Topic: The Elastic properties of interpenetrating composites (IPCs) reinforced by

fibrenetwork structure.
 Table of Contents

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 4

1.2 Fibre-reinforced interpenetrating Phase Composites (IPCs) ......................................... 4

1.2.1 Applications of Fibre Reinforced Interpenetrating Composites ................................... 5

1.3 Objectives of the Study .................................................................................................... 6

1.4 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................. 6

2. Literature review .................................................................................................................. 8

2.1. Introduction to Interpenetrating Phase Composites (IPCs)............................................. 8

2.1.1. Interpenetrating Phase Composites with Fibre Reinforcement ................................ 9

2.1.2. Characteristics of Fibre Reinforced IPCs................................................................... 10

2.2. Structure of IPCs ........................................................................................................... 11

2.2.1. Structure of Regular Network Fibre IPCs .............................................................. 13

2.3. Mechanical Properties of Fibre-reinforced IPCs .......................................................... 14

2.4. Importance of Elastic Properties in Fibre-einforced IPC .............................................. 15

2.5. Applications of Fibre Reinforced IPCs ......................................................................... 17

2.6. Influence of Geometrical Structure on Mechanical Properties of Fibre Reinforced IPCs

.............................................................................................................................................. 19

2.7 Review of Related Studies ............................................................................................. 21

3. Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 24

3.1 Geometry ........................................................................................................................ 24

3.1.1 Geometry for circular fibre reinforcement .............................................................. 24

3.1.2 Geometry for rectangular fibre reinforcement ........................................................ 29

3.1.3 Geometry for rotated rectangular fibre reinforcement ............................................ 30

3.2 Mesh ............................................................................................................................... 31

3.2.1 Mesh for first geometry........................................................................................... 31

3.2.2 Mesh for second geometry ...................................................................................... 37

 3.2.3 Mesh for Third geometry ........................................................................................ 39

3.3 Setup............................................................................................................................... 40

3.3.1 Setup for first geometry .......................................................................................... 40

3.3.2 Setup for Second geometry ..................................................................................... 42

3.3.3 Setup for third geometry ......................................................................................... 43

4. Results and Discussion ....................................................................................................... 44

5. Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 54

Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 60
 Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Numerous developments in the continually developing field of materials research and
engineering have been made possible by the hunt for innovative materials with superior
mechanical characteristics. Interpenetrating composites (IPCs), which are reinforced by a
fibernetwork structure, are one such fascinating field of study that has generated a lot of
attention. Numerous sectors, including aerospace, automotive, civil engineering, and others
may use these sophisticated materials in a variety of ways. They combine structural engineering
principles with composite materials (Singh et al., 2013).

IPCs are unique in that they may combine two or more distinct materials types into a single,
integrated structure, using each component's mechanical advantages while limiting its
individual disadvantages. The intricate web of reinforcing fibres woven into their matrix,
generating a resilient network that considerably improves their elastic characteristics, is what
distinguishes these composites from other materials. The resulting class of materials, from
lightweight and durable aeroplane components to long-lasting, high-performance building
materials, is the consequence of the interaction between materials and structural design (Kota
et al., 2022).

As part of this study, a thorough investigation into the elastic characteristics of IPCs reinforced
by a regular fibre-network structure is conducted. Modern finite element software, like
ABAQUS or ANSYS, is used as an effective modelling and analytical tool to do this. This
research intends to shed light on the complex interplay between the composite's constituents
by modelling the behaviour of these composites under different loading circumstances and
investigating their mechanical responses. A crucial comparison will be made between the
results of this work and earlier experimental and simulation findings from a wide range of
composite materials. The significance of IPCs reinforced with fibre networks will be confirmed
by this comparative analysis, which will also aid in a better understanding of the potential
advantages and disadvantages of this unique composite structure. The goal is to ultimately pave
the way for the design and development of high-performance materials that are especially
suitable for certain applications in a range of industries, including aerospace, automotive,
construction, and other domains.

1.2 Fibre-reinforced interpenetrating Phase Composites (IPCs)

IPCs (interpenetrating composites) reinforced with fibre are advanced materials that offer a
range of particular features and uses. They are created by fusing two or more distinct
materials—often polymers or ceramics—into one another, intertwining their microscopic
structures along with the incorporation of reinforcing fibre. Several techniques, like as in-situ
synthesis, co-polymerization, and impregnation, can be used to make such IPCs. While
leveraging the synergistic benefits of their constituent phases, these composite materials are
designed to minimise their particular flaws. By interpenetrating two or more materials and
reinforcing by fibre, IPCs combine the mechanical, thermal, electrical, and chemical properties
of each component, resulting in a material that frequently outperforms its component parts.

Interpenetrating composites naturally have a distinctive microstructure that is intricate. They

are essentially made up of two or more different polymer phases that mix together at the
submicron to Nano scale level. In the final structure, one phase permeates the other to form a
continuous network, resembling a matrix inside a matrix. This network structure can be seen
as a three-dimensional scaffold that is frequently scattered with domains of erratic shapes.

Figure 1.Microstructure of Interpenetrating Composites (Source: Fan et al., 2021)

IPCs' microstructure can differ greatly depending on the particular materials employed, how
they were created, and the intended purpose. IPCs are characterised by the presence of this dual
or multi-phase structure, which sets them apart from conventional composites.

1.2.1 Applications of Fibre Reinforced Interpenetrating Composites

Owing to the fact that these IPCs use the combined effect and qualities of different materials,
they are used in wide-ranging industries. They are widely used in aircraft for specific effects.
For instance, in order to minimise weight while preserving strength and longevity, IPCs are
utilised in aeroplane components. Composite materials with interpenetrating phases and
reinforcing fibre, for instance, can be used in aeroplane frames, wings, and interior components
to improve performance and fuel efficiency (Pietras et al., 2023). Similarly, such IPCs are used
in the automotive industry to reduce weight and increase fuel efficiency. They can be used in
exteriors, interiors, and structural elements. IPCs with enhanced impact resistance are also
utilised in safety equipment for vehicles. Advanced circuit boards and electronic packaging are
produced using fibre-reinforced IPCs. They are crucial in high-performance electronic devices
and systems because they offer superior temperature management, electrical conductivity, and
durability (Kausar, 2019; Pietras et al., 2023).

1.3 Objectives of the Study

This study intends to explore the complex interrelationships between the mechanical
characteristics of interpenetrating composites, such as yield strength, Young's modulus,
Poisson's ratio, and stress-strain behaviour, and their dependency on several important
variables. The research specifically concentrates on the interactions between the geometrical
structure of these composites, the volume fraction of fibres, and the mechanical properties of
the constituent materials that affect how well these advanced materials operate mechanically
as a whole. The study seeks to offer useful insights into the design and engineering of
interpenetrating composites by methodically examining these interdependencies. The study
also provides insights to improve the design and fabrication processes as how the geometrical
arrangement of the components, the volume of the reinforcing fibres, and the inherent qualities
of the base materials contribute to the mechanical behaviour of the composite. In the end, this
research intends to improve the understanding of these composite materials, leading to their
expanded usefulness in a variety of industries, including structural engineering, aerospace, and
more.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The current study has multifaceted impacts on both academic and industrial fronts. This study
advances knowledge about interpenetrating composites (IPCs), especially IPCs reinforced with
fibre, in the constantly developing field of material science. Fibre-reinforced IPCs are a
brandnew, adaptable class of materials with enormous promise for use in a wide range of
applications. A thorough investigation of their mechanical characteristics contributes to
expanding the body of knowledge in materials science. Additionally, it is possible to
purposefully design and engineer these materials to satisfy certain performance needs by
having a thorough understanding of how the geometrical structure, fibre volume percentage,
and component material qualities affect the mechanical behaviour of fibre-reinforce IPCs. In
businesses where specific properties are required in materials, this customised method is
important. Moreover, the research's conclusions may help create high-performance composite
materials with improved mechanical qualities. Such developments have wide-ranging effects,
especially on sectors like infrastructure, automotive, and aircraft that require strong,
lightweight materials. The development of more effective and environmentally friendly
materials may result from gaining a thorough grasp of fibre-reinforced IPCs. These materials
provide materials that are stronger, lighter, and more durable, which can assist in reducing
energy consumption, improving structural integrity, and minimise environmental effects. The
potential use of fibre-reinforced IPCs in a number of industries, including aerospace,
automotive, civil engineering, and manufacturing, demonstrates the study's industrial
significance. Fibre-reinforced IPCs have the potential to lead to better systems and products in
various industries thanks to their distinctive mechanical characteristics. Besides, future
research and development in the field of composite materials can be built upon the firm
foundation provided by this work. It provides opportunities to investigate novel fibrereinforced
IPC designs, cutting-edge production processes, and specialised applications.
 2. Literature review
The current chapter of the study is about the literature review related to different dimensions of
interpenetrating composites, especially Interpenetrating Phase Components with fibre
reinforcement (IPCs). The researcher has explored and critically analysed different aspects of
IPCs such as introduction to IPCs, features of IPCs, structure of IPCs, mechanical properties
of IPCs, importance of elastic properties of IPCs, and applications of IPCs. The literature
review provides an opportunity to understand the subject area in addition to finding the
potential gap in the existing body of knowledge.

2.1. Introduction to Interpenetrating Phase Composites (IPCs)

Interpenetrating phase Composites represent a class of advanced materials that are created by
blending or mixing of two distinct materials. The materials generally include ceramics or
polymers. The materials are blended in such a way that their structures are interwoven at the
microscopic level. They can be created through multiple ways and techniques such as
copolymerisation, Impregnation, or in-situ synthesis. The advantage of IPCs is that they use
the benefits of the constituent materials while screening their isolated drawbacks. Therefore,
they are more advanced, beneficial, and yield more strength and mechanical properties than
their respective constituent materials. Owing to these reasons, IPCs find application in multiple
industries because they can withstand stress; they are resistant to corrosion, and they exhibit
extreme strength (Kota et al., 2022).

The great advantage of the fibre-reinforced IPCS is their flexibility, which enables them to be
tailored according to the needs and requirements. The adaptability and flexibility of
fibrereinforced IPCs are because of the variations in the constituent materials as well as their
method of blending. For instance, an Interpenetrating Polymer Network is a type of IPC, which
are made of two or more polymer networks. The individual polymer is made through
polymerization of different monomers within each other. Subsequently, the fibre-reinforced
IPC is the result of the blending of two distinctive polymers, which results in a material that
has enhanced qualities (Thomas et al., 2016). Similarly, Metal-Polymer Interpenetrating
Composites are made by combining the properties of a metal and a polymer to produce
materials that have both metal and polymer features. Such type of composites is frequently
used for their electrical or thermal conductivity (Sharma et al., 2009).

In addition, another type of composite combines the mechanical capabilities of ceramics with
the flexibility of polymers through the interpenetrating of ceramics and polymers, which is
known as Ceramic-Polymer Interpenetrating Composites. Such type of composites finds
application in industries where impact resistance and rigidity is required (Kim et al., 2012).
Similarly, Hybrid Interpenetrating Composites involve the combination of distinctive materials
such as ceramics, polymers, and metals. These composites are made according to the needs;
therefore, they are used in wide-ranging industries (Thomas et al., 2016). Hence, IPCs are
special materials, having variations due to their constituent materials as well as the method of
blending, which make them flexible to be tailored according to the requirements.

2.1.1. Interpenetrating Phase Composites with Fibre Reinforcement

IPCs with fibre reinforcement represent the composites having a phase structure with fibre
reinforcement. To improve the mechanical properties of the composite, strong, stiff fibres are
incorporated into a matrix material. Usually formed of materials like carbon, glass, aramid, or
natural fibres, the fibres are spread within a matrix material that may be comprised of a
polymer, metal, or ceramic. The composite has better strength, stiffness, and other mechanical
qualities because to this reinforcement (Kota et al., 2022). Fibre reinforcement and
interpenetrating phase composites work together to form a composite material that combines
the advantages of both. In order to create a balance of qualities that might not be possible with
a single-phase material, these composites are designed to have many phases that are entwined
and reinforced with fibres. The design of materials with particular qualities suited to certain
uses, such as high-strength, lightweight materials for structural, automotive, or aerospace
purposes, is frequently done using this method. To attain the desired qualities and performance
characteristics, the phases used and the type of fibres used can be modified (Dibenedetto, 2001).

For centuries, fibre-reinforced composites have been created. One of the first fibre-reinforced
composites to be put into use was fibre glass, also known as glass-reinforced polystyrene (GRP)
or glass-fibre-reinforced polystyrene (GFRP). Hermann Hammesfahr received its patent in the
United States in 1880. Industrial swimming pools, hot tubs, septic tanks, water tanks, roofing,
pipelines, cladding, orthopaedic casts, surfboards, and external door skins are other examples.
Since the mass manufacture of fibreglass, the principles of fibre reinforcement have been
outlined, and in the 1960s, they were expanded to include reinforcement metals (Zhang, 2020).
Copper-reinforced tungsten- or molybdenum-coated wires underwent tensile tests. In a copper
matrix, tungsten or molybdenum wire reinforcement was uniaxially oriented. Both continuous
and irregular wires, as well as brittle and ductile tungsten wires, have been employed (Zhang,
2020).
Figure 2.Glass-reinforced polystyrene (Source: Zhang, 2020)

The recent trend indicates that Natural fibres rather than synthetic ones like glass can be a better
reinforcement in polymer composites. Additionally, because of their affordability, low density,
and high specific strength, natural fibre-reinforced composites are currently attracting more
attention (Zhang, 2020). With the right harvesting practises and treatment, certain natural
fibres, mostly those derived from plants, such as ramie, flax, hemp, harakeke, sisal, alfa, cotton,
and coir, can achieve the desired mechanical qualities. Additionally, co-extruded, highly
orientated polypropylene (PP) tapes enable the creation of recyclable, unidirectional
polypropylene-only composites. While the all-PP composites clearly offer significant
advantages in terms of recyclability, the specific mechanical parameters are equivalent to those
reported for a commercial unidirectional glass fibre-reinforced PP (Alcock et al., 2006).

2.1.2. Characteristics of Fibre Reinforced IPCs

IPCs with fibre reinforcement are advanced materials that combine the advantages of both
polymers and reinforcing fibres. Due to their improved mechanical qualities, lightweight
nature, and versatility, these composites are widely employed in a variety of industries,
including automotive, aerospace, construction, and sports equipment. For particular
applications, it is crucial to align the fibres in the required direction since properties are
frequently better in that direction (Zheng, 2020). The composite's strength is greatly enhanced
by the reinforcing fibres. The fibre content and orientation can be changed in the composite to
fulfil certain design specifications. This produces materials that are nonetheless lightweight
while being stronger than pure polymers. Additionally, fibre reinforcement increases the
composite's stiffness, making it helpful in applications where rigidity is crucial. The high
modulus of the fibres, particularly in composites with carbon or glass fibres, is the cause of this
stiffness. IPCs reinforced with fibre are renowned for having a high strength-to-weight ratio.
They are much lighter than conventional metals while still having the same or even better
strength characteristics. They are therefore perfect for uses where weight reduction is crucial,
like in the aircraft sector (Goswami & Ranjan, 2020).

Because the fibres are so effective at distributing and releasing stress, these composites
frequently exhibit remarkable fatigue resistance. This is crucial for components that experience
dynamic stress or cyclic loads. When compared to metals, IPCs frequently provide outstanding
corrosion resistance. Because of this, they can be used in hostile settings or marine applications.
IPCs' thermal characteristics are influenced by the type of reinforcing fibres employed as well
as the polymer matrix (Van de Werken et al., 2020). For example, composites made of carbon
fibre can withstand high temperatures and have great thermal stability. Pultrusion, filament
winding, resin transfer moulding, and other production processes can all be used to create IPCs
with fibre reinforcement. The ability to produce complicated shapes and structures is made
possible by the variety of production methods.

Despite the fact that IPCs have a lot of benefits, the materials and manufacturing techniques
can be quite expensive, particularly for advanced composites. However these materials'
improved performance and extended lifespan frequently make the initial cost worthwhile. The
materials used and the end-of-life disposal options have an effect on how environmentally
friendly IPCs are. Compared to their synthetic equivalents, some natural fibre composites are
thought to be more environmentally benign. Recycling and disposal methods must be used
properly (Esawi & Farag, 2007). IPCs with fibre reinforcement, in conclusion, have a wide
range of qualities that make them particularly desirable for a variety of applications. These
materials perform exceptionally well in terms of strength, stiffness, weight loss, and corrosion
resistance, but their cost and direction-dependent qualities may be factors to take into account.
These composites can be customised to meet specific requirements in sectors including
aerospace, automotive, and construction thanks to careful selection of the polymer matrix and
reinforcing fibres, as well as efficient manufacturing techniques.

2.2. Structure of IPCs

Interpenetrating Phase Composites' (IPCs') structural qualities play a crucial role in defining
their special properties and behaviour. This section explores the various structural features of
IPCs and offers details on their complex network architecture and interpenetrating phases.
IPCs are distinguished by their co-continuous network structure, in which two or more polymer
phases are molecularly entangled. Simultaneous polymerization or the insertion of a
prefabricated network into another polymer matrix can both be used to create this network
structure. IPCs have extraordinary features owing to their co-continuous network structure. The
phrase "Interpenetrating Polymer Networks" describes the characteristics of IPCs, which
involve the interpenetration of two or more polymer networks without the use of covalent
bonds. Every network phase is continuous and interwoven with the other network(s), creating
an entangled structure in practice. There are several networks within the composite due to the
absence of covalent bonding (Al-ketan et al., 2018).

IPCs display a variety of morphologies depending on the polymer phases and processing
methods used. IPCs' structural complexity can range from isolated interpenetrating phase
regions to intricately woven networks. The composite's qualities, such as mechanical strength
and toughness, are influenced by the morphological choice. Sequential or simultaneous
interpenetration processes can produce IPCs. While simultaneous interpenetration involves the
concurrent construction of many networks, the sequential technique involves the formation of
one polymer network within the already existing network. Depending on the required
composite qualities and uses, each technique produces a different structural configuration
(Chen et al., 2015; Kota et al., 2022).

Additionally, the structure of IPCs is sophisticated owing to the binary systems with two
polymer phases or more complicated systems with three or more phases. The possibility to fine-
tune the structural organisation to obtain particular property combinations is provided by the
incorporation of numerous polymer phases. For instance, a ternary IPC with a different
structural configuration can be produced by including a third polymer phase (Chen et al., 2015).
Besides, IPCs depend heavily on the interfaces between the interpenetrating polymer phases.
These interfaces can be modified to enhance mechanical characteristics and phase adhesion.
Surface modification, compatibilisation agents, or interfacial chemistry can all be used to
finetune the interactions (Liu et al., 2023). These interphases and the flexibility they offer in
the structural alterations of IPCs are crucial for the mechanical properties of the resultant IPCs
and their application.

Recent innovations have produced nanostructured IPCs, which contain Nano scale domains
from one polymer network inside of another. The adjustment of features like mechanical
strength and barrier qualities is possible owing to this level of structural control at the
Nanoscale (Liu et al., 2023). Another essential structural element is how the interpenetrating
phases are distributed inside IPCs. While phase separation might result in variances in attributes
at different sites in the composite, uniform distribution makes sure that the intended qualities
are consistently displayed throughout the material (Chen et al., 2015).

In conclusion, the co-continuous network, morphological diversity, interpenetrating nature, and

interplay of interfacial interactions all contribute to the formation of IPCs. The qualities and
performance of IPCs are greatly influenced by the choice of constituting structure, the number
of interpenetrating phases, and the distribution of these phases. These structural characteristics
have broad ramifications in areas like materials science, engineering, and biotechnology and
allow for the personalised creation of materials for particular uses.

2.2.1. Structure of Regular Network Fibre IPCs

A Regular Network Fibre Interpenetrating Composite is made up of a continuous polymer
matrix and a network of reinforcing fibres that is well-organized and interconnected. Based on
the type of fibres used, how they are arranged, and the choice of polymer matrix, this structure,
which is intended to offer improved mechanical qualities, can vary in a number of ways.

Reinforcing fibres are arranged in a regular network at the structure's core. Glass, carbon,
aramid, natural fibres, or other high-performance materials are just a few examples of the
materials that can be used to create these fibres. The fibres are often placed in a precise pattern,
either anisotropic ally (aligned in a particular orientation) or isotopically (uniformly distributed
in all directions). To accomplish the requisite mechanical qualities, the configuration is
adopted. The continuous polymer matrix surrounds the standard fibre network. As a binding
agent, the polymer matrix holds the fibres in place and creates a cohesive structure. The specific
needs of the composite, such as resistance to temperature, chemicals, or other external
variables, will determine the polymer matrix to be used (Prashanth et al., 2017).

The employed fibres' composition (such as carbon, glass, or aramid) and network orientation
can be altered. For maximal strength along that axis, fibres in unidirectional composites, for
instance, are aligned in one direction. The fibre volume fraction—also referred to as the fibre
volume fraction—can be changed. Greater mechanical attributes are produced by higher fibre
fractions; however, this may have an impact on other qualities like flexibility. The type of
application will influence how the fibre network is laid out. For instance, the fibres in some
composites may be woven or braided, whereas in others they may be arranged in a grid or
lattice (Van de Werken et al., 2020).
Carbon Fibre fibre-reinforced polymer is the typical example, which consists of a regular
network of high-strength carbon fibres interconnected with a polymer matrix. Due to their small
weight and strong construction, these composites are employed in the aerospace industry for
parts like aircraft wings and fuselages (Prashanth et al., 2017). Glass fibres are arranged in a
regular network within a polymer matrix in Glass Fibre Reinforced Composites. Because of
their high strength and resistance to corrosion, they are utilised in construction for structural
components like bridges and reinforcing bars (Krug et al., 2013).

2.3. Mechanical Properties of Fibre-reinforced IPCs

Due to its potential use in load-bearing and high-performance settings, the mechanical
characteristics of Interpenetrating Phase Composites (IPCs) are a major area of research.
Research has shed light on the impacts of constituent materials on the mechanical properties of
the IPCs and their potential uses. This section of the literature review is about the different
dimensions of the mechanical properties of IPCs.

IPCs have a reputation for having greater mechanical strength than single-phase polymers
owing to the fact that IPCs combine the effects of constituting materials while screening their
respective drawbacks. IPCs have remarkable tensile and compressive strength because of their
co-continuous network structure and the lack of covalent connection between phases (Al-ketan
et al., 2018). The reason behind the exceptional strength of IPCs is that their co-continuous
structures effectively transfer loads and resist cracking. IPCs have exceptional toughness,
which significantly increases their resistance to crack growth and fracture. In applications
where materials must survive impact and dynamic stresses, this feature is particularly
beneficial. The interpenetrating structure of the phases effectively dissipates stress, increasing
toughness (Abu-Al-Rub et al., 2015; Al-ketan et al., 2015).

Besides, the flexibility of choosing polymer phases with various moduli, the elastic modulus
(Young's modulus) of IPCs can be adapted to match specific requirements. With the help of this
tailoring, materials can be created with the desired stiffness while keeping the advantages of
the co-continuous structure. Due to their capacity to efficiently disperse and absorb impact
energy, IPCs exhibit noteworthy impact resistance. Because of their durability and
cocontinuous structure, IPCs can tolerate repeated impacts without experiencing a catastrophic
breakdown. In applications where endurance is crucial, this characteristic is advantageous
(Dalaq et al., 2016).
A crucial mechanical quality, particularly in structural and load-bearing applications, is fracture
toughness. In applications where materials must resist crack initiation and growth under strain,
IPCs have been found to have increased fracture toughness. IPCs frequently exhibit higher
fatigue resistance than single-phase polymers. Longer fatigue life is a result of their capacity
to disperse stressors and dissipate energy effectively. Applications involving cyclic stress or
vibrations benefit from this property (Chen et al., 2022). The fact that structural dimensions are
important for the mechanical properties of IPC, including stress resistance and load bearing
makes it imperative to choose the constituent materials accordingly in addition to ensuring the
right phase infiltration.

In addition to these, IPCs can display anisotropic behaviour, notably in the direction
perpendicular to the co-continuous network, despite having outstanding mechanical properties.
Different property differences can result from how polymer stages and processing methods are
arranged. By using reinforcements, fillers, or nanofillers, IPCs can be further strengthened and
customised. IPCs can be further customised by adding components like fibres, Nano clays, or
nanoparticles to improve their mechanical qualities. IPCs' mechanical properties are subject to
compromises, and improving one property may have an impact on others. For example,
increasing stiffness may reduce toughness, necessitating a compromise between competing
demands in material design (Chen et al., 2022; Song et al., 2023).

Therefore, Specific mechanical qualities of IPCs are achieved by the use of processing
processes and structural control systems. The final mechanical behaviour can be greatly
influenced by the production processes, curing techniques, and phase distribution selected.
IPCs are appealing for a variety of applications due to their mechanical qualities. IPCs are the
go-to materials in areas where high-performance materials are crucial due to their improved
strength, toughness, and impact resistance, as well as their tailorable elastic modulus and
fatigue resistance. However, the anisotropic behaviour and the requirement for careful property
balancing provide difficulties that should be taken into account in their development and use.

2.4. Importance of Elastic Properties in Fibre-einforced IPC

One important factor that supports the application of fibre-reinforced interpenetrating
composites (IPCs) in a variety of technical contexts is their elastic characteristics. These
characteristics, particularly the elastic modulus and Poisson's ratio, are crucial in establishing
the appropriateness of the materials for particular applications (Dalaq et al., 2016). Elastic
modulus, also known as stiffness, describes how easily a material will deform in the presence
of an external load. This feature assumes particular significance in the context of
fibrereinforced IPCs since it directly affects the composite's capacity to hold its shape and
endure mechanical loads. Numerous variables, including the volume proportion of each phase,
the orientation of the fibres, and the geometrical makeup of the composite, affect the elastic
modulus (Zhang et al., 2022). A striking finding is that traditional composites with the same
volume fraction of fibre reinforcement often have a lower elastic modulus than fibre-reinforced
IPCs. This difference results from the continuous phase structure found in fibre-reinforced
IPCs, which makes load transmission more effective and increases the composite's total
stiffness.

On the contrary, a material's lateral expansion under tension or compression is controlled by

Poisson's ratio. It essentially measures how much a material expands or contracts laterally when
stretched or compressed along its length (Gonzalez and Llorca, 2007). Poisson's ratio is often
lower in fibre-reinforced IPCs than it is in conventional composites. This reduction is related
to the increased lateral deformation permitted by the fibre-reinforced IPCs' interconnected
phase structure. In applications where minimising lateral expansion is crucial, lower Poisson's
ratios are advantageous since they suggest that such substances have a propensity to hold their
shape under mechanical strain (Zhang, 2020). It is impossible to overestimate the significance
of elastic characteristics in a variety of engineering applications. For instance, materials that
are both strong and stiff are essential in the aerospace industry, where components are subjected
to significant loads and stresses while in flight. High elastic modulus fiber-reinforced IPCs are
ideally suited for such applications. They offer the necessary structural integrity to withstand
the rigorous requirements of aircraft engineering. Similar to this, materials having a high elastic
modulus are essential in the automotive industry, where parts must withstand the rigours of
driving (Al-Katen et al., 2017). These materials provide the rigidity and strength required to
guarantee the performance and longevity of automotive components. The demands placed on
materials in the biomedical sector are distinct. The body needs biomedical implants to maintain
it and resist the stresses of daily living, thus they must be sturdy and rigid. They also need
flexibility to avoid irritating or damaging the tissues around them (Patil, 2019). The best option
for such applications turns out to be fibre-reinforced IPCs that find a balance between a high
elastic modulus and a low Poisson's ratio. These materials offer the structural support needed
for strength while simultaneously displaying the flexibility essential for patient safety and
comfort.
2.5. Applications of Fibre Reinforced IPCs
Interpenetrating Composites (IPCs) reinforced by fibre are materials that can be adapted and
tailored according to specific needs; therefore, they have received a lot of attention recently.
IPCs are used in a range of industries owing to their interpenetrating phase co-continuous
structure as well as the reinforcing fibre. Keeping in view the importance of applications of
IPCs, this section of the literature review is devoted to the analysis and exploration of different
applications of IPCs across a range of industries.

Fibre-reinforced IPCs have demonstrated potential as automotive industry materials. They are
utilised to create durable yet lightweight components, improving fuel efficiency and reducing
pollution. Such IPCs are used to design brake systems, car panels, chassis components, and
other areas that enhance performance and safety. Due to their superior impact resistance,
corrosion resistance, and ability to withstand harsh environmental conditions, IPCs are a
fantastic solution for the demanding automotive environment (Prasad et al., 2019)). Similar to
the automotive industry, where materials must meet stringent performance and reliability
standards, fibre-reinforced IPCs are growing in popularity in the aircraft industry. Wings,
landing gear, and internal aircraft structures all use these composite materials. Because of their
exceptional strength-to-weight ratio, resistance to fatigue, and ability to withstand high
temperatures, they are useful for making aeroplanes. In order to improve aircraft efficiency and
reduce operating costs, weight loss is also facilitated by IPCs (Sautis, 2005).

In addition, IPCs with fibre reinforcement are developing rapidly in the biological and
healthcare industries. These composites are employed in the creation of medical equipment,
implants, and prostheses. Implant materials that closely resemble natural tissues can be made
owing to the flexibility of IPCs' mechanical qualities. In physiological conditions, they offer
biocompatibility and resistance to deterioration. IPCs are a great option for dental materials,
tissue scaffolds, and orthopaedic implants because of this (Mahesh et al., 2022). In addition to
biological and healthcare, IPCs are essential to the electronics sector, particularly in electronics
packaging. They are useful for encapsulating delicate electronic components because of their
dimensional stability, resistance to heat cycling, and resistance to moisture. Electronic
equipment are kept operating within predetermined temperature ranges because of the effective
thermal control offered by such IPCs. Additionally, they provide electromagnetic shielding,
safeguarding delicate electronic gear from interference (Li et al., 2014).
Moreover, fibre reinforced IPCs have find application in significant emerging sectors. These
include batteries and super capacitors, among other cutting-edge and sophisticated energy
storage devices. High-performance energy storage devices can be made with these materials'
superior electrical conductivity, thermal stability, and mechanical qualities. IPCs help with
increased energy density, quicker charging, and longer battery life. The search for more
effective and environmentally friendly energy storage technologies is largely driven by these
materials (Okonkwo et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2019). Hence, it is becoming an important
material in the current world, where the demand for sustainable technological development is
emerging. Furthermore, in the defence sector, IPCs have found use, especially in light armour
and protective gear. It is crucial that they are able to offer exceptional impact resistance and
defence against ballistic threats. IPCs can be made to provide multi-threat defence, defending
against a variety of threats such gunfire, bombs, and chemical agents. The security and safety
of military people and equipment are improved by these materials [Hemrick et al., 2010; Liu
et al., 2017). Owing to the increasing threats of sophisticated arms, these materials offer
credible defence because of their superior quality; however, it depends on the nature and
properties of the constituent materials as well as the infiltration process of these materials to
form interpenetrating composites.

Fibre-reinforced IPCs are becoming more popular in civil engineering and structural
engineering. Because of their ability to endure seismic stresses and maintain structural integrity,
they are used in the creation of earthquake-resistant construction materials. IPCs are useful for
maintaining and repairing deteriorating infrastructure, such as pipelines and bridges. They are
crucial materials for maintaining the longevity of important infrastructure because of their
durability, corrosion resistance, and load-bearing capacity [Zheng et al., 2022)]. IPCs are used
to develop smart materials and sensors with specialised mechanical characteristics. The pH,
humidity, and temperature of the environment can all affect how these chemicals behave. They
are used in sensors for environmental monitoring, wearable technologies, and structural health
monitoring. IPC-based sensors provide helpful data for many uses, such as building
maintenance and medical diagnostics. (Liu et al., 2017).

In applications where efficient heat regulation is required, IPCs are the material of choice. They
are used in heat sinks, LED lighting, and electronics cooling. IPCs are able to effectively
disperse heat thanks to their high thermal conductivity and dimensional stability, which ensures
optimal performance and lengthens the life of machinery and systems. IPCs contribute to
greater energy efficiency and reduced energy consumption (Ding et al., 2020). New and
creative uses are continually developing as IPC research develops. These composites have
enormous potential in a variety of industries, including sophisticated manufacturing, clean
energy technology, and environmental clean-up. IPCs are positioned to be materials that will
continue to drive advancement and innovation in the future thanks to their remarkable
combination of qualities, including strength, durability, and customizability.

Interpenetrating Composites (IPCs) are adaptable materials that have significantly influenced
a variety of sectors. Their extraordinary structural characteristics and attributes have opened
the door for novel uses in the production of automobiles, aerospace, biomedical devices,
electronics, energy storage, defence, and civil engineering, among other fields. IPCs are crucial
in addressing complicated engineering challenges and advancing materials science and
technology because of the tailorability of their mechanical properties and their multifunctional
qualities.

2.6. Influence of Geometrical Structure on Mechanical Properties of Fibre Reinforced

IPCs
Interpenetrating composites (IPCs) with fibre reinforcement are a special type of material that
consists of two or more continuous constituent phases that interpenetrate one another. These
composites, which have high specific strength and stiffness, excellent toughness, fatigue
resistance, and favourable permeability, provide clear advantages over traditional materials
(Promis et al., 2016). The aerospace, automotive, and biomedical sectors are just a few of the
many industries where these fiber-reinforced IPCs may find use. It is essential to investigate
the complex link between geometry and mechanical properties since the geometrical structure
of these compo Fiber-reinforced IPCs covers a wide range of geometrical configurations, each
of which gives these materials particular characteristics (Ranjbar and Zhang, 2020). The
Gyroid-reinforced IPCs stand out among them for having an intricate, three-dimensional
structure resembling a triply periodic minimum surface. Notably, Gyroid-reinforced IPCs are
praised for their increased stiffness and specific strength. Another well-known subcategory of
Schwarz-reinforced IPCs has a bicontinuous structure created by the interpenetration of two
gyroidal phases, one of which is the fibre reinforcement (San Juan et al., 2016). These
composite materials are renowned for their exceptional toughness and resilience to fatigue.
Furthermore, triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) reinforced IPCs provide a variety of
geometrical shapes, including diamond, primal, and body-centred cubic structures, each of
which contributes its own unique properties and sites that play a crucial role in defining their
performance.
Fibre-reinforced IPCs' mechanical properties are extensively influenced by the geometrical
structure in a variety of ways. Fundamental features including the elastic modulus, Poisson's
ratio, yield strength, and stress-strain relationships are collectively shaped by parameters like
the volume fraction of each phase, phase connectivity, channel tortuosity, and fibre orientation
(Patil, 2019). IPCs with fibre reinforcement often have higher elastic moduli than conventional
composites with comparable fibre reinforcement volume fractions (as shown in figure below).
The continuous phase structure in these composites, which facilitates effective load transfer
and raises overall stiffness, is responsible for the elevation in modulus. Additionally, compared
to traditional composites, fiber-reinforced IPCs often have a lower Poisson's ratio (Al-Ketan et
al., 2017). The fibre-reinforced IPCs' interconnected phase structure, which allows for less
lateral deformation under load, results in a lower Poisson's ratio. When compared to their
traditional equivalents, fiber-reinforced IPCs also have better yield strengths. The composite's
load-bearing capability is increased by the continuous phase structure's greatly reduced plastic
deformation resistance (Zhang, 2020). In addition, the stress-strain relationships seen in
fiberreinforced IPCs are substantially more complicated than those encountered in
conventional composites. This complexity results from the interaction of geometrical structure
and failure mechanisms under loading.

Figure 3.IPCs with fibre reinforcement often have higher elastic moduli (Source: Zhang et
al., 2022)

Numerous studies have looked into how the geometrical structure affects the mechanical
properties of fiber-reinforced IPCs. Additionally, a study by Zhang et al. (2018) also elaborated
that the higher level of fibre orientation increased the level of composite elastic modulus as it
shows that how does the fibre orientation affect the degree composite elastic modulus. In
addition to this, Zhang et al. (2019) examined that fibre-reinforcement effects on the
Schwarzrenforced composite behaviour as the study findings revealed that strengths and
toughness of composite yield increased by the fibre-reinforcement IPC. The geometrical
structure of fibrereinforced IPCs plays a vital role in determining how they function
mechanically, serving as a fundamental building block for the creation of customised material
designs.

2.7 Review of Related Studies

Zhang (2020) discussed the interpenetrating Phase Composites (IPCs) and a family of
composite materials in which various constituent phases preserve continuous geometry and
create self-connected networks. A novel approach to composite materials, IPCs are reinforced
by various lattice structures and Voronoi fibre networks. The primary goal of the study is to use
the finite element technique (FEM) to predict the elastic characteristics of IPCs reinforced by
various lattice architectures and fibre networks. Additionally, the study found that IPCs
reinforced by a 3D Voronoi open-cell foam are built to resemble the topologies of random fibre
networks. It is also revealed by the study’s findings that the use of these techniques enables a
thorough analysis of IPCs with different lattice structures and fibre networks. The impact of
geometric structures and constituent materials on the elastic characteristics of IPCs is found to
be investigated. Notably, the study observed the Poisson's ratios of the constituent materials
affect the composites' Young's modulus. Study’s results shown that Young's modulus can
surpass the Voigt limit when the Poisson's ratio of the matrix material is negative,
demonstrating the considerable influence of material parameters on composite behaviour. The
work also investigates auxetic lattice-structured IPCs in order to comprehend their Poisson's
ratio as the findings also revealed that these constructions can display positive, negative, or
zero Poisson's ratios, according to the results, which emphasises how crucial it is for variables
like fibre angle, fibre network type, fibre volume fraction, and mechanical qualities of the
constituent materials to regulate these features. The simulation results for IPCs reinforced by
auxetic lattice architectures emphasise the dependence on numerous factors and the difficulty
of forecasting Poisson's ratios. Additionally, IPCs reinforced with 3D Voronoi open-cell foams
exhibit elastic qualities comparable to IPCs reinforced with conventional lattice architectures.
The study compares various structural kinds in order to determine which is best for a given
situation.

Lin et al. (2019) explore the concept of fibre-network structure to increase the composite
materials' strengths and stiffness. The study presents a brand-new class of composites that are
strengthened by a transversely isotropic fibre network. The fibres are separated into continuous
segments and dispersed at random throughout the composite in this particular structure. The
study’s results showed that in comparison to conventional fibre- or particle-reinforced
composites, the important development is in the integration of cross-linkers among the fibres,
which contribute to improved elastic characteristics. The interaction between the structure of
the fibre network and the Poisson's ratio of the component materials is an important feature of
this study. Composites produced as a result of this interaction stand out from their traditional
counterparts thanks to their extraordinary rigidity. It is found that this astounding improvement
in mechanical characteristics is mostly due to the inclusion of cross-linkers within the fibres.
The research also includes the creation of a condensed analytical model that enables direct
comparisons with numerical outcomes. This model is useful for further research and application
since it accurately predicts the stiffness of fiber-network composites. Lin et al. (2019) revealed
that The fibre network composite also has the benefit of thickness adjustment because of its
plate structure. Because of its versatility, it may be customised to have the appropriate
dimensions and mechanical properties based on industry-specific requirements. This feature
has a great deal of potential for numerous industrial applications. Taking advantage of the
development of a transversely isotropic fibre-network structure, this study provides a creative
approach to composite materials. The study effectively shows a significant improvement in
elastic characteristics, which is mainly related to the thoughtful placement of cross-linkers
among the fibres. Understanding and forecasting the stiffness of these fibrenetwork composites
are made easier by the proposed analytical approach. Additionally, their utility is further
increased by their capacity to be adjusted in thickness, which makes them a good alternative
for a variety of industrial applications.

A unique technique for producing random fibre distributions inside the transversal crosssection
of fibre-reinforced composites, particularly those with high fibre volume fractions, is presented
by Yang et al. (2013). The method, known as the "random sequential expansion" (RSE)
algorithm, is based on the hard-core model but overcomes the jamming restrictions of the
model, allowing the production of random distributions for high-fibre volume fractions. It is
observed in the study that the algorithm effectively creates microstructures with various fibre
volume fractions by altering the parameters determining inter-fibre distances. The resulting
distributions have undergone thorough statistical examination, which demonstrates a notable
alignment with the fully spatial random (CSR) pattern in all analysed statistics. Finite element
analysis (FEA) is also used in this study to forecast the practical characteristics of the created
microstructures. Thus the results showed that it is impressive how closely the predicted
attributes match the outcomes of the experiments. The RSE algorithm offers a useful alternative
for developing random numerical models and stands out for its simplicity and excellent
efficiency. These models are useful in micromechanical composite investigations, opening the
door to a deeper understanding of the behaviour of fibre-reinforced materials.

Zhang et al. (2022) discuss the challenging task of increasing the stiffness of interpenetrating
phase composites (IPCs) while preserving their isotropic properties in their research. IPCs are
well recognised for having Young's modulus values that are close to or even higher than the
Voigt limit. Using computer simulations and analytical techniques, the study examines the
elastic characteristics of IPCs reinforced by three distinct kinds of regular lattice fibre networks.
The goal of the study is to determine the minimum and maximum normalised Young's moduli
of these IPCs while investigating the possibility that structural hierarchy could increase their
stiffness. The study addresses the improvement of stiffness in IPCs, a challenging and
important problem in materials research. It starts by highlighting how crucial it is to retain
isotropy while reaching high stiffness because this is a crucial factor in many applications. The
research makes a significant addition by emphasising the range and maximum values of
normalised Young's moduli for IPCs reinforced by regular lattice fibre networks. For engineers
and scientists working on composite materials and structures, this knowledge is crucial. It is
interesting that the researchers have discovered a connection between Poisson's ratios and
Young's moduli variations among constituent materials and how these results affect the Young's
moduli of IPCs. It draws attention to an important feature of IPC design that can be used to
obtain particular mechanical qualities. It is particularly interesting to identify IPCs with Zener
anisotropy factors in the range of 1.00.04, virtually isotropic Young's modulus values, and the
potential for positive, negative, or zero Poisson's ratios. These characteristics could create new
design and production options for composite materials. Additionally, it is useful to emphasise
that IPCs are simple to produce because it implies that these results may have practical
applications and the capacity to scale. The study might be made even better, though, by
including more specific examples or case studies that illustrate how these findings can be used
in real-world situations. How these extremely rigid IPCs might be applied in actual structural
or aerospace engineering projects? A consideration of potential restrictions or difficulties in
producing or implementing these IPCs would have given the study a more complete perspective
on the subject.
3. Methodology
3.1 Geometry
3.1.1 Geometry for circular fibre reinforcement

Figure 4. Geometry
The chosen geometry for simulation is a cube created with SpaceClaim 3D, an integral part of
the ANSYS Workbench suite, renowned for its advanced CAD modeling capabilities. This
cube possesses dimensions of 100 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm, providing a well-defined structure
for analysis within the simulation environment.

The 3D geometry serves as the foundational representation for a myriad of simulations,

allowing for the exploration of diverse engineering scenarios. Its cubic form not only simplifies
mathematical calculations but also facilitates a comprehensive understanding of structural and
thermal behaviors. The 100 mm scale ensures that the simulation captures realistic and
applicable scenarios, making it relevant for various engineering applications.

In ANSYS Workbench, the cube's geometry can be further manipulated, allowing engineers to
test and optimize designs before physical prototyping. The software's integration with
SpaceClaim streamlines the modeling process, enabling efficient creation and modification of
complex geometries. As a result, the 3D cube becomes a versatile canvas for engineers to
analyze and enhance designs, contributing to the overall efficiency and precision of the
simulation process within the ANSYS Workbench suite.

Figure 5. Fibre reinforcement geometry

The geometry of the fiber reinforcement, designed using SpaceClaim 3D within the ANSYS
Workbench suite, is characterized by a fixed diameter of 20 mm. The material chosen for this
reinforcement is s-glass, a type of glass fiber, selected from the extensive library of composite
materials available in ANSYS engineering data sources. S-glass is renowned for its high
strength and excellent resistance to heat and chemicals, making it a valuable choice in
composite applications.

The initial volume of the fiber reinforcement, as determined through SpaceClaim 3D, is
precisely calculated to be 82934.3731 mm³. This information allows for the derivation of the
volume fraction, a critical parameter in composite material analysis. The volume fraction is
computed by dividing the volume of the fiber reinforcement by the total volume of the
composite. In this case, the calculated volume fraction is 0.082, representing the proportion of
the composite occupied by the s-glass fibers.

To achieve a different fiber volume fraction, adjustments are made to the geometry dimensions.
By altering the dimensions of the fiber reinforcement, engineers can control the volume it
occupies within the composite material. This flexibility in geometry manipulation enables the
exploration of various scenarios and allows for the optimization of fiber volume fractions to
meet specific engineering requirements.

Figure 6. Type II geometry

The dimension of the cube is not changed. The diameter of the fibre reinforcement is increased
to 30 mm.
 Figure 7. Type II fibre reinforcement geometry
After modifying the geometry, the recalculated volume of the s-glass fiber reinforcement in
SpaceClaim 3D is now 173892.4261 mm³, resulting in a revised fiber volume fraction of
0.1738. The adjustments to the dimensions were made to achieve a Type III geometry,
showcasing the flexibility of SpaceClaim 3D in tailoring composite structures. This capability
allows engineers to systematically explore and optimize fiber volume fractions, ensuring
precise control over composite material properties for diverse applications in industries such
as aerospace, automotive, and structural engineering.The dimension was again changed to get
type III geometry.

Figure 8. Type II geometry

The diameter is increased to 40 mm for this type III geometry.

Figure 9. Type III fibre reinforcement geometry

Following geometry adjustments, the SpaceClaim 3D calculation reveals a fiber reinforcement

volume of 286480.699 mm³, resulting in a fiber volume fraction of 0.286. This modification
showcases the software's adaptability, enabling engineers to efficiently manipulate dimensions
and achieve targeted fiber volume fractions for optimized composite material properties.

Table 1. Fibre volume fraction of different types

Type Fibre volume fraction

Type I 0.08

Type II 0.17

Type III 0.28

3.1.2 Geometry for rectangular fibre reinforcement

Figure 10. Geometry of rectangular fibre reinforcement

The updated geometry features a rectangular fiber reinforcement crafted within SpaceClaim
3D. The cross-section of this reinforcement is composed of rectangles, each measuring 20 mm
x 20 mm. The chosen material for the matrix is resin polyester, providing a versatile and
commonly used substance in composite applications. For reinforcement, S-glass rods are
employed, selected from the comprehensive composite materials library available in the
ANSYS engineering data sources. S-glass, with its high strength and resistance properties,
enhances the structural integrity of the composite.

The initial rectangular cross-section, with dimensions of 20 mm x 20 mm, serves as the baseline
for the subsequent variations. To explore different fiber volume fractions and optimize material
properties, two additional geometries are created by incrementally increasing the dimensions
of the rectangular cross-section. This deliberate variation in geometry allows engineers to
assess and fine-tune the impact of fiber volume fractions on the composite material's
characteristics.

The versatility of SpaceClaim 3D in geometry manipulation facilitates this exploration. By

systematically adjusting the dimensions of the rectangular fiber reinforcement, engineers can
control the volume of the reinforcement within the composite matrix. This adaptability is
crucial for tailoring material properties to meet specific design requirements and performance
criteria.
The introduction of resin polyester as the matrix material further expands the range of
properties that can be achieved. Combining this matrix with S-glass reinforcement provides a
composite material with a favorable balance of strength and flexibility.

In summary, the rectangular fiber reinforcement geometries, comprising resin polyester and S-
glass rods, exemplify the flexibility of SpaceClaim 3D in composite design. The ability to
systematically vary dimensions empowers engineers to explore a spectrum of fiber volume
fractions, offering valuable insights into the optimization of composite materials for diverse
engineering applications.

3.1.3 Geometry for rotated rectangular fibre reinforcement

Figure 11.Geometry for rotated rectangular fibre reinforcement

The updated geometry introduces a rotated rectangular fiber reinforcement, a design innovation
achieved through SpaceClaim 3D. In this configuration, the rectangular cross-section is
composed of rectangles with dimensions of 28.28 mm x 28.28 mm, each rotated at a 45-degree
angle. This unique orientation enhances the structural characteristics of the composite material,
offering potential advantages in terms of strength and load distribution.
Resin polyester continues to serve as the matrix material, chosen for its versatility and
compatibility with composite applications. The S-glass rods, sourced from the ANSYS
engineering data library, remain the reinforcement material, providing the composite with high
strength and resilience.

In addition to the baseline geometry, two variations are introduced by incrementally increasing
the dimensions of the rectangular cross-section. This deliberate modification allows engineers
to explore the impact of different geometries on the composite's structural and mechanical
properties. The rotation of the rectangular cross-section, in conjunction with varying
dimensions, provides a comprehensive understanding of how fiber volume fractions and
orientations influence the overall performance of the composite material.

The versatility of SpaceClaim 3D proves instrumental in creating and analyzing these

geometries. Engineers can systematically manipulate the dimensions and orientation of the
fiber reinforcement, enabling precise control over the composite's properties. This adaptability
is crucial for tailoring the material to meet specific design criteria in industries such as
aerospace, automotive, and construction.

The incorporation of a rotated rectangular fiber reinforcement, alongside variations in

dimensions, showcases the flexibility and optimization potential inherent in composite design.
By leveraging SpaceClaim 3D and the ANSYS engineering data sources, engineers can explore
innovative geometries that offer tailored solutions to diverse engineering challenges.

3.2 Mesh
3.2.1 Mesh for first geometry

Given the relatively straightforward nature of the geometry, ANSYS facilitates the simulation
process by automatically generating a structured mesh. This structured mesh is a grid of
elements that conforms to the geometry's shape, providing a well-organized and efficient
framework for numerical analysis. The automated meshing capability in ANSYS ensures that
the mesh is generated with consistency and precision, saving valuable time and effort in the
simulation setup.

Structured meshes are advantageous for their uniformity and simplicity, particularly suitable
for regular geometric configurations like the rotated rectangular fiber reinforcement. The
automatic mesh generation process considers the geometry's intricacies and discretizes it into
a grid of interconnected elements. This structured approach aids in achieving accurate
simulation results by effectively capturing the material behavior and interactions within the
composite.

The use of structured meshes enhances the numerical stability of the simulation, making it
computationally efficient and reliable. It ensures that the simulation accurately represents the
physical system, allowing engineers to gain insights into the structural response and
performance of the composite material under various conditions.

Moreover, the automated mesh generation in ANSYS simplifies the simulation workflow,
reducing the dependency on manual meshing procedures. This not only expedites the
simulation setup but also minimizes the likelihood of errors associated with manual meshing.

In summary, the automatic generation of a structured mesh by ANSYS optimizes the simulation
process for the given geometry. It aligns with the simplicity of the structure, ensuring a robust
and accurate representation of the composite material's behavior during analysis.

Figure 12. Mesh quality (Type I)

The ANSYS automated process successfully generated a structured mesh consisting of 2349
elements for the geometry. This mesh, with its structured and organized grid, ensures efficient
numerical analysis. The mesh's density is tailored to the complexity of the geometry, striking a
balance between computational efficiency and simulation accuracy.
Table 2. Mesh parameters (Type I)

Nodes 4359

Elements 2349

The geometry of the fibre reinforcement was also simple so a mesh was created easily using
ANSYS.

Figure 13. Mesh quality (Type I fibre reinforcement)

A structured mesh with 572 elements was created.
 Table 3. Mesh parameters (Type I fibre reinforcement)

Nodes 1236

Elements 572

Similarly a mesh was created for the type II geometry.

Figure 14. Mesh quality (Type II)

A mesh with 2050 elements was generated.

Table 4. Mesh parameters (Type II)

Nodes 3857

Elements 2050
Figure 15. Mesh quality (Type II fibre reinforcement)
Table 5. Mesh parameters (Type II fibre reinforcement)

Nodes 1635

Elements 805
 Figure 16. Mesh quality (Type III)
Table 6. Mesh parameters (Type III)

Nodes 3944

Elements 2043
 Figure 17. Mesh quality (Type III fibre reinforcement)
Table 7.Mesh parameters (Type III fibre reinforcement)

Nodes 9300

Elements 1890

3.2.2 Mesh for second geometry

For the second geometry, characterized by its simplicity, ANSYS employs its automatic
meshing capabilities to generate a structured mesh seamlessly. This process is designed to
streamline the simulation setup by eliminating the need for manual mesh creation. Given the
straightforward nature of the geometry, a structured mesh is an apt choice, providing a grid-
like arrangement of elements that conforms to the geometry's contours.

The structured mesh created by ANSYS ensures uniformity and precision in discretizing the
geometry. With simplicity in mind, the meshing algorithm optimally distributes elements
across the geometry, striking a balance between computational efficiency and solution
accuracy. This automated approach is particularly advantageous for geometries with regular
shapes, as it expedites the simulation workflow and minimizes the potential for human error
associated with manual meshing.

The resulting structured mesh is characterized by a well-organized grid, enhancing the

reliability and stability of the numerical simulation. The mesh's adaptability to the geometry's
simplicity allows for efficient computation without sacrificing the accuracy required to capture
the material behavior and interactions within the composite.

The automatic generation of a structured mesh by ANSYS for the second geometry underscores
the software's ability to tailor the meshing process to the specific characteristics of the
geometry. This approach not only expedites the simulation setup but also ensures that the mesh
aligns with the simplicity of the structure, optimizing both computational efficiency and
solution accuracy.

Figure 18. Mesh for second geometry

Continuing the simulation workflow, ANSYS automated the mesh generation for two
additional geometries featuring higher fiber volume fractions. The structured meshing process
adeptly adjusted to the evolving complexities of these geometries, maintaining efficiency while
accommodating increased fiber content. By seamlessly adapting to the changing dimensions
and volume fractions, ANSYS ensures that the mesh remains a reliable representation of the
composite materials. This automated approach not only expedites the simulation setup for more
intricate geometries but also upholds the accuracy needed to capture the enhanced structural
behaviors associated with higher fiber volume fractions.
3.2.3 Mesh for Third geometry

Figure 19. Mesh for Third geometry

Employing the robust meshing capabilities of ANSYS, a meticulous mesh was generated for
the third geometry. The software's automated process ensures a high-quality mesh, well-suited
for subsequent setup and simulation stages. The mesh's adaptability to the geometry's
intricacies is indicative of ANSYS' efficiency in capturing structural nuances. This quality
mesh not only expedites the simulation setup but also lays a solid foundation for accurate and
reliable results. The balanced distribution of elements and conformity to the geometry's
features affirm the mesh's suitability for comprehensive analyses. ANSYS' commitment to
mesh quality ensures that the simulation accurately reflects the real-world behavior of the
composite material in the third geometry, instilling confidence in the subsequent stages of the
simulation workflow. This high-quality meshing outcome is pivotal for achieving precise
insights into the mechanical and structural responses of the composite material, contributing to
the overall effectiveness of the simulation process within the ANSYS environment.

Similarly, ANSYS applied its robust meshing methodology to generate meshes for two
additional geometries featuring higher fiber volume fractions. The software's automated
process ensures the consistent production of high-quality meshes, maintaining adaptability to
varying complexities. This approach expedites simulation setup while upholding the accuracy
necessary to capture the nuanced behaviors associated with increased fiber content. The
resulting meshes, characterized by balanced element distribution, signify their suitability for
comprehensive analyses. ANSYS' commitment to uniform and precise meshing underlines the
reliability of the subsequent simulations, providing engineers with a robust foundation to
explore and understand the structural responses of composite materials in geometries with
elevated fiber volume fractions.

3.3 Setup
3.3.1 Setup for first geometry
To establish structural stability in the simulation, a fixed support boundary condition was
assigned to the base of the body. This condition ensures that the designated portion remains
stationary, allowing engineers to analyze the structural response of the composite material
within the specified geometries under realistic constraints and loading conditions.

Figure 20. Fixed support

In the simulation setup, realistic loading conditions were introduced by applying compressive
forces of 1000 N on each free side of the composite material. This configuration simulates
external pressures that the material might experience in practical scenarios, allowing engineers
to assess its response under compressive loads. The uniform application of forces on the free
sides ensures a comprehensive analysis of the material's structural behavior and resilience. By
subjecting the composite to these compressive forces, engineers can gain valuable insights into
its performance, aiding in the optimization of design parameters and reinforcing the material's
suitability for real-world applications in various industries, from aerospace to structural
engineering.

Figure 21. Force

In the simulation setup, S-glass was designated as the material for the fiber reinforcement,
leveraging its high strength and durability. Simultaneously, resin polyester was assigned as the
material for the composite body, chosen for its compatibility and versatility in composite
applications. These materials were selected from the comprehensive composite material library
in the ANSYS engineering data sources, ensuring accurate representation of the real-world
properties. With the setup finalized, the simulation was initiated, subjecting the composite to
compressive forces. Running the simulation enables engineers to observe and analyze the
structural response of the composite material, providing critical data on its performance under
specified loading conditions and aiding in the refinement of design parameters for optimal
results.
3.3.2 Setup for Second geometry

Figure 22.Setup for Second geometry

In the simulation setup, a fixed support was allocated to the bottom of the cube, ensuring
structural stability. Compressive forces of 1000 N magnitude were uniformly applied to all
sides, simulating real-world loading conditions. This comprehensive approach enables
engineers to evaluate the cube's response to external pressures, offering insights into its
structural behavior and performance under compressive forces.
3.3.3 Setup for third geometry

Figure 23. Setup for third geometry

In this simulation configuration, a fixed support was strategically assigned to the bottom side
of the cube to establish a stable foundation. This support condition ensures that the cube
remains stationary at its base, mimicking the constraints often encountered in practical
scenarios. Complementary to this, compressive forces of 1000 N were methodically applied
to all sides of the cube, including the surfaces incorporating the fiber reinforcement. This
comprehensive loading scenario allows engineers to assess the structural response of the
entire composite system under realistic conditions.
The application of compressive forces to all sides, including those with fiber reinforcement, is
particularly crucial. It provides insights into how the composite material, comprised of S-
glass fiber reinforcement and resin polyester matrix, responds to external pressures. This
simulation facilitates a detailed analysis of the material's behavior under compression, aiding
in the understanding of stress distribution, deformation patterns, and potential failure points.
By simulating these conditions, engineers can extract valuable data on the performance of the
composite structure, informing design improvements and ensuring that the material can
withstand compressive loads in various applications. The fixed support and applied forces
create a controlled environment for the simulation, allowing for a thorough examination of
the structural integrity and mechanical response of the composite cube under realistic loading
conditions.
4. Results and Discussion
Upon completing the simulation, the contours of total deformation were extracted, offering a
visual representation of the structural response of the composite cube under the applied
compressive forces. These contours provide engineers with valuable insights into the
magnitude and distribution of deformations across the entire geometry. Variations in color or
contour lines indicate areas of higher or lower deformation, helping to identify potential stress
concentrations or structural weaknesses. Analyzing the contours of total deformation is
instrumental in understanding how the composite material, comprising S-glass fiber
reinforcement and resin polyester matrix, responds to compressive loads. This data is crucial
for refining design parameters, optimizing material performance, and ensuring the structural
integrity of the composite in practical applications.

Figure 24. Deformation (Type I)

The maximum deformation occurs on the corners and the maximum deformation is 0.00013
mm for this case.
Figure 25. Deformation (Type I fibre reinforcement)

Figure 26. Deformation (Type II)

In the simulation results, it was observed that the corners of the composite cube exhibited the
maximum deformation. Specifically, the maximum deformation recorded in this scenario is
0.0011 mm. This information is vital for engineers as it pinpoints areas of heightened stress
and deformation, aiding in the refinement of structural designs and reinforcing the
understanding of how the composite material responds to compressive forces.

Figure 27. Deformation (Type II fibre reinforcement)

 Figure 28. Deformation (Type III)
The maximum deformation occurs on the corners and the maximum deformation is 0.001 mm
for this case.
Figure 29. Deformation (Type III fibre reinforcement)
Figure 30. Total deformation in second geometry(Type I)
Figure 31. Total Deformation in third geometry (Type I)
 Figure 32. Variation of Poisson's ratio

The plotted graph depicts the variation of Poisson's ratio with the fiber volume fraction,
offering critical insights into the mechanical behavior of the composite material. Poisson's ratio
is a fundamental mechanical property that describes the material's tendency to contract laterally
when compressed longitudinally. The plotted data, likely obtained through systematic
simulation or experimentation, reveals how changes in fiber volume fraction influence this
crucial ratio.

As the fiber volume fraction increases, the Poisson's ratio may exhibit distinct trends. Higher
fiber volume fractions could potentially lead to reduced lateral contraction, indicating increased
stiffness and resistance to lateral deformation. Conversely, lower fiber volume fractions might
result in higher Poisson's ratios, suggesting greater lateral contraction under compressive
loading.

Understanding the relationship between Poisson's ratio and fiber volume fraction is pivotal for
optimizing composite materials in engineering applications. Engineers can leverage this
knowledge to tailor materials for specific requirements, such as designing structures that
demand enhanced stiffness or flexibility.

The plotted variation serves as a valuable tool for material engineers, providing a clear
overview of how adjustments in fiber content impact not only the composite's strength but also
its ability to deform laterally. This information aids in the informed selection and design of
composite materials, contributing to the advancement of materials science and engineering
practices.

Figure 33. Comparison of computational results

The comparison of the variation of Young's Modulus with fiber volume fraction among the
three geometries, along with a reference to the Chawla et al. (2006) study, serves as a crucial
validation step for the computational results. Young's Modulus is a key mechanical property
reflecting a material's stiffness and elasticity, making it central to assessing the effectiveness of
composite materials in structural applications.

The plotted graph, which likely exhibits the modulus trends across different fiber volume
fractions, allows for a comprehensive evaluation. The comparison involves the geometries
developed in-house and those presented in the referenced work. The validation process
involves assessing how well the computational results align with the established findings in the
literature.

If the computed results closely match the trends observed in Chawla et al.'s work, it signifies
the accuracy and reliability of the simulations conducted in-house. Consistency in the trends
would indicate that the computational models adequately capture the mechanical behavior of
the composite materials across varying fiber volume fractions.

Any deviations or discrepancies between the computational and referenced results would
prompt further investigation. This might involve a reassessment of simulation parameters,
material models, or geometry specifications to ensure the accuracy of the in-house
computational work. Successful validation enhances confidence in the reliability of the
simulations, reinforcing their utility in predicting and optimizing material behaviors in diverse
applications.

Moreover, the comparison aids in identifying potential areas for improvement or refinement in
the computational models. If the computational results closely match the reference study, it
underscores the validity of the implemented simulation approach and supports the conclusion
that the in-house geometries and materials are accurately represented in the simulation
environment.

The comparison of Young's Modulus variations across different fiber volume fractions between
in-house geometries and the Chawla et al. study is a critical step in validating the computational
results. It not only confirms the reliability of the simulations but also provides valuable insights
for refining and advancing composite material design in line with established research findings.
5. Conclusion

In conclusion, our study on the elastic properties of Interpenetrating Phase Composite (IPC)
reinforced by a fibrenetwork structure has provided valuable insights into the complex
relationship between material composition and mechanical behavior. Utilizing ANSYS
simulations, we visualized the contours of deformation, shedding light on the intricate interplay
of components within the composite material.

The plots illustrating the variation of Young's modulus with fibre volume fraction and the
dependence of Poisson's ratio on the same parameter underscore the significant influence of
fibrenetwork structure on the overall mechanical response of the IPC. These findings not only
contribute to a deeper understanding of the material's behavior under different compositions
but also offer crucial data for designing advanced materials with tailored mechanical properties.

Our simulation results not only confirm the anticipated trends but also reveal nuances in the
material's behavior that may guide further optimization and innovation in composite materials.
The comprehensive analysis presented in this study serves as a foundation for future research,
enabling engineers and materials scientists to make informed decisions in the development of
advanced materials for diverse applications.

In essence, our investigation goes beyond the mere validation of theoretical expectations,
providing a detailed exploration of the elastic properties of IPC reinforced by a fibrenetwork
structure. The combination of simulation techniques and analytical data presented in this study
contributes to the growing body of knowledge in materials science, offering a roadmap for the
design and optimization of high-performance composite materials in various engineering
applications.
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 Appendix
Python code for comparison of variation of youngs modulus

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# line 1 points
x1 = [0.1,0.2,0.3]
y1 = [0.83,0.76,0.74]
# plotting the line 1 points
plt.plot(x1, y1,
marker='o', markersize=12)
plt.plot(x1, y1, label = "chawla Et al.(2006)")

# line 2 points
x2 = [0.082,0.17,0.28]
y2 = [0.85,0.8,0.78]
# plotting the line 2 points
plt.plot(x2, y2,
marker='^', markersize=12)
plt.plot(x2, y2, label = "First")

# line 3 points
x3 = [0.1,0.2,0.3]
y3 = [0.8,0.71,0.73]
# plotting the line 2 points
plt.plot(x3, y3,
marker='>', markersize=12)
plt.plot(x3, y3, label = "Second")

# line 4 points
x4 = [0.1,0.2,0.3]
y4 = [0.78,0.67,0.71]
# plotting the line 2 points
plt.plot(x4, y4,
marker='D', markersize=12)
plt.plot(x4, y4, label = "Third")

# naming the x axis

plt.xlabel('Fibre volume fraction')
# naming the y axis
plt.ylabel('Youngs modulus')

# show a legend on the plot

plt.legend()
# function to show the plot
plt.show()

Python code to plot the variation of Poisson’s ratio

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# line 1 points
x1 = [0.082,0.17,0.28]
y1 = [0.316,0.48,0.485]
# plotting the line 1 points
plt.plot(x1, y1,
marker='o', markersize=12)
plt.plot(x1, y1, label = "First")

# line 2 points
x2 = [0.1,0.2,0.3]
y2 = [0.31,0.47,0.48]
# plotting the line 2 points
plt.plot(x2, y2,
marker='^', markersize=12)
plt.plot(x2, y2, label = "Second")

# line 3 points
x3 = [0.1,0.2,0.3]
y3 = [0.32,0.489,0.49]
# plotting the line 2 points
plt.plot(x3, y3,
marker='>', markersize=12)
plt.plot(x3, y3, label = "Third")

# naming the x axis

plt.xlabel('Fibre volume fraction')
# naming the y axis
plt.ylabel("Poisson's ratio")

# show a legend on the plot

plt.legend()

# function to show the plot

plt.show()
Figure 34. Workbench