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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Plastic Waste is a perennial environmental concern. The accumulation and

degradability of this type of waste have posed a serious issue in the environment. On
average, the annual generation of plastic waste globally is around 380 million tons (Ritchie
& Roser, 2018). A large fraction of Plastic waste ends up in landfills, some are openly
burned, and others have infiltrated the bodies of water. Often, Plastic tends to last about 20
to 500 years in the environment and during this course of time, Plastic tends to cause
various impacts on the environmental components such as land, water, and air.

In the Philippines, the quantity of Plastic waste produced every year ranges from
2.7 to 5.5 million metric tons (Schachter & Karasik, 2022), this leads the country to be one
of the largest contributors of Plastic pollution on the global scale. An essential factor in
Plastic Waste accumulation is packaging materials. Conventionally, producers utilize
plastic as their prime packaging component due to its thermally stable characteristic,
substantial ultimate strength, high degree of processability, lightweight nature, and cost-
effectiveness (Sangroniz, et al., 2019). However, commonly plastic packaging is single use
in nature, thus, after one-time use, these are already disposed and only a few portions of
these are being recycled. Due to its properties, Plastics possess the merit to be recycled,
however, in the country, the recycling rate is at 9%, which is considerably low (World Wide
Fund for Nature, 2020).

Recycling is one of the most sustainable methods of Waste Recovery, as it entails

the production and processing of waste into a new and useful material. The application of
Recycling in Plastic Waste is a significant effort in decreasing the environmental
consequences lead by Plastic accumulation, moreover, employing recycling methods also
lessens the expenditure of raw materials utilized in manufacturing Plastic products
(Hopewell, Dvorak, & Kosior, 2009).

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Globally, significant efforts have already been employed in Plastic Waste

Recycling. Several studies have been conducted with regards to recycling of different types
of Plastic waste. Research have carried in the fields of construction, commercial and power
generation. In construction, Plastic waste was investigated as a material to produce
pavement tiles, plastic lumber and as a reinforcement media on Concrete Hollow Blocks.
But the studies are only limited in major construction materials, and a few have only
investigated the potential of recycled plastic waste in Plumbing applications, specifically
in Pipe materials.

A study conducted by Poduška, et al. (2019) denoted that Polyethene recycled

Plastic Pipe are insubstantial for pipe applications and pressurized conditions, as it possess
a low mechanical performance. Another study by W. Bradley and S. Bradley (n.d.) reported
that addition of coconut shell powder particles has the capacity of increasing the tensile
strength of High Density Polyethene by about 10%. Furthermore, the study by Sangwan
and Bhakar (2017) examined the environmental impact of HDPE Pipe production. They
found that the Raw Material Phase had the greatest environmental impact, particularly due
to HDPE pellets and transportation of raw materials. Additives like Masterbatch made from
carbon black also had significant environmental and health effects. The End-of-Life Phase
was also a concern due to emissions from HDPE Pipe waste in landfills. The study
recommended finding alternative raw materials to reduce the environmental impact of the
HDPE Pipe production.

In this experimental study, a mechanical recycling method will be employed to

produce Plastic pipe utilizing HDPE plastic waste as the prime material. Additionally, the
Plastic Pipe will be reinforced with Carbon Black produced from incomplete combustion
of Coconut shell. Moreover, Waste Cooking oil, especially Palm oil will also be
incorporated in the pipe specimen mixture. As a result, this study aims to derive approaches
and develop practical materials out of waste substances. In this regard the feasibility of
Plastic pipe produced using HDPE Plastic Waste, Carbon black from Coconut shell and
Waste Palm Cooking oil will be thoroughly investigated in this research.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

Plastic packaging materials account for 28.1% of total Municipal Solid Waste
according to the US EPA (2018). This includes items like soda and water bottles, detergent
bottles, milk jugs, and plastic bags which are primarily made of PET, HDPE, and LDPE
and are often deemed as single-used plastics. Without proper management measures, it is
estimated that mismanaged plastic waste will increase to 9 million metric tons by 2040 and
11 million metric tons by 2060 (Schachter & Karasik, 2022).

Waste cooking oil poses another significant concern, particularly in the Philippines
as many sectors such domestic and small-scale commercial units dispose of it inadequately.
Improper disposal can result to issues such as pipeline blockages and negative
environmental impacts, including the disruption of aquatic ecosystems and the degradation
of water quality (Azahar et al., 2016). This highlights the urgent need for effective waste
management strategies to address the growing issue of plastic and cooking oil waste.

In Zamboanga City, the waste composition consists of 61% biodegradable waste

and 39% non-biodegradable waste (OCENR, n.d.). Currently, the city recycles Polystyrene
plastic waste in combination with waste cooking oil to produce pavement tiles. However,
only a single type of the plastic waste is being recycled, resulting in a significant
accumulation of recyclable plastic waste such as PET, LDPE, and HDPE plastics in the
Materials Recovery Facility. To address this issue, this study aims to develop a sustainable
solution by creating a plastic pipe using HDPE waste, waste cooking oil, and coconut shells
as raw materials. The recycling method being investigated has the potential to enhance the
city's waste recovery strategies and provide a valuable contribution to waste management
efforts.

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1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this research is to create a usable product using Plastic waste.
More specifically, the goal is to develop a Plastic Pipe suitable for Pipeline applications by
utilizing Carbon Black extracted from Coconut Shell, HDPE plastic waste, and Waste
Cooking Palm Oil. Additionally, this study aims to evaluate the viability of the produced
Pipe by examining the following:

• Identify which among the treatment is feasible to produce an efficient Plastic Pipe:
o 5% Waste Cooking Oil, 1% Coconut Shell Carbon Black, 94% HDPE
Plastic Waste
o 5% Waste Cooking Oil, 10% Coconut Shell Carbon Black, 85% HDPE
Plastic Waste
o 5% Waste Cooking Oil, 20% Coconut Shell Carbon Black, 75% HDPE
Plastic Waste
o 100 % HDPE Plastic Waste

• Determine in terms of the Mechanical Property (Internal Pressure Capacity) and

Physical Properties (Tensile strength and Longitudinal Reversion)

• Compare the Mechanical and Physical Properties of the Experimental Plastic Pipe
and the commercial Polyethylene Pipe

1.4 Significance of the Study

This research if find successful can be utilized as a cost-effective alternative

method and source of raw materials for manufacturing plastic pipes, potentially reducing
the dependence the finite resources such as oil and petroleum.

Moreover, the success of this research could play a crucial role in promoting a
sustainable approach to address the accumulation of plastic waste within communities.

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Through encouraging the adoption of radical techniques like recycling, this study has the
potential to stimulate industries and government sectors to take proactive measures in
tackling the prevailing waste disposal problem.

1.5 Scope and Delimitation

The main focus of this study is to explore the Mechanical Recycling of High-
Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Plastic Waste for the production of a Plastic Pipe.
Additionally, to improve the properties of the recycled Plastic Pipe, Carbon Black derived
from Coconut shells and Waste Palm cooking oil, will be used as a reinforcing medium.
The necessary raw materials will be sourced locally in Zamboanga City, Philippines.
Specifically, the HDPE Plastic waste will be obtained from the Materials Recovery Facility
of the Sanitary Landfill in Barangay Salaan. The waste cooking oil will be collected from
Choobi-Choobi Restaurant located in Barangay Cabatangan. Finally, the Coconut shells
will be acquired from the coconut stalls at the Sta. Cruz Public Market.

Given the resource constraints, this study will focus on manufacturing Plastic Pipes
with the following specifications: nominal diameter size of 50 mm, wall thickness of 4 mm,
and length of 250 mm. The research will primarily assess the Physical and Mechanical
properties, such as Tensile strength, Longitudinal Reversion, and Internal Pressure
Capacity, in accordance with the Philippine National Standards for Polyethylene pipes,
with reference to ISO 4427 or Plastics piping systems for water supply and for drainage
and sewerage under pressure — Polyethylene (PE). Lastly, the Experimental Plastic Pipes
produced in this study are primarily designed and intended for use in wastewater
applications.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATU`RE

2.1 High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

Polyethylene is characterized as a thermoplastic, which possesses the potential of

being melted and molded into new material. It is utilized in wide range applications ranging
from packaging materials, construction supplies and automotive products, its application
has come a long way from its intended application which is to replace rubber insulators in
the Electrical applications (Plastics Pipe Institute , 2008).

High Density Polyethylene is one of the two variants of Polyethylene Plastic

Polymer, it is often characterized for its high intermolecular forces and tensile strength,
additionally it attains a high strength to density ratio (Kulkarni et al., 2022). Elongation of
HDPE Plastic is at 180% to 1000% (Kusuktham & Teeranachaideekul, 2014). HDPE
possesses a density of 0.940-0.965 g/cm3. The Density of a material often influences its
mechanical properties, as the density is proportional to the degree of crystallinity a
material. A highly crystalline structure results to a material to obtain stiffness, hardness and
substantial tensile strength and high resistance to heat (Ratnam et al., 2006).

HDPE also exhibits an array of excellent mechanical properties such as resistant

to long term exposure to natural weathering (Sahu & Sudhakar, 2019 cited in Sahu et al.,
2020). The melting point of HDPE is along 120° C to 130 °C, at temperature of about 110
°C the plastic polymer begins to melt, but as it reaches 125° C, the material’s heating rate
decreases, this temperature also is denoted as the proximate melting point of HDPE (Wei
et al., 2010). While its flashpoint is at 300° C. Moreover, this polymer possesses high
mechanical properties, such as hardness, rigidity, opacity, and resistance to temperature
(Singh et al., 2017). However, this polymer is suggested for single-use purposes, as
substances such as trioxide compounds can emit from these substances (Nursyamsi et al.,
2018).

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The typical application of HDPE plastic is for packaging materials since this is
suitable in eliminating the interaction between the plastic material and the product itself.
Shampoo containers, milk packages and condiment bottles are a few of the materials that
utilize HDPE (Wani et al., 2020). In producing a kilogram of HDPE Plastic, the amount of
petroleum utilized is about 1.75 kg, hence it can perceive that it takes a considerable
amount of resources to create a commonly single used product, thus the recycling of this
waste can be a great intervention against resources exploitation. It was indicated that most
of the end-use plastics are HDPE, as it has extensive application in terms of domestic items.
However, its wide usage results to the increasing accumulation of this waste, and this
causes the emission of Greenhouse gases when it is left in landfill sites (Singh et al., 2017).
But due to its characteristics, HDPE is considerably a potent to employ recycling process
and produce materials that can substitute commercial environmental exploiting products
(Wani et al., 2020). Lastly, According to Kusuktham and Teeranachaideekul (2014) Plastics
such as HDPE and Polypropylene are not emitting harmful gases when it is subjected to
melting.

2.2 Polyethylene Pipes

Polyethylene Pipes or PE Pipes are polymer-based pipes, composed of

Polyethylene polymer. The emergence of Polyethylene Pipe began in the oil and gas
industry. PE pipes are utilized in the global application for natural gas distribution. In
Canada and US, 95% of it utilizes Polyethylene Pipe in its natural gas systems. On the last
decades, Polyethene Pipe has also gained extensive usage in the fields of Water Supply and
Wastewater applications. Its commendable properties have led it to be one of the preferred
pipe materials in water resource and wastewater application, natural gas distributions, and
mining pipelines. Further, nowadays the PE pipes are utilized extensively both in pressure
and non-pressure situations, and even in electrical applications, such as utilization in for
non-conductors components. Polyethylene Pipes, originating from plastic material exhibits
long service life with low maintenance requirement, it has also low installation cost and
low weight property. Additionally, it is a non-corrosive, flexible yet durable material, thus
it is utilized extensively in many applications. (Plastics Pipe Institute , 2008)

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2.2.1 Raw Materials of Polyethylene Pipe

Polyethylene resins serve as the main component for manufacturing Polyethylene

pipe. Moreover, substances that will serve as a reinforcement and amplify the property of
the pipe can be incorporated subsequently in minimal quantities, these includes pigments,
stabilizing agents and antioxidant containing compounds. One of the most common
additives utilized in PE Pipe production is Carbon Black, it is commonly utilized to provide
color to the Pipe, however it is also utilized for UV stabilization purposes (Plastics Pipe
Institute , 2008).

2.3 Manufacturing of Pipe

An extensively utilized process in manufacturing Polymer based products is

melting the plastic pellets and shaping it into a desired form. For Pipes and Tubes, extrusion
is one of the conventionally utilized methods of processing.

2.3.1 Extrusion

The introduction of metal or thermoplastic components into an apparatus that mold

it into uniformly shaped material such as pipe and wires, is termed as Extrusion (Ab-Rahim
et al., 2015 as cited in Olugboji et al., 2017). An Extruder machine is mainly utilized in
Pipe manufacturing process, the machine serves as the heating, melting and transmission
apparatus towards the molding phase (Plastics Pipe Institute, 2008).

Additionally, the extrusion process also utilize instruments such as pipe die,
cooling and sizing components, haul-off and cutting machinery. The process commence as
the raw material, such as polymer resins are placed in the hopper of the extruder, the resin
will be directed toward the cyclinder barrel equiped with heating pads that genereate the
required temperature for polymer melting. A screw or spindle is also embeded in the center
which will enable the melting of the raw material, the rotating screw will also transmit the
extruded substance towards the nozzle or the pipe die. In the subsequent process the
extruded material, will now undergo sizing and calibration in accordance with the desired

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dimensions or pipe diameter. After that, cooling process takes place, typically a water bath
is utilized in this stage. As the final phase, the Pipes will then be cut unto its required length
(Qenos, n.d.)

Figure 2.1 An Overview of the Pipe Extrusion Line

Note: Haudin et al. (2012)

2.3.2 Molding

A study conducted by Zulfikar et al. (2018) provided a method and design of

Polymeric Charcoal reinforced Water Pipe Mold. The researcher utilized two prime
material such as Steel and Thermosetting substance to form the molding instrument. The
Pipe mold contains five essential components: Pipe Mold holder, inner and outer diameter
molds, molding guide, and tightening bolts.

The Molding holder provided security and bottom covering to molding apparatus,
the Inner and Outer diameter wall molds will mainly provide the pipe’s form, the outer
diameter mold is composed of thermosetting material, while the inside diameter mold is
made of stainless steel, both ends of the diameter molds contains a threaded rod to be utilize
in setting the desired wall thickness of the pipe. A set of bolts will also be utilized in
tightening the entire mold to keep the Pipe in shape.

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Figure 2.2. Layout of the Pipe Mold.: 1. Mold Stand, 2. Outer diameter mold wall, 3.
Inner diameter mold, 4. Molding Guide, and 5. Fasten bolt

Note: Zulfikar et al. (2018)

Figure 2.3. Actual Pipe Mold

Note: Zulfikar et al. (2018

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2.4 Carbon Black

Carbon Black is a fine amorphous particle of unburned carbon (United States

Environmental Protection Agency, 1983), this substance results from the exposure of the
hydrocarbons, such as oil and gas to partial combustion and thermal decomposition (Spahr
& Rothon, 2016). Carbon Black is utilized for rubber and polymer products. The Carbon
material is extensively employed in rubber materials as reinforcements, as the elastomeric
compounds of rubber tend to bond with the carbon black particles, therefore enhancing its
mechanical properties and service life (Spahr & Rothon, 2016). For Polymers, it acts as
an additive for purposes such as jet-black coloring, UV stabilization and protection from
the sun, and conductivity for electrical current. The blending of carbon black and polymer
compounds also provides reinforcement to the plastic materials (Donnet, Bansal, & Wang,
1993).

2.5 Manufacturing of Carbon Black

Carbon Black is processed in heated furnaces incorporated with hydrocarbon fuels,

such as oil or gas and is subjected to vast oxygen quantities. The size and bonding of
particles mainly depends on the elements such as quantity of oil and oxygen, as well as the
temperature in which it is processed. Manufacturing process tends to be fast, especially for
oil-based carbon black. The processing of carbon black may also result in the production
of dust particles, as the pigments of the materials are dominant in nature, but carbon black
generally does not pose risk to human health (Jebur, 2018).

The processing mechanism of carbon black can be categorized into two main
procedures: Incomplete or Partial Combustion and Thermal decomposition. Incomplete
combustion entails the process wherein a hydrocarbon is turned into carbon black with the
aid a minimal amount of oxygen, while Thermal decomposition is the process wherein
carbon black is produced through exposure with extreme temperature (Donnet, Bansal, &
Wang, 1993).

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2.6 Coconut Shell

Cocounut is a prime commodity in the Philippines, its applications are extensively

in various aspects such as in the food, construction, industrial and commercial sectors.
Almost the entirety of the Coconut plant can be utilized in varied undertakings. The
coconut fruit, milk, juice can be directly consumed or be utilized as ingredient in many
cuisines, its trunk is used to make wood lumber, and the coconut leaf can be utilized as a
roofing.

Coconut shell is characterized as a prevalent agriculture waste especially on tropical

Asian countries. But some industries process coconut shells into fuel materials such as
charcoal. The shell of the coconut plant has varied components such as cellulose, lignin,
pentosans, hemicellulose, but among these elements, the elemental carbon is found to be
the most abundant substrate accounting to 49.86% of the coconut shell constituent (Umerah
et al., 2020). Coconut Shell also possess high density ranging from 1.2 to 1.3 g/cm3
(Bradley, S. & Bradley, W., n.d).

2.7 Waste Cooking Oil

In 2021, Palm oil is one of the greatly utilized oil and fats commodity in the
Philippines, it accounts to 76.7% of the total consumption out of the 1.71 million metric
tons of oils and fats recorded last 2021 (“Growth Potential of Palm Oil in the Philippine
Foodservice Industry,” n.d.). The wide utilization of Cooking Oil can be denoted both for
commercial and domestic sectors since fried goods are widely prominent in the country.
Thus, it can also be perceived that the country generates a large portion of Waste Cooking
oil, and in this regard the disposability of the waste cooking oil accounts to be one of the
pressing problems. Most of the domestic sector disposes their waste cooking oil in kitchen
sink, a short-term effect relates to the clogging of Waste line pipes, however larger impact
of Waste Cooking oil is concerning the environment. A small portion of oil causes
widespread degradation of quantities of water, more specifically, a liter of oil degrades
about 1000 tanks of 500 liters of water (Kumar et al., 2017). Aside from that disposal of
waste cooking oil in water bodies influences the prevalence of eutrophication as the water

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surface tends to be covered with oil and it limits the amount of sunlight that passing through
the water body, this further leads to impair the biological processes in the water body
(Azahar et al., 2016).

Waste Cooking Oil and Neat Cooking Oil have quite a difference in their
physiochemical properties, this can be attributed to the nature of these two substances. As
known, Waste cooking oil has been exposure to various circumstances that can possibly
lead to the alteration of its properties, this includes the temperature, usage, and exposure to
certain substances. For Palm oil alone, the table below shows the differences in the
properties of the two mediums.

Table 2.2 Comparison of the Physicochemical Properties of Waste and Neat Palm Oil

Physiochemical Properties Waste Palm Oil Neat Palm Oil

Density 0.9041 g/cm3 0.9195 g/cm3
Flashpoint 222 °C to 224 °C 161 °C to 164 °C
Molecular Weight 135.66 g/mol 535.08 g/mol
Note: Pelemo et al. (2021) & “Characterization of Waste Palm Cooking Oil for Biodiesel
Production” (n.d.)

2.8 Plastic Melter

Silviyati et al. (2020) conducted a study on the effect of HDPE Plastic as Binder in
producing Hebel Light brick. In this study, a Plastic Melter was utilized to soften the HDPE
plastic. The Melter consist of a glass beaker and a cover, stove, stirrer, and Thermocouple.
The beaker serves the container that hold the plastic, while the stove serves as the primary
source of heat, lastly, the thermocouple was used to regulate the temperature. The Melter
was set to a temperature ranging from 200 to 300°C, which is above the melting point of
HDPE plastic.

Two samples were utilized for the HDPE binder, the first consisted of 250 ml of oil
and the other was purely plastic. The objective of incorporating oil was to accelerate the

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melting process; however, the addition of this substance was also utilized as a factor in the
strength of the Brick. It was regarded that oil played a significant impact with the
compressive strength of the material, those bricks containing oil had way less compressive
strength that those that lack oil in its component. Further it was recorded that the most
suitable proportion was 70% of the Aggregate, and 30% HDPE waste binder. Further, a
224.67 kg/cm2 compressive strength was garnered for samples without oil, and for those
that contain oil a drastic decrease was recorded having only 40.45 kg/cm2. This denotes
that the addition of oil had significantly decrease the strength of the product.

Figure 2.4. Schematic Diagram of the Plastic Melter

Note: Silviyati et al. (2020)

2.9 PNS ISO 4427

The Philippine National Standards for Pipe or PNS ISO 4427 provides the
specification intended for Polyethylene Pipe Products. This code primarily follows the
International Organization for Standardization or IS0 4427, otherwise known as the
Plastics piping systems for water supply and for drainage and sewerage under pressure —
Polyethylene (PE).

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2.9.1 ISO 4427-1

The ISO 4427-1 provides the general standards for Polyethylene Pipe. This includes
the material and Pipe Classification and designation.

2.9.1.1 Polyethylene Pipe Grades

PE pipes can be characterized based on their maximum required strength. The

typical PE pipe designations are as follows: PE 40, PE 63, PE 80, and PE 100. The
designation format is attributed with the type of pipe material and its strength; thus, the
higher values, it possesses greater pressure capacity and strength.

Table 2.1. Polyethylene Pipe designation and its maximum design values

Designation Minimum Required Design Stress (σS), MPa

Strength (MRS), MPa
PE 100 10.0 8.0
PE 80 8.0 6.3
PE 63 6.3 5.0
PE 40 4.0 3.2
Note: ISO 4427: 2007

2.9.2 ISO 4427-2

The Requirements and standards for Pipes are further specified in this code. The
Geometrical characteristics, Mechanical Characteristics, Physical Characteristics and
Chemical characteristics of pipes in contact with chemicals are expressed in this code. The
table below indicates the Physical characteristics required for PE 40 Pipes with 4 mm wall
thickness. For elongation at break the required elongation must attain a result of be greater
than or equal to 350% elongation, the longitudinal reversion must have a minimum of 3%

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reversion, and the pipe specimen will not experience any form of failure amidst the pressure
testing.

Table 2.4. Physical Characteristics for the Polyethylene Pipe, specifically for PE 40
with a wall thickness (e) of 4 mm.

Characteristic Requirement Test Parameter

Tensile Strength
(Elongation at break for e ≤ 5 ▪ Type 2 Test Piece
mm) ≥ 350% ▪ 100 mm/min Test
speed
Longitudinal Reversion ≤ 3% or No effect on 100 ± 2 °C
surface
Note:ISO 4427-2

As per the ISO 4427-2, for a Pipe having 50 mm nominal diameter and a
designation of PE 40, the wall thickness must only have a minimum value of 3.7 mm and
a maximum value of 4.2 mm, moreover, this pipe dimension specification is capable of
bearing 5 bars of working pressure.

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2.12 Related Studies

Obasi et al. (2021) presented a research study on enhancing the properties of

Polypropylene composite through utilizing coconut shell particle as filler. In this study the
particle size (63, 150, 300, 425 micrometer) and quantity (0, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%) was a
parameter in assessing the mechanical properties of the plastic composite. As the result
suggested, the particle size influenced primarily the yield strength, tensile strength, tensile
modulus, hardness, flexural strength and flexural modulus and elongation at break, it was
further specified that smaller particle size positively increased the strength and rigidity of
the material. However, for particles with greater particle size it offered a more ductile
behavior, this can be attributed since finer particles tend to adhere well with polymer
matrix, while for larger particle there is a low dispersion of particle and poor bonding to
the polymer, leading the material to have increase in flexibility. Therefore, utilization of
the adequate particle size depends on the desired property of the material, if hardness and
strength is desired thus, less 150 micrometers must be utilized, if the material is intended
to acquire increase in ductility, larger particle size such 300 micrometer is recommended
to use. Aside from that, the ratio of particles to the polymer mix is also a factor, the increase
of particle amount results to poor dispersion thereby resulting to voids and pores, in this
regard weak points may possibly develop. It was suggested that 5% or less of the coconut
shell particle can attain a better dispersion and interfacial adhesion of the filler on the
polymer composite.

The article by W. Bradley and S. Bradley (n.d.) studied the effect of coconut shell
filler as enhancement on the mechanical properties such tensile strength and tensile
modulus of Polyolefin. It showed that the incorporation of coconut shell powder having
20-200 micrometer diameter and 20% by weight to Polypropylene has able to increase its
tensile modulus by 56%. For High Density Polyethylene, when 20% coconut shell powder
was added, a 10% increase in its tensile strength was attained. This proves that coconut
shell filler reinforcement has the potential to develop the modulus of elasticity of
Polyolefins, such as Polyethylene and Polypropylene.

In the study carried out by Thamaratnam & Premachandra (2015), assessed the
viability of Carbon Black produced from Coconut shells as an alternative filler to synthetic

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carbon black in rubber materials. Two types of coconut shell-based carbon black were
investigated; treated and untreated samples, and it was used in combination with the
commercial carbon black with different ratios. The treated coconut shell samples were
subjected to surface treatment using acetic acid solution. It was concluded that the coconut-
based carbon black had less tensile and tear strength than the commercial carbon black,
this can be attributed due to the dispersion, interfacial bonding, and differences in polarity.
However, treated samples showed better performance than untreated ones. This study
concluded that the employment of primary surface treatment can enhance the interfacial
bonding properties of the coconut shell-based carbon black, thus enhancing the mechanical
properties compared to those untreated samples.

A Research study was employed on the effect of Crude palm oil on the mechanical
properties of High-density Polyethylene. It was stated that the incorporation of 2%, 3% and
5% Crude Palm oil on the Polymer blend was efficient in positively influencing the
orientation of the semicrystalline polymer of the material. Since, Polyethylene possess the
capacity to deformed or experiencing necking during its glass transition temperature
especially when a force is applied to it. The addition of Crude Palm oil has enhanced
strength and ductility of the material, the oil serves as a plasticizer that developed the
mobility of polymer matrix especially when a tensile stress is applied, thereby resulting to
an increase in ductility and toughness (Ratnam et al.,2006).

A comparative study was carried out on Medium Density Polyethylene water pipes.
The study investigated the effect of the presence and absence of carbon black reinforcement
in the material. Moreover, Tensile Strength was investigated before and after exposure to
U.V. light. The study demonstrated the significant effect of the presence carbon black in
the MDPE Pipe matrix after exposure to UV light, it recorded that those specimens with
carbon black had a tensile strength at breakpoint of 161 kg/cm2, compared to those that
lack carbon black reinforcement where the tensile strength at break is 137 kg/cm2. The UV
light also manifested an effect on Pipes that lacked carbon black filler, it showed that the
UV light exposure caused the material to attain weak points, while the presence of Carbon
black on the other specimen was able to offer a protection and lead to the lessening of the
damage produced on the pipe (Jassim et al., 2017).

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The study of Sahu et al. (2020) assessed the mechanical properties of carbon black
reinforced HDPE Composites under subjection to UV light. The HDPE matrix was
incorporated with 1%, 2% and 3% carbon black. It was also recorded that the addition of
carbon black on HDPE mixture has increased its flexural strength, this can be denoted due
to the strong bond by either the filler particles and polymer chains or filler particles and
polymer particles. Stiffness also increased, as the carbon black macromolecules in the
polymer chain became in a fix state. It was also recorded that the presence 2% carbon black
in the HDPE matrix produced the highest level of increase in tensile strength having
15.86% compared to others that acquired only 7.56% and 7.94% respectively. This denotes
that this amount of carbon black is viable in providing a uniform distribution and achieve
an efficient interfacial bonding among the substates. However, when the amount of carbon
black exceeded 3% it results in the prevalence of stress concentration and generation of
cracks in weaker areas due to the excessive amount of filler, thereby weakening the
mechanical properties of the HDPE material.

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CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

3.1 Data Gathering

The research study will involve a comprehensive collection of data and
information, which will be conducted through literature reviews, online searches, and
accessing various libraries and offices.

3.2 Research Design

In this study, an experimental methodology will be employed to be able to evaluate
the effectiveness of utilizing HDPE Plastic Waste, Carbon Black sourced from Coconut
shell, and Waste Palm cooking oil as raw materials for Plastic Pipe production. The
evaluation of the produced material's viability will heavily rely on the results of Mechanical
Testing and Data Analysis, which are integral components of the study.

The Research study framework is presented in the following figure.

Procurement of Raw
Fabricating Materials: HDPE Initial Processing of
Equipments and Set- waste, Coconut Shell
and Waste cooking Raw materials
ups
Oil

Physical and
Conversion of Mechanical Testing
Production of Plastic of the Experimental
Coconut Shell into Pipe Plastic Pipes and
Carbon Black commercial
Polyethylene Pipe

Results and
Discussion,
Data Interpretation Conclusion, and
Recommendation

Figure 3.1 Research Study Process Flow

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3.3 Research Procedure

The following undertakings will be administered in this study. The Plastic Melter
and Pipe Molder will be prepared. The primary raw materials, such as HDPE Waste,
coconut shell, and waste cooking oil, will be obtained from specific sources: the Materials
Recovery Facility of the city, Sta.Cruz Public Market, and Choobi-Choobi restaurant,
respectively. The collected waste materials will be washed before being processed. The
coconut shell will be heated to obtain carbon black. Subsequently, the HDPE will be melted
and blended with waste cooking oil and carbon black, following the treatments ratios. Once
a homogeneous mixture of HDPE, coconut shell carbon black, and waste palm oil is
achieved, it will be placed in the Pipe Molder and allowed to settle for approximately a
day, allowing the plastic mixture to solidify and form the pipe structure.

The formed plastic pipe, as well as a commercial Polyethylene pipe, will then
undergo testing procedures to evaluate their mechanical properties. These tests will include
Tensile Test, Longitudinal Reversion Test and Pressure Test. The results obtained from the
experimental pipe treatment and the commercial Polyethylene pipe will be compared using
descriptive and inferential statistics.

3.4 Location of the Experimental Study

The experimental locale will be at Barangay Pasonanca, Zamboanga City, in the
residence of the researcher. This specific area is adequately equipped with the required
resources and is deemed appropriate for carrying out the research tasks.

3.5 Fabricating Equipment and Set-ups

3.5.1 Plastic Melter

The design of the Plastic Meter will be based on the set-up utilized in research
conducted by Silviyati et al. (2020) in their study titled "The Effect of Addition of High-
Density Polyethylene (HDPE) as Binder on Hebel Light Brick (celcon)". However, certain
modifications will be made to adapt it to the current study. Instead of a glass beaker, a Steel

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Pot will be utilized as a receptacle for the HDPE plastic waste, providing a larger volume
capacity. The main source of heat energy will be an Electric Stove with an electrical power
of 1500 watts. Additionally, a thermocouple will be employed to regulate the temperature
inside the steel pot.

Furthermore, an air emission control set-up will be incorporated alongside the

plastic Melter to address the potential release of gaseous substances during the plastic waste
melting process. This air emission control set-up will include a 12-inch by 12-inch acrylic
box, a 4-inch diameter and 6-inch-long duct pipe, an air filter, and an exhaust fan.

Figure 3.2 Layout of the Plastic Melter

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3.5.2 Pipe Molder

The structure of the Pipe Molder will be modeled after the setup used in the study
conducted by Zulfikar et al. (2018) titled "Manufacture of mold of polymeric composite
water pipe reinforced charcoal". However, adjustments will be made to the Pipe Molder’s
dimensions to match the desired dimensions of the pipes to be produced in this study. The
outer diameter of the pipe mold will be 250 mm in length and 50 mm in diameter, using
Silicon rubber as the material for this component. The inside diameter steel mold will have
a size of 46 mm and will be made of steel tubing. Similarly, the Pipe holder will be
composed of steel.

To streamline the fabrication process of the Pipe Treatments, ten (10) Pipe Molders
will be constructed, each equipped with five (5) individual molds, ensuring increased
efficiency in producing the pipes for the research study.

250 mm

250 mm

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.3 Illutsrtaive Diagram of the Pipe Mold; (a) Cross-sectional View, (b) Top View

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3.5.2.1 Pipe Molder Capacity

To determine the capacity of the Pipe Molder, the volume of each Pipe Treatment
mold is calculated. The volume is determined using the formula for a cylinder, taking into
account the outside diameter of 50 mm, the inner diameter of 46 mm, and the height of 250
mm.

For the specified dimensions, the Pipe molder has volume capacity of 75.40 𝑐𝑚3 ,
following details below shows the computation of the said parameter.

Volume of Individual Pipe Mold

𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

𝑣 = 𝜋 [(25 𝑚𝑚)2 − (23 𝑚𝑚)2 ](250 𝑚𝑚)

𝑣 = 75,398.23 𝑚𝑚3 𝑚 or 75.40 𝑐𝑚3

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3.5 Preparation of Materials for the Pipe Molder and Plastic Melter

The necessary materials for constructing the setup and equipment will be obtained
from local stores and online marketplaces. The table provided below outlines the list of
materials that will be used in the fabrication of the Plastic Melter and Pipe Mold.

Table 3.1. List of Materials and its Purpose

Plastic Melter

Quantity Materials Purpose

1 3.9 L capacity Used as the container for HDPE plastic and

Steel Pot Waste Cooking oil, during melting process

1 Gas Stove Source of Heat Energy

1 Thermocouple To measure the amount of temperature
1 Electric Mixer To disperse the raw materials evenly
1 12 x12 x 12 inch To serve as enclosure of the air emission
Acrylic Box control set-up
1 Air Filter To remove air impurities
1 4-inch diameter To disperse filtered air emission
Exhaust Fan

1 4-inch x 6-inch Passageway for air emission

Duct Pipe

Pipe Molder

Quantity Materials Purpose

10 46 mm x 250 mm Used for the Inner diameter Mold

Steel Plain Sheet
50 50 mm x 250 mm Used to form the structure of the outside
Steel Plain Sheet diameter mold in the Cement mold

120 pieces Bolts and nuts To secure the outer diameter mold in place
3 sacks Cement Used for the Outside diameter mold

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3.6 Procurement of Raw Materials

An estimated quantity of 15 Kilograms of HDPE plastic waste will be collected

from the Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) located in Barangay Salaan. The plastic waste
will be manually inspected and sorted based on its Resin Identification Code, with HDPE
plastics identified by Resin Code number 2.

For the coconut shell component, approximately 3 Kilograms will be procured from
a coconut stall in Sta. Cruz Public Market.

Lastly, 5 Liters of waste palm oil will be obtained from Choobi Choobi, a restaurant
situated in Barangay Cabatangan, known for its daily generation of waste cooking oil.

3.7 Initial processing of Raw Materials

The gathered raw materials, including HDPE plastic waste, coconut shell, and
waste cooking oil, will undergo preparatory measures in readiness for subsequent
processing.

3.7.1. HDPE Plastic

Following the collection of the HDPE samples, preliminary preparation will be

carried out. The plastic waste will be thoroughly washed using soap and distilled water,
followed by drying under the sunlight. Once dry, the HDPE samples will be manually
prepared by removing any non-HDPE objects such as caps and labels. The plastic samples
will then be subjected to size reduction, involving cutting them into approximately 1 cm
by 1 cm pieces.

Any residual waste generated during this process, such as caps and labels, will be
disposed of properly through the City’s garbage collection system.

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3.7.2 Coconut Shell

The collected coconut shells will be washed with distilled water and subsequently
dried under sunlight to remove any moisture, following the procedure outlined by Obasi et
al. (2021).

3.7.3. Waste Cooking Oil

The collected waste cooking oil will be strained using cheese cloth to eliminate any
solid particles or residues. Subsequently, it will be set aside and stored until the period of
pipe production.

3.8 Conversion of Coconut shell to Carbon Black

The procedure for converting coconut shell into carbon black compounds will be
conducted in accordance with the method employed by Obasi et al. (2020). The coconut
shell will be placed inside a sealed aluminum container and subjected to burning in an oven
set at a temperature of 200°C. The burning process will be maintained for a duration of 2
hours. Subsequently, the burnt coconut shells will be pulverized using a mortar and pestle,
and then filtered through a sieve with a mesh size of 400, ensuring that the maximum
particle diameter obtained is 38 micrometers.

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3.9 Preparation of the Pipe Treatment Ratios

The coconut shell carbon black compounds, HDPE plastic material, and waste
cooking oil will be weighed based on the specified mass requirements. The projected mass
of raw materials takes into account the volume capacity of the pipe mold, percent by mass,
density of the raw materials, and the number of pipe samples.

Table 3.2. Pipe Specimen Proportions

Specimen Sample Estimated Total Mass of raw material

needed

Pipe Treatment #1 o 26.04 g of Waste Palm Oil

o 62.4 g of Coconut shell Carbon Black
o 815.16 g of HDPE Waste

Pipe Treatment #2 o 43.44 g of Waste Palm Oil

o 24.06 of Coconut shell Carbon Black
o 852.24 g of HDPE Waste

Pipe Treatment #3 o 43.44 g of Waste Palm Oil

o 62.4 g of Coconut shell Carbon Black
o 833.88 g of HDPE Waste

Pipe Treatment #4 o

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3.10 Production of Plastic Pipe

The production of experimental plastic pipe includes melting and preparing a pipe
mixture consisting of HDPE plastic waste, cooking oil, and coconut shell carbon black.
Subsequently, the mixture is processed to attain pipe forms.

3.10.1 Layout of the Plastic Pipe

The specifications for the Pipe specimens are derived from ISO 4427-2 standards.
The dimensions are specifically based on the PE 40 pipe with a nominal pressure of 5 bars,
nominal diameter of 50 mm and a wall thickness of 4 mm.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 3.4 Pipe Specimen Layout Plan

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3.10.2 Formation of the HDPE, Waste Cooking oil and Coconut Shell Carbon Black
Composite

Utilizing the Plastic Melter, the Waste palm oil will be placed in the Steel Pot and
heated until it reaches a temperature of 120°C. Next, the HDPE Plastic Samples will be
added to the heated cooking oil, allowing them to soften and reach a viscous state. To
ensure thorough and even incorporation, an electric mixer will be used to mix the HDPE
Plastic and cooking oil.

Once the plastic is completely melted, the carbon black samples will be added to
the mixture. Using an electric mixer, the mixture will be stirred to form a homogeneous
paste.

3.10.3 Casting the Pipe Structure

The homogenous mixture of HDPE, waste cooking oil, and carbon black derived
from coconut shell will be poured into the Pipe Molder. Once the mold is filled with the
viscous composite, the mixture will be securely held in place by fastening the bolts along
the perimeter of the pipe mold.

The pipe specimens will be allowed to settle and take shape within the molder. After
an appropriate period, preferably 24 hours, the pipe structure will be well-established, and
the pipe specimens can be safely removed from the mold.

3.11 Physical and Mechanical Testing

To evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of the pipe specimens, various
testing methods will be employed. These test methods will be based on the provisions
outlined in ISO 4427 and EN 205, which provides standard procedures for testing
Polyethylene plastic pipes.

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3.11.1 Tensile Test

The test will be conducted to determine the tensile strength of the pipe, specifically
focusing on the elongation at break and stress at yield. Additionally, this test will evaluate
the material's characteristics in terms of toughness and resistance to fracture. The testing
procedure will adhere to the specifications outlined in ISO 6259-1 and ISO 6259-3, which
provide guidelines for conducting Tensile strength test on Thermoplastic Pipe.

3.11.1.1 Preparation of Tensile Test Piece

For the specific Pipe Specimen with a pipe wall thickness of less than 5 mm, a Type
2 Test piece will be used. The preparation of the Test Piece will adhere to the process
outlined in the relevant standards. The Type 2 test piece will be cut out from the center of
the strip of the pipe, ensuring the use of a cutting die to produce efficient test pieces. The
initial gauge length of the test pieces will be measured and recorded to calculate the yield
strength and elongation at break.

The diagram required dimensions and the additional specification on Test Piece is
specified in the illustration and table below.

Figure 2.5 Diagram of a Type 2 Test Piece

Note: IS0 6259-3

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Table 3.3. Required Dimensions of Type 2 Test Piece

Symbol Description Dimension (mm)

A Overall Length (min.) 115
B Width of Ends 25 ± 1
C Length of narrow, parallel-sided portion 33 ± 2
D Width of narrow, parallel-sided portion 6 + 0.04
E Small Radius 14 ± 1
F Large Radius 25 ± 2
G Gauge Length 25 ± 1
H Initial distance between grips 80 ± 5
I Thickness ≤ 5 mm
Source: IS0 6259-3

The test pieces will be conditioned before the testing is conducted, specifically the
conditioning period must be for 3 hours at a temperature of 23 ± 2°C.

3.11.1.2 Tensile Testing Procedure

The Tensile testing method will be conducted at DPWH Regional Office IX. Ten
(10) Type 2 test pieces per Pipe Treatment will be used for the testing process, thus a total
of 50 test pieces will be examined. A test speed of 100 mm/min will be applied in the
Tensile Testing Machine. During the test, the stress and strain curve will be recorded, along
with the force at yield and the gauge length at the point of rupture. These measurements
will provide valuable data for assessing the tensile properties of the pipe treatments.

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3.11.2 Longitudinal Reversion Test

The Longitudinal reversion test is conducted to evaluate the material's ability to

withstand internal stresses when exposed to high temperatures, whether in a liquid or air
environment. The testing process follows the guidelines outlined in ISO 2505. ISO 2505
specifies the method for conducting the Longitudinal Reversion test specifically for
thermoplastic pipes. This test helps in assessing the dimensional stability and resistance to
deformation of the pipe material under elevated temperature conditions.

3.11.2.1 Preparation of Longitudinal Reversion Test Piece

The 200 mm test pieces for the Longitudinal Reversion test will be conditioned at
a temperature of 23 ± 2°C for 3 hours. The Pipe specimens will be marked with a length of
100 mm, which will serve as the initial length reference. Each Pipe treatment will undergo
testing for Longitudinal Reversion using ten (10) test pieces. This allows for multiple
measurements and ensures a more representative assessment of the material's behavior
under high-temperature conditions.

3.11.2.2 Longitudinal Reversion Test Procedure

The test pieces will be placed on a glass plate and subjected to an oven set at a
temperature of 100 ± 2°C. It will be exposed to this temperature for a duration of 60
minutes. After the specified time, the test pieces will be removed from the oven and placed
in an area with a temperature of 23 ± 2°C to facilitate the cooling process. Subsequently,
the marked portion of the Pipe specimen will be re-measured using a vernier caliper to
determine the change in length. This measurement will provide data on the longitudinal

reversion of the material after exposure to high temperature.

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3.11.3 Pressure Test

The Pressure test is conducted to determine the internal pressure capacity of the
pipe specimen or the maximum pressure it can withstand before bursting or exhibiting any
form of defects. This test helps in assessing the structural integrity and pressure resistance
of the pipe under controlled conditions. By subjecting the pipe specimen to increasing
internal pressure, the test can identify its safe operating limits and ensure it meets the
required standards for pressure containment.

3.11.3.1 Preparation of Pressure Test Pieces

During the Pressure Test, three Pipe Test pieces with a length of 500 mm will be
used per Pipe Treatment. To achieve the required length, two pieces of 250 mm pipe
specimens produced by the researcher will be connected using 50 mm coupling fittings.
One end of the test piece will be covered with a 50 mm end cap, while the other end will
be attached with a 50 mm threaded male adaptor. The pipe fittings must be securely
attached to ensure it can withstand high levels of pressure without any leaks or failures.
This setup ensures the accurate assessment of the pipe specimen's pressure resistance
capabilities.

3.11.3.2 Pressure Testing Procedure

In the Pressure Test, a Manual Pressure Test pump will be used, which has a
maximum pressure output of 6 MPa. The testing method follows the guidelines outlined in
EN 805, which is the European Standard for water supply systems and components outside
buildings.

Before subjecting the Test Specimens to the test pressure, it will be filled with water
at a temperature of 20°C and normal atmospheric pressure. Once filled, the Pipe Specimens
will be allowed to settle for 1 hour to account for pressure-related stress. After the settling
period, the pipe specimen will be gradually but quickly subjected to the test pressure. For
a PE 40 pipe with a diameter of 50 mm, a wall thickness of 4 mm, and a minimum required

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strength of 4 MPa, the test pressure would be 150% of the minimum required strength,
which is 5.5 MPa. It is recommended to apply the test pressure in less than 10 minutes.

Once the required test pressure is reached, it needs to be maintained for 30 minutes.
Continuous pumping or short intervals of pumping may be employed to sustain the test
pressure level. During this time, the pipe will be observed for any physical defects such as
expansion, cracks, or bursting. If bursting occurs, the time and ultimate pressure before
bursting will be recorded for analysis and evaluation purposes. On the other hand, if the
pipe specimen was able to withstand the test pressure, thus, it is concluded that the
subjected test pressure is its internal pressure capacity.

Figure 3.5 Schematic Set-up of Pressure Testing Method

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3.12. Standard Criteria for Physical and Mechanical Properties

According to the ISO 4427 reference code, the Physical Properties section specifies
certain criteria that must be met. For instance, Tensile Strength should exhibit an elongation
of at least 350%, and the Longitudinal reversion should be no more than 3% or have no
adverse effects on the surface. Additionally, the mechanical property known as Pressure
capacity should not result in any test piece failures throughout the testing period.

Table 3.4 Standard Requirement for Physical Properties

Physical Properties Requirement Reference Standard

Tensile Strength ≥ 350% elongation ISO 4427

Longitudinal Reversion ≤ 3% or No effect on ISO 4427

surface

Note: ISO 4427-2

Table 3.5 Standard Requirement for Mechanical Property

Mechanical Property Requirement Reference Standard

Pressure Capacity No failure of any test ISO 4427
piece during test period
Note: ISO 4427-2

3.12 Data Analysis and Interpretation

The data garnered from the Tensile, Longitudinal Reversion and Pressure tests
conducted will be the basis for the computation and evaluation of the results for the Tensile
Strength, Longitudinal Reversion and Internal Pressure Capacity of. The Results for each
test conducted will be compared with the control sample to determine if the experimental
pipe specimen produced is a substantial alternative to the commercial pipe. A descriptive
statistic using graphs and charts will be utilized to summarize the results of each test
conducted on the different Pipe Treatments. In addition, an inferential statistic, utilizing a
One-Factor Anova will also be employed to determine the significant difference between

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the Commercial Pipe and the Experimental Pipe Specimens with varying ratios of raw
materials at 5% significance level. The assumption on the normal distribution and
homogeneity of the variance will be verified using Levene’s Test Calculator and Shapiro
Wilk Test Calculator, both online software will be aced at statskingdom.com. Further, the
requirement stipulated in ISO 4427-2 will also be a basis for the interpretation of the results
of the Experimental Pipe Specimens and the viability of the HDPE Plastic Waste, Coconut
shell derived carbon black and waste palm oil in producing Plastic Pipes.

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 Republic of the Philippines
WESTERN MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering
Department of Sanitary Engineering
Normal Road, Baliwasan, Zamboanga City
7000 Tel. No. (062) 991 1040 Fax No. (062) 991 9365

DEVELOPMENT OF PLASTIC PIPE USING HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE

PLASTIC WASTE, COCONUT (Cocos nucifera) SHELL DERIVED
CARBON BLACK AND WASTE COOKING OIL

A Research Proposal in partial fulfillment of the requirements in SE 153 (SE Project 1)

subject for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Sanitary Engineering

Presented by:
Kathleen Mae P. Capuy

Presented to:

Chairman: Engr Ilde B. Deloria

Panel Members: Engr. Lizamyl R. Laping
Engr. Nikko Ibrahim C. Gonzales

Research Adviser: Engr. Rheanie R. Arnuco

Date: October 2023