigenvalue 9.21 2.40 1.59 1.37 1.09 1.04
Contribution to variance 28.79 7.51 4.98 4.27 3.41 3.25
Notes: Extraction method: principal component analysis. Rotation method: varimax with Kaiser normalisation.
Rotation converged in eight iterations.

homogeneity. In the case of the economic impacts of tourism a clear picture emerges. In late
winter and autumn the scores are still quite high at about 3.8.When the tourism season com-
mences the scores rise and reach 4.0 in January. Again the F-ratio is statistically significant
at p ¼ 0.03. Overall, it appears that some of the variability in the data set is determined by
tourism seasonality, as predicted. The data are significant at p , 0.05.

Other determining variables

Following the literature described above, other determinants of perceptions of visitors and
tourism impacts were examined. Gender was an issue in that males rated economic impacts
more favourably, and females were more critical of planning procedures. Age was found not
to be a determining variable in 10 of the 32 items. For example, all age groups had similar
scores relating to traffic congestion, the threat to the environment, improving the quality of
life, that benefits were widely distributed, the speed of tourism development and attitudes to
tourists spending less than a day on the island. However older groups were more critical of
planning policies. While duration of residence was a discriminatory factor in some
instances, of more note were high degrees of agreement.
For example, with reference to a perceived threat to the environment, all groups score
above 3.5 (with the exception of those under 18 years who score 3.4) and the F-ratio
556 C. Ryan and M. Aicken

Table 4. Perceptions by seasonality (by month) and factor scores (residents’ scores).
Tourism Tourism and Planning Nature of
Social concerns infrastructure the economy issues tourists
(factor 1) (factor 2) (factor 3) (factor 4) (factor 5)
January 3.54 3.16 4.00 2.87 3.58
February 3.48 3.05 3.99 2.88 3.51
March 3.60 2.94 3.94 2.87 3.37
April 3.42 2.99 3.92 2.86 3.35
May 3.35 3.09 3.97 2.87 3.43
June 3.40 3.13 3.95 2.91 3.38
July 3.26 3.18 3.92 2.82 3.39
August 3.45 3.06 3.84 2.88 3.33
September 3.44 2.92 3.77 2.85 3.30
October 3.56 3.04 3.79 2.99 3.22
November 3.35 3.19 3.97 2.88 3.44
December 3.52 2.88 3.73 2.76 3.27
F-ratio 1.825 1.962 1.988 0.610 1.509
Probability 0.045 0.028 0.026 0.822 0.121

is 0.724 (p ¼ 0.605) implying a high degree of homogeneity and agreement with the item
‘The development of tourism facilities and attractions is a threat to Waiheke Island’s environ-
ment’. On the other hand, at statistically significant levels, residents who have lived longer
on the island are more likely to perceive greater dangers in further traffic congestion. Past
research has indicated that those employed in the tourism industry tend to be more suppor-
tive of the industry, particularly recognising the employment prospects it brings while being
less critical of social and environmental impacts. This is not wholly supported in this
instance of Waiheke Island. For example, on the item ‘The development of tourism facilities
and attractions is a threat to Waiheke Island’s environment’ those employed in the tourism
industry scored 3.40 while those not so employed scored 3.56. The difference is statistically
significant at p ¼ 0.015, yet the difference in mean score is not great. Household income was
not a distinguishing variable between expressed attitudes in 21 of the 32 items. Where differ-
ences existed, it was that those with higher incomes tended to be more pro-development.
Finally, Maori’s affiliation to an iwi category proved to have statistical significance in
only seven items, most of which pertained to social structures. Maori are less convinced
of the economic benefits of tourism, are more critical of possible intrusions in social life
and tend to feel that less rather than more tourism is preferable.

Discussion
There is significant agreement between residents and visitors about the nature of the appeal
represented by Waiheke Island. Both regard the island as a haven of escape from the press-
ures of a busy world, as a scenic place that offers relaxation and friendship. Indeed one
respondent, a female aged between 46 and 55 years, penned a poem on her questionnaire,
the last verse of which read:

People come from all over.

they think maybe just for the day
but the Waiheke bug.
is a powerful drug.
 Current Issues in Tourism 557

and they just can’t tear themselves away,

there’s magic in the air here (Oh yeah).
it wraps you like a summer breeze.
you sit under a tree overlooking the sea.
and your worrisome mind is at ease.

It is also clear that visitors generally have very positive experiences of the island.
Nonetheless, there are mounting concerns. For the holidaymakers it might be said that
expressions of concern about poor service, expense and unfriendly attitudes on the part
of local people are outcomes of stress within the island’s tourism industry brought about
by its meeting the needs of growing numbers. Visitors also expressed concerns about the
impact of private and public investment on infrastructure and environment, and this
matched the concerns of residents about the impacts of tourism on the natural environment.
Both sets of concerns must be located in a context of continuing house building.
Such conclusions are, in all probability, not unique to Waiheke Island as a tourism des-
tination, and the research sought to address two possible deficiencies in the literature. First,
a lack of seasonality measures in many studies means that research into resident attitudes
towards tourism may be deficient. It was noted that Murphy (1985) argued that seasonality
generated for residents a period during which they could not only recover from the stress of
the high season, but actually recover to such a degree that the early part of the tourism
season would be met with positive anticipation. Generally, the results indicate that season-
ality does play a role as postulated by Murphy (1985). However, one limitation of the study
is that the sample is not consistent on a month to month basis, and the respondents are
different people in each month.
Second, drawing on the literatures of place perception, the resident – tourist interaction
and empathy, it was suggested that one could conceive of a destination image gap
between residents and tourists. It was suggested that this gap had a predictive capability
– namely that the absence of difference as to destination image implied shared values.
Drawing on empathy and social identity theory, this leads to the prediction that residents
would be tolerant of, and potentially supportive of tourism development and tourists. This
study found that in this instance there was a high degree of agreement as to place percep-
tion, but this did not stop the emergence of reservations about tourism. Indeed, a cluster
analysis of residents, (which is not reported here), found clusters similar in nature to those
found in other studies. It thus identified a group expressing degrees of antipathy towards
tourism. Consequently, congruence of place image extends to visitors expressing criti-
cisms of development, and agreeing with locals about the nature of Waiheke, yet a
section of both visitors and residents can also be critical of each other as behaving in
ways detrimental to the island. This suggests one new addition to the academic literature.
The tourism literature often reports that tourism can create negative impacts on the social
and natural environment of destinations. The findings of this study pose one other poss-
ible conclusion – namely, it is the development apparently being sanctioned by residents
that is having potential negative social and natural impacts and some tourists express
disquiet about such developments. This is perhaps one area for future research, for it
indicates how tourism might be a factor in impeding unnecessary property development.
However, in this particular location, a specific caveat and complicating factor arises.
Many residents will argue, it is not they who are responsible for the property develop-
ment on the island, but a ‘distant’ local authority, namely Auckland City Council, and
they would agree with visitors that current developments threaten the traditional lifestyle
of Waiheke.
558 C. Ryan and M. Aicken

The research offered the concept of a destination image gap model. It was suggested that
empathy might reduce the tensions identified in some literature between ‘guests and hosts’
to use Smith’s (1989) terminology. In this study, congruence of image existed with little
evidence of empathy. The literature relating to empathy indicates one reason why this
might be, and that is the failure of tourists and residents to meet and express their views.
Various methods can be suggested to overcome this. One is for the Visitor Information
Centre to take on a proactive role in articulating both views through displays. However,
being funded by the Council may inhibit this as many would be critical of the Council.
A second is to use bed and breakfast accommodation to enable both residents and visitors
to meet. Third is for residents to be seek tourist support in ‘Save our Island’ initiatives.
Fourth is to use various forms of media like free news-sheets and web pages, and to
publicise the existence of these. Finally, it is suggested that future research should
simultaneously assess perceptions of destinations by both visitors and residents, and be
aware that visitors may hold residents responsible for environmental degradation as well
as the more commonly expressed opinion that tourism generates negative social and
environmental impacts.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the aid and support provided by Tourism Auckland, Fullers Ferries
and the predecessors to Sealink Ferries for aid provided in this study.

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