1A question formation

1 We make questions with tenses where there is an auxiliary verb (be, have, etc.) and with modal verbs
(should, must, etc.) by inverting the subject and the auxiliary / modal verb.
With the present and past simple, we add the auxiliary verb do / does or did before the subject.
How long have you been waiting?
How many children does your sister have?
Should we buy her a present?
Can you drive? Why are you crying?

2 We often use negative questions to show surprise when we expect somebody to agree with us, or to check
whether something is true.
Why didn't you like the film?
Isn’t this a beautiful place?
Don't you have to be at school today?

3 lf a verb is normally followed by a preposition, e.g. talk about sth, the preposition comes at the end of the
question, not at the beginning. NOT About what are you talking?
• We often just use the question word and the preposition, e.g. A I'm thinking. B What about?
What are they talking about?
Who does this bag belong to?

4 When who / what / which, etc., is the subject of questions in the past simple, we don't use do / did, e.g. Who
wrote this? NOT Who did write this?
Who lives in that house?
How many people came to the party?
How many people follow you on Twitter?

indirect questions
Could you tell me what time the shop next door opens?
Do you know if (whether) Mark's coming to the meeting?
Could you tell me where this bus goes?
Do you know if he's coming?

• We use indirect questions when we want to ask a question in a more polite way. We begin with a phrase such
as Can / Could you tell me ...? Do you know ...? Do you think...? Do you remember…? Would you mind telling
me...? Do you have any idea…?
• Compare:
What time does the post office open? (direct question) and Could you tell me what time the post office opens?
(indirect question)
• In indirect questions, the order is subject + verb. Can you tell me where ít is? NOT Can you tell me where is it?
• We don't use do / did in the second part of the question. Do you know where he lives? NOT ... where does he
live?
• You can use if or whether in questions without a question word and after: Can you tell me. Do you Know, etc.

Other expressions followed by the word order of indirect questions

The word order of indirect questíons is used after:
I wonder..., e.g. I wonder why they didn't come.
I'm not sure..., e.g. l'm not sure what time it starts.
I can't remember..., e.g. I can't remember where l left my phone.
I'd like to know..., e.g. l'd like to know what time you're coming home.

Politely refusing to answer a question

lf you are asked a question you think is inappropriate, or simply don't want to answer, you can say, J'd prefer
not to answer that or l'd rather not answer
Reacting to what someone says
When you ask someone a question and they answer, it is normal to show interest or sympathy.
You can use:
• expressions such as Oh, really? l'm sorry. What a shame!
• exclamations such as Wow! Me too! How interesting!
• follow-up questions such as Why (not)? Why is that? Why do you say that?

Guessing the meaning of new words and phrases

When you are reading, you will often find a word or phrase you don't know. lf it isn't possible to check the
meaning in a dictionary, think about:
• the context (i.e. the other words around it).
• what part of speech the individual words are (e.g. a verb, an adjective, etc.).
• whether it's similar to another English word you know.
• whether it's similar to a word in your language.
lf you still can't work out what the word or phrase means, ignore it and carry on reading.

1B auxiliary verbs

We use auxiliary verbs (do, have, etc.) or modal verbs (can, must, etc.):
1 to avoid repeating the main verb / verb phrase, e.g. NOT l like cats, but my husband doesn’t like cats.
I like cats, but my husband doesn't.
Sally's coming tonight, but Angela isn't.
2 with so and neither to say that someone or something is the same. Use so+ auxiliary + subject to respond to
a statement with a positive verb, and neither (or nor) + auxiliary + subject to respond to a statement with a
negative verb.
• We use a positive auxiliary verb after neither (or nor), e.g. Neither did l. NOT Neither didn't l.
A I loved his latest film. B So did l.
A I haven't finished the book yet. B Neither (Nor) have l.
Andrew's a doctor and so is his wife.

3 to respond to a statement and say that you (or someone or something) are different.
A I don't like shopping online.
B I do. I buy a lot of my clothes online.

4 to make 'reply questions'. These often show interest or surprise.

A I went to a psychic yesterday.
B Did you?
A I'll make dinner tonight.
B Will you? That's great!

5 to show emphasis in a positive sentence, often when you want to contradict what somebody says. With the
present / past simple, we add do / does / did before the main verb. With other auxiliaries, e.g. be, have, will,
the auxiliary verb is stressed and not contracted.
A You didn't lock the door!
B I did lock it; l know I did.
A Silvia isn't coming.
B She is coming. I've just spoken to her

6 to make question tags, we use a positive auxiliary with a negative verb, and a negative auxiliary with a
positive verb.
• Question tags are often used simply to ask another person to agree with you, e.g. lt's a nice day, isn't it? In
this case, the question tag is said with falling intonation, i.e. the voice goes down.
• Question tags can also be used to check something you think is true, e.g. She's a painter, isn't she? In this
case, the question tag is said with rising intonation, as in a normal yes / no question.
You won't forget, will you?
She can speak Italian, can't she?
Reacting to a story about something strange
When somebody talks about something strange or difficult to explain, we often react with these phrases.
How / That's strange / bizarre / odd / weird / spooky.
What a weird story / amazing coincidence.

Grammar in context the..., the... + comparatives

The bigger the animal, the more problems you have.
The harder and more resistant the cup is, the stronger your relationship is.
Use the + comparative adjective or adverb, or the more/ less (+ noun) to show that one thing depends on
another, e.g.
• The earlier we start, the sooner we'll finish. = lf we start early, we wiII finish early.
• The more money you spend now, the less you'll have for your holiday. = lf you spend a lot of money now, you
will have less for your holiday.

Compound adjectives
Compound adjectives have two parts. The second part often ends in -ed or -ing, e.g. good-natured, hard-
working. The words are normally linked by hyphens.

Modifiers
We often use modifiers with adjectives of personality to make them stronger or less strong.
With positive characteristics
really / incredibly / extremely
My mum is very good-tempered.
quite / pretty

With negative characteristics

really / incredibly / extremely
My sister is very bad-tempered.
quite/ pretty
a bit/ rather

2A present perfect simple and continuous

present perfect simple: have / has + past participle
•We use the present perfect simple:
1 to talk about past experiences when you don't say when something happened, often with ever or never.
Have you ever broken a bone?
l've never seen him before.
2 with just, yet, and already.
l've just phoned for an ambulance, but it hasn't arrived yet.
l've already told you three times.
3 with superlatives and the first, second, last time, etc.
lt's the best book l've ever read.
4 for finished actions (when no time is specified) which have present results.
My computer's (has) crashed!
Look, it's (has) started snowing.
5 with non-action verbs (= verbs not usually used in the continuous form, e.g. be, need, know, like, etc.) to say
that something started in the past and is still true now.
• This use is common with time expressions like How long...?, for or since, all day / evening, etc.
• Don't use the present simple in this situation. NOT I know Miriam since I was a child.
l've known Miriam since I was a child.
My sister has been ill for ten days now.
6 when we say or ask how much / many we have done or how often we have done something up to now.
How many Agatha Christie novels have you read?
They've seen each other twice this week.
present perfect continuous: have / has + been + verb + -ing

• We use the present perfect continuous:

1 with action verbs (e.g. run, listen, study, cook) to say that an action started in the past and is still happening
now (unfinished actions).
• This use is common with time expressions like How long..?, for or since, all day / evening, etc.
• Don't use the present continuous in this situation. NOT l'm living here for the last three years.
How long have you been waiting to see the doctor?
He's been messaging his girlfriend all evening.
2 for repeated actions, especially with a time expression, e.g. all day, recently.
I haven't been sleeping well recently.
lt's been raining all day
3 for continuous actions which have just finished (but which have present results).
l've been shopping all morning. l'm exhausted.
My shoes are filthy. l've been working in the garden

present perfect simple or continuous?

1 To talk about an unfinished action, we normally use the present perfect continuous with action verbs (e.g.
run, listen, study, cook) and the present perfect simple with non-action verbs (e.g. be, need, know, like, etc.).
l've been feeling terrible for days.
He's liked classical music since he was a teenager.
2 Some verbs can be action or non-action, depending on their meaning, e.g. have piano lessons = action, have a
car= non-action.
She's been having piano lessons since she was a child.
They've had that car for at least ten years.
3 With the verbs live or work, you can often use the present perfect simple or continuous. However, we
normally use the present perfect continuous for more temporary actions.
We've lived in this town since 1980.
We've been living in a rented flat for the last two months.
4 The present perfect simple emphasizes the completion of an action (= the kitchen has been painted). The
present perfect continuous emphasizes the duration of an action (= the painting of the kitchen may not be
finished yet).
I've painted the kitchen. l've been painting the kitchen.

2B using adjectives as nouns, adjective order

adjectives as nouns

• You can use the + some adjectives to talk about groups of people, e.g.
1 specific groups in society, such as the young, the old (or the elderly), the sick (= people who are ill), the blind,
the deaf, the homeless, the dead.
In most African countries, the young still look up to the old.
The poor are getting poorer, and the rich are getting richer.
The government needs to create more jobs for the unemployed.
2 some nationalities that end in -ch, -sh, -ese, and -ss, such as the French, the Spanish, the British, the
Japanese, the lrish, the Swiss, etc. (most other nationality words are nouns and are used in the plural, e.g. the
Brazilians, the Poles, the Turks, the Hungarians, the Argentinians, etc.).
• You can also use adjective + people to talk about a group of people, e.g. poor people, homeless people, old
people, French people.
• To talk about one person, use, e.g. a Japanese woman, a rich man, etc. NOT a Japanese, a rich.
The English are famous for drinking tea.
The Chinese invented paper.
The Dutch make wonderful cheeses.
adjective order
• You can put more than one adjective before a noun (often two and occasionally three). These adjectives go in
a particular order, e.g. NOT an old lovely cottage.
• Opinion adjectives, e.g. beautiful, nice, lovely, always go before descriptive adjectives, e.g. big, old, round.
• lf there is more than one descriptive adjective, they go in this order:
OPINION SIZE AGE SHAPE COLOUR PATTERN ORIGIN/PLACE MATERIAL NOUN
expensiv little brand new long purple spotted French silk Scarf
e ltalian car
beautiful

We've got a lovely old cottage just outside Bath.

She has long fair hair.
I bought a beautiful Italian leather belt.

3A narrative tenses: past simple, past continuous, past perfect, past perfect continuous
narrative tenses
1 We use the past simple to talk about consecutive actions or situations in the past, i.e. for the main events in a
story.
We arrived at the airport and checked in
2 We use the past continuous (was / were + verb + -ing) to describe a longer continuous was in progress past
action or situation which when another action happened, or to describe an action or situation that was not
complete at a past time.
We were having dinner when the plane hit some turbulence.
At nine o'clock most people on the plane were reading or were trying to sleep.
3 We use the past perfect (had + past participle) to talk about the 'earlier past', i.e. things which happened
before the main event(s).
When we arrived at the airport, we suddenly realized that we'd left one of the suitcases in the taxi.
4 We use the past perfect continuous (had been + verb + -ing) with action verbs (go, play, watch, etc.) to talk
about longer continuous actions or situations that started before the main events happened and continued up
to that point.
Non-action verbs (e.g. be, have, know, like, etc.) are not normally used in the past continuous or past perfect
continuous.
We'd been flying for about two hours when suddenly the captain told us to fasten our seat belts because we
were flying into some very bad weather

past perfect simple or continuous?

• The past perfect continuous emphasizes the continuation of an activity. The past perfect simple emphasizes
the completion of an activity.
Lina was crying because she'd been reading a very sad book.
Lina didn't want to see the film, because she'd already read the book.

Grammar in context so/ such ... that...

There are so many things conspiring against you that it's hard to nod off...
These seats are, however, in such high demand, that some airlines, especially low-cost ones, charge more for
them.
We often use so/ such ... that to express a consequence.
• Use so + adjective or adverb, e.g. The taxi driver drove so quickly (that) we got to the airport on time.
• Use so much + uncountable noun and so many + plural countable noun, e.g. There was so much traffic /
There were so many buses on the road (that) we nearly missed our flight.
• Use such a + adjective + single countable noun, e.g. lt was such a great hotel (that) we want to go back
there.
• Use such + adjective + uncountable or plural noun, e.g. We had such terrible weather / such small rooms
(that) we didn't enjoy the holiday.

Telling an anecdote
Setting the scene The main events What happened in the end
This happened (to me) when I was ... I decided to ..., because ... In the end I Eventually, ...
I was ... -ing when ... So then I ... lt turned out that...
I... , because I had / hadn't ... Suddenly / At that moment, ... I felt...
3B the position of adverbs and adverbial phrases

• Adverbs can describe an action (e.g. he walks slowly) or modify adjectives or other adverbs (e.g. it's
incredibly expensive, he works very hard). They can either be one word (e.g. often) or a phrase (e.g. once a
week).

Types of adverbs
Time (when things happen, e.g. immediately, right now, at once, at last
Manner (how you do something, e.g. slowly, rudely, carefully, silently, angrily
Degree (describing / modifying an adjective, e.g. very, incredibly, much, absolutely
Comment (giving an opinion, e.g. luckily, sadly, unfortunately
Frequency (how often things happen, e.g. rarely, always

He speaks French and Spanish fluently

I hardly ever use public transport.
I thought l'd lost my phone, but fortunately it was in my bag.
lt's extremely important that you arrive on time.
When I find out, 1'11 tell you immediately

1 Adverbs of manner describe how somebody does something. They usually go after the verb or verb phrase,
however, with passive verbs they usually go in mid-position (before the main verb but after an auxiliary verb).
He walks very slowly.
I speak five languages fluently.
The driver was seriously injured in the accident.

2 Adverbs of frequency go before the main verb but after the verb to be.
• sometimes, usually, and normally can also be put at the beginning of the phrase or sentence for emphasis,
e.g. Sometimes the weather can be very wet, but not today.
• lf there are two auxiliary verbs, the adverb goes after the first one.
I hardly ever have time for breakfast.
Liam's always late for work.
I would never have thought you were 40.

3 Adverbs of time and place normally go at the end of a sentence or clause. Place adverbs normally go before
time adverbs. NOT My parents will be in half an hour here.
• Adverbs of time can also go at the beginning for emphasis, e.g. Soon it will be Christmas! OR It will be
Christmas soon!
It rained all day yesterday.
My parents will be here in half an hour.

4 Adverbs of degree describe how much something is done, or modify an adjective.

• nearly and almost are used before a verb or verb phrase.
• extremely, incredibly, very, etc. are used with adjectives and adverbs, and go before them.
• a lot and much are often used with verbs and go after the verb or verb phrase.
• a little / a bit (of) can be used with adjectives or verbs, e.g. l'm a bit/a little tired. We rested a bit/a little
after the flight.
l've nearly finished.
We're incredibly tired.
My husband works a lot, but he doesn't earn much.

5 Comment adverbs (which give the speaker's opinion) usually go at the beginning of a sentence or clause.
Other common comment adverbs are: luckily, basically, clearly, obviously, apparently, eventually, etc.
Unfortunately, the parcel never arrived.
Ideally, we should leave here at 10.00.
Other adverbs
Most other adverbs go in mid-position, e.g. I just need ten more minutes. I didn't speak to Jo at the party- I
didn't even see her. She'll probably come in the end.

She liked the present a lot.

Mark came home last night very late.
The ambulance arrived at the scene of the accident after a few minutes.
A young man was badly hurt and was taken to hospital.
I was incredibly tired last night.
She's a bit lazy about doing her homework.
I almost forgot your birthday, but fortunately my sister reminded me.
Luckily, we had taken an umbrella, because it started to rain straight away.
Mary doesn't always eat healthily- she often has snacks between meals.
Apparently, John has been sacked.
l'm seriously considering resigning from my job.
Their house was badly damaged in the fire last week.
Ben is often at his friend's house in the evening.
My father usually has a nap in the afternoon.
Julia left early and she didn't even say goodbye.
Martin always eats incredibly quickly.
Apparently his brother nearly died in a skiing accident.
We're probably going to the cinema tonight.
I rarely send emails nowadays.
l've just bought a really beautiful new coat.
Eventually, Karen realized that she was never going to learn to drive.

4A future perfect and future continuous

future perfect: will have + past participle

• We use the future perfect (will have + past participle) to say something will be finished before a certain time
in the future.
The rain will have stopped by this afternoon.
• This tense is frequently used with the time expressions by Saturday / March / 2030, etc., or in two weeks /
months, etc.
Some people think that sea levels will have risen by as much as a metre in 50 years' time.
• by + a time expression = at the latest. With in, you can say: in six months or in six months' time.
• We form the negative with won't have + past participle, and make questions by inverting the subject and will
/ won't.
Laura won't have arrived before dinner, so I'll leave some food in the oven for her.
When will they have learned enough English to be able to communicate fluently?

future continuous: will be + verb + -ing

1 We use the future continuous (will be+ verb + -ing) to say that an action will be in progress at a certain time
in the future.
Compare: Come at around 7.30. We 'II have dinner at 8.00. (= we will start dinner at 8.00)
and
Don't phone between 7.00 and 8.30, as we'II be having dinner. (= at 8.00 we will already have started having
dinner)
• We form the negative with won't be + verb + -ing and make questions by inverting the subject and will /
won't.
Good luck with your test tomorrow. I'll be thinking of you.
Will you be waiting for me when I get off the train?
This time tomorrow, I'll be sitting at a café, drinking a beer.
2 We sometimes use the future continuous, like the present continuous, to talk about things which are already
planned or decided.
You don't need to get up early. We won't be leaving until about 9.30.
I'll be going to the supermarket later. Do you want anything?
definitely, probably, and likely / unlikely
We often use verb + definitely or probably, and be likely / unlikely + to + infinitive when talking about the
future, especially when we are making predictions.
I think ...
it'll definitely happen.
it's (very) likely to happen.
it'll probably happen.
it probably won't happen.
it's (very) unlikely to happen.
it definitely won't happen.

Modifiers with strong adjectives

When you are talking about extreme situations, e.g. very bad weather, you can use:
1 normal adjectives with a modifier (very, really, extremely, incredibly, unbelievably), e.g. It was incredibly cold
/ extremely hot / unbelievably windy, etc.
2 strong adjectives, e.g. It's boiling here - 40 degrees. lt's freezing today, etc.
3 Strong adjectives with absolutely, e.g. lt was absolutely freezing. The midday heat was absolutely scorching.

4B zero and first conditionals, future time clauses (with all present and future forms)
zero conditional
• We use zero conditionals to talk about something which is always true or always happens as a result of
something else.
You need to do some exercise every day if you want to be fit.
We use if + present simple, and the present simple in the other clause.
lf people are wearing headphones in the street, they often don't notice other people.
• You can also use the present continuous or present perfect in either clause.
lf you haven't been to New York, you haven't lived.

first conditional
• We use first conditionals to talk about something which will probably happen in the future as a result of
something else. We use if + a present tense, and a future tense in the other clause.
• You can use any present form in the if-clause (present simple, continuous, or perfect) and any future form
(will, going to, future perfect, future continuous) or an imperative in the other clause.
lf the photos are good, I'll send them to you.
lf you're not going to Jason's party, l'm not going to go either.
lf I haven't come back by 9.00, start dinner without me.
I'll have finished in an hour if you don't disturb me.

future time clauses

• Future time clauses are similar to the if-clause in first conditional sentences, but instead of if, we use
expressions like: as soon as, when, until, unless, before, after, and in case followed by a present (not a future)
tense. This can be any present form, e.g. present simple, present continuous, present perfect. We can use any
future form or imperative in the other clause.
• We use in case when we do something in order to be ready for future situations / problems. Compare the use
of if and in case:
• I'll take an umbrella if it's raining. = I'll only take an umbrella if it's raining.
• I'll take an umbrella in case it rains. = I'll take an umbrella anyway because it might rain.

I'll be ready as soon as l've had a cup of coffee.

Send me a message when your train's coming into the station.
l'm not going to buy the new model until the price has gone down a bit.
l'm not going to work overtime this weekend unless I get paid for it.
Take your umbrella in case it's raining when you leave work
5A unreal conditionals
second conditional sentences: if + past simple, would/wouldn't + infinitive
1 We use second conditional sentences to talk about a hypothetical or imaginary situation in the present or
future and its consequences.
lf there was a fire in this hotel, it would be very difficult to escape.
I wouldn't have a car if I didn't live in the country.
2 In the if-clause you can also use the past continuous continuous. In the other clause you can use could or
might instead of would.
lf it wasn't raining so hard, we could get to the top of the mountain.
3 With the verb be you can use was or were for I, he, and she in the if-clause, e.g. lf Dan was/were here, he
would know what to do. However, in conditionals beginning If I were you ... to give advice, we always use were.
lf I were you, l'd make Jimmy wear a helmet when he's cycling.

third conditional sentences: if + past perfect, would/wouldn't have + past participle

1 We use third conditional sentences to talk about a hypothetical past situation and its consequences.
lf they had found the river sooner, they would all have survived.
I wouldn't have got lost if I hadn't taken the wrong path.
2 You can also use the past perfect continuous in the if-clause. You can also use could have or might have
instead of would have in the other clause.
• In the past perfect simple and continuous, had can be contracted to 'd, e.g. lf they'd found the river sooner ...
He would have died if he hadn't been wearing a helmet.
lf the weather had been better, I might have arrived earlier.

second or third conditional?

• Compare the two conditionals:
1 lf you came to class more often, you would probably pass the exam = You don't come to class enough. You
need to come more often if you want to pass the exam.
2 lf you had come to class more often, you would probably have passed the exam. = You didn't come to class
enough, so you failed.

Mixed conditionals
We sometimes mix second and third conditionals if a hypothetical situation in the past has a present/future
consequence, e.g. You wouldn't be so tired if you had gone to bed earlier last night.
If he really loved you, he would have asked you to marry him.

5B wish for present/future

wish + past simple
• We use wish + person/thing + past simple to talk about things we would like to be different in the
present/future (but which are impossible or unlikely).
• After wish, you can use was or were with I, he, she, and it, e.g. I wish I was/were taller.
I wish I was ten years younger!
I wish I could understand what they're saying.
I wish we didn't live so far from my parents.

wish + would/wouldn't
• We use wish + person/thing + would/wouldn't to talk about things we want to happen, or stop happening,
because they annoy us.
• You can't use wish + would for a wish about yourself, i.e. NOT I wish I would…, I wish we would...
I wish the bus would come. l'm freezing.
I wish you'd spend a bit more time with the children.
I wish you wouldn't leave your shoes there. I always fall over them.
I wish cyclists wouldn't cycle on the pavement!

wish for past regrets

wish + past perfect
• We use wish + past perfect to talk about things that happened or didn't happen in the past and which we
now regret.
I wish l'd worked harder at school.
I wish I hadn't spoken to him like that!
I wish she'd told me the truth about her feelings.

if only ...
if only is sometimes used instead of I wish in certain situations, to express deep regret, e.g. lf only I had worked
harder at school {I wouldn't have such a boring job now).

Expressing annoyance
lt real/y annoys me when ...
lt's so annoying when ... people eat crisps in the cinema.
lt drives me mad when ...

Feelings adjectives that have an –ed form but not an –ing form
A few -ed adjectives describing feelings don't have an -ing form, e.g. impressed - impressive NOT impressing

Ways, of talking about how we feel

We can talk about how we feel in three different ways:
1 by using a verb (e.g. annoy) People who eat in the cinema really annoy me.
2 by using an -ing adjective (e.g. annoying) People who eat in the cinema are really annoying.
3 by using an -ed adjective (e.g. annoyed) I get really annoyed when people eat in the cinema.