GENERAL ENGLISH

Countable and
Uncountable
Nouns –
N Countable nouns
O are nouns which
can be counted
U (e.g. trees).
Uncountable
N nouns are nouns
S which cannot be
counted. (e.g.
Kinds of smoke).
Nouns: Nouns have four
Common Nouns genders:
1. Masculine
– They are
Gender – The
names of people
masculine
(e.g. man), things
gender is used
(e.g. books),
for all males.
animals (e.g. Example: boy,
monkey) and man
places (church). 2. Feminine
Proper Nouns – Gender – The
They are special feminine
names of people gender is used
(e.g. George ), for all females.
things (e.g. Example: girl,
Financial Times), woman
animals (e.g. King 3. Common
Kong) and places Gender – The
(e.g. Paris). A common gender
proper noun is used where
begins with a the noun can be
Capital Letter. both male and
Abstract Nouns female.
– An abstract Example:
noun is the name cousin, friend,
of something that person, child,
we can only think student
of or feel but can- 4. Neuter
not see (e.g. Gender – The
friendship). neuter gender
Collective Nouns is used for
– They are names things which
used for a num- have no life or
ber of people, sex.
things or animals Example:
together and table, chair.
treated as one. Singular and
For example: a Plural Nouns – A
group of friends, a noun that shows
bunch of only one person
bananas, a litter (e.g. a girl), thing
of puppies.
(e.g. pencil),
animal (e.g. tiger)
or place (e.g.
market) is called a dish dishes wish wishes
singular noun. box boxes hoax hoaxes
A noun that fax faxes six sixes
shows more than fox foxes tax taxes
one person (e.g. By adding ‘es’ to
girls), thing (e.g. nouns ending in
pencils), animal –o.
(e.g. tigers) or buffalo buffaloes potato potatoes
place (e.g. cargo cargoes mosquito mosquitoes
markets) is called echo echoes tomato tomatoes
a plural noun. By adding ‘s’ to
Plural nouns nouns ending in
–o.
are formed.
By adding –s. ‘es’ to
banjo banjos patio patios
nouns ending in –ch, bamboo bamboos photo photos
–s, –sh and radio radios video videos
–x. By replacing ‘y’
beach beaches with –ies.
branch branches baby babies lorry lorries
ditch ditches fly flies navy navies
boss bosses hobby hobbies puppy puppies
bus buses By adding ‘s’ to
chorus choruses nouns ending in
brush brushes –y.
bush bushes boy boys key keys
day days toy toys
donkey donkeys turkey turkeys
By replacing ‘f’
or ‘fe’ with –ves.
calf calves loaf loaves
half halves self selves
life lives wife wives
By adding ‘s’ to
nouns ending in
–f or –fe.
chief chiefs hoof hoofs
dwarf dwarfs reef reef
gulf gulfs roof roofs
By changing vowels.
foot feet louse lice
goose geese tooth teeth
mouse mice woman women
Some nouns have
same words for
plural and singu-
lar.
aircraft aircraft music music
crossroads crossroads series series
furniture furniture sheep sheep
Exceptional plural.
child children ox oxen
crisis crises passer-by passers-by
mouse mice radius radii
 Transitive and intransitive verbs
The verb which needs an object to make its
VERB meaning clear or complete is called a transitive
Verbs are words that show action. Every sentence verb. Example: He feeds a cat.
must have a verb. A verb is not always one word. It The word ‘cat’ is called the object of the verb
may be made up of more than one word. ‘feeds’. The object can be a noun or a pronoun.
The intransitive verb does not need an object
Auxiliary verbs but the meaning is clear or complete.
The words: am, is, are, was, and were are Example:
verbs. They are forms of the verb ‘to be’. They He ran.
are helping verbs called auxiliary verbs. The verb ‘ran’ does not need an object.
If the subject of a sentence is singular, the verb She reads every day. (No object)
must be singular. If the subject of a sentence is He eats quickly. (No object)
plural, the verb must be plural. The verb must The Finite verb
agree with the subject in number. The finite verb changes with the subject. The subject
Examples of ‘subjects’ and ‘verbs’ being is the person, thing, animal or place we refer to.
singular: The man is sleeping. When the subject is in the first or second person or is
She goes to the market. plural, the verb does not change. When the subject
The student does his homework every is in the third person or is singular, the verb changes
day. The train has arrived. from, say, ‘eat’ to ‘eats’. The verb ‘eat’ is a finite
‘Man’, ‘she’, ‘student’ and ‘train’ are known as verb. Every sentence must have a finite verb.
subjects.The subjects are all singular.The verbs Other usage of verbs to remember:
‘is’, ‘goes’, ‘does’ and ‘has’ are all singular too. 1. When “and” is used to join two nouns or pronouns
Examples of ‘subjects’ and ‘verbs’ being together, the verb is usually in the plural.
plural: The men are sleeping. Examples: Beef and mutton are meat.
They go to the market. He and I were classmates.
The students do their homework every 2. When we use two nouns for the same person
day. The trains have arrived. or thing, the verb should be in the singular.
‘Men’, ‘they’, ‘students’ and ‘trains’ are known as
subjects. The subjects are all plural. The verbs Examples: My friend and classmate is
‘are’, ‘go’, ‘do’ and ‘have’ are all plural too. very helpful.
Other singular and plural subjects that take on Bread and butter is his only food.
singu-lar and plural verbs: 3. When we use two nouns for the same
Subjects with words like ‘each’, ‘every’, ‘any’, person, we use the article ‘the’ only once
‘no’, ‘none’ and ‘nobody’ take on the singular and the verb should be in the singular.
verbs. Examples: Each student is given a pen. Example:The shopkeeper and owner of the
Every child is happy watching the show. shop is my uncle.
Nobody is allowed to walk on the grass. 4. When we refer to two different persons, we use the
Uncountable nouns always take singular verbs. article twice and the verb must be in the plural.
Examples: Rice is eaten in many countries. Example:The shopkeeper and the owner
There is oil on the floor. of the shop are my good friends.
Salt is added to make the food taste bet- 5. When we join two nouns and treat them as a
ter. whole, the verb is in the singular.
Subjects with words like ‘both’, ‘all’, ‘many’, ‘some’, Example:Bread and butter is his usual breakfast.
‘several’ and ‘a number of’ take on a plural verb. 6. When a noun is a quantity or an amount, it is
Examples: Both of you have to come home early. treated as a whole and the verb is in the singular.
All of us want to be happy. Examples:Ten kilometers is not a long way to
Some of my friends are female. travel. Nowadays, fifty dollars is not a lot
Two or more subjects joined by ‘and’ always of
take a plural verb. money.
Examples: A verb is used in different forms as follow:
My brother and his friends like to Simple Present Tense eat
play football. Simple Past Tense ate
His father and mother are watching Present Participle is eating
tele vision. Past Participle has eaten
Future Tense will eat
 THE PRESENT TENSE Example: I have already told them about
1. The Present Simple the plan
She has never replied to my letter.
Used for a habitual or repeated action,
Have you ever been to London?
that is, for something that we do always,
c. Used often to answer questions which contain
every day, often, usually, etc.
a verb in the Present Perfect tense. Example:
Example: He plays football on Sundays.
Where have you been? I have been
a. Used for a general truth or a fact, that is,
to London to see the Queen. What
for something that is true.
have you lost? I have lost all
Example: Night follows day.
b. Used for something or an action my money.
happening now. 4. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Example: See how she walks. Used for an action that had been going
c. Used instead of the future tense. on in the past before another action
Example: He arrives tomorrow.
occurred in the past.
Example: She had been cooking when
d. Used instead of the past tense, to make
we visited her.
some thing look more real.
Example: The tiger comes; it catches the boy.
e. Used instead of the present perfect tense.
THE FUTURE TENSE
Example: We hear that the king is dead. The Future Tense is used to show some action or
f. Used to introduce a quotation, that is, to repeat hap-pening in the future. Future Simple + ‘Going To”
words spoken or written by someone else. 1. Simple Future Tense is used to show
Example: Shakespeare says: “Neither a bor future action or that something will
rower nor a lender be.” happen in the fu-ture.
2. The Present Continuous Tense Example: We will complete the work
Used to show that something is still tomor-row.
2. ‘Going to’ is used to express a future
happen-ing, that is, an action is still going
action that has been planned in advance.
on at the time of speaking. It shows that Example: We are going to Japan next week.
the action is not yet complete. 3. Future Continuous Tense is used to show
Example: He is writing a letter. con-tinuous action at some future time.
a. Used instead of the future tense. We
usually say the time when this future Example: I shall be seeing both of you tomorrow.
action will take place 4. Future Perfect Tense is used for an
Example: He is going to Japan next week. action which will have finished by some
b. Used to use the phrase ‘is going’ future time or date which is mentioned or
which means ‘about to’. before another action has begun.
Example: It is going to rain. Example: I shall have finished this job by
seven o’clock.
c. Used to show an action which happens I shall have finished this job by
many times. We often use ‘always’ with the time you arrive.
this expres-sion. 5. Future Perfect Continuous Tense.
Example: He is always getting into trouble. This continuous tense is formed with
3. The Present Perfect Tense ‘shall/will have been’ + a present particle.
Used to show an action which has just Example: I shall have been married for exactly
been completed or a past action when ten years next Saturday.
the time is not mentioned. The action Exercise
may be a recent one or it may be one Write the correct form of the verb in the
brack-ets:
which happened a long time ago.
Example: I have finished reading the book. 1) I -----to the cinema yesterday.( to go)
There have been many changes in
2) Peter ----- 13 tomorrow. ( to be)
3) My friend----- to music every evening.( to listen)
this country. 4) They ------ their car. It looks new again.( to clean)
a. Used for an action that has been going on
5) Listen! Mr Jones-------- the piano.( to play)
from the past until now, that is, something that 6) She ------- her left arm two weeks ago. (to break)
happened in the past but is going on still. 7) We -------- a test now. ( to write)
Example: I have lived here for ten years. 8) Danny ---------- a book this evening. ( to read)
b. Used often with ‘just’, ‘already’, ‘recently’, 9) Ken and Emily often------- lunch at
‘never’, ‘yet’ and (in questions) with ‘ever’. school. ( to have)
10) He ---------- his money. So he can’t buy this
hamburger.( to lose)
Answers
1.went 2. will be 3. listens
4. have cleaned 5. is playing 6. broke
7. are writing 8.is going to read 9. have
10. has lost
 ADJECTIVES useful more useful most useful
An adjective is a word that tells us something
about a noun, that is, about a person, an
animal, a thing or a place.
For example:
She is a pretty girl.
A giraffe has a long neck.
The table is round.
That is an old temple.
There are various kinds of adjectives:
1. An adjective which tells us about the quality
of the noun.
Example: the blue sky, a big house, a
square table, a cold morning.
2. An adjective which tells us about the
quatity of the noun.
Example: The zoo has many animals.
The pen has not much ink left.
3. An adjective which tells us about
the ownership of the noun.
Example: That is my dog.
Those are their bicycles.
4. An adjective which poses question in
an ‘interrogative’ manner.
Example: Which school do you go
to? Whose car is this?
5. An adjective which specifies a noun.
Example: This boy is a member of the club.
That girl is my sister.
Adjectives which end in ‘-ing’,
e.g. an interesting film, an amazing player, an
an-noying habit,
Adjectives which end in ‘-ed,
e.g. the damaged goods, the escaped
prisoners, im-proved version,
Comparison of adjectives
We use the Positive degree to compare two
equal nouns.
For example: His house is as big as my
house. We use the Comparative degree to
compare two unequal nouns.
For example: His house is bigger than my
house. We use the Superlative degree to
compare three or more Nouns.
For example: His house is the biggest in the
neigh-bourhood
Positive Comparative Superlative
bold bolder boldest
deep deeper deepest
near nearer nearest
rich richer richest
tall taller tallest
careful more careful most careful
enjoyable more enjoyable most enjoyable
forgetful more forgetful most forgetful
wonderful more wonderful most wonderful
bad worse worst
good better best
little less least
Exercise
Pick the correct words in the brackets.
1. My father is as (strong, stronger, strongest)
as his father.
2. She is (pretty, prettier, prettiest) than her
sister.
3. You are not as (tall, taller, tallest) as
your brother.
4. That pond is the (shallow,
shallower, shallowest) in this area.
5. That has to be the (interesting, more
interest-ing, most interesting) film I have seen.
6. Which university offers (the good, the
better, the best) degree courses?.
7. This clown is not as (funny, funnier,
funniest) as the other one.
8. He is easily the (bad, worse, worst)
player in the team.
9. The second half of the play was (little,
less, the least) interesting.
 adverbs which end in ‘-ly’ form the Comparative with
ADVERBS ‘more’ and the Superlative with ‘most’.
An adverb adds more to the meaning of a verb,
an adjective or another adverb.
I called you last night. (called=verb; last
night=adverb)
Your dress is very beautiful.
(beautiful=adjective;
very=adverb) The rain stopped quite suddenly.
(suddenly=adverb; quite=adverb)
Types of Adverbs
Adverb of Time – This shows when an action
or something is done or happens. It answers
the ques-tion “When?” It is either placed at the
beginning or at the end of a sentence.
Example: I phoned you yesterday.
I saw her walking along the
river last week.
Adverb of Place – This shows where an action or
something is done or happens. It answers the
ques-tion “Where?” It is placed after the verb.
Example: I live here.
He fell down.
Adverb of Manner – This shows how an action
or something is done. It answers the question
“How?” It is usually placed just after the verb.
Example: She sleeps soundly.
He drives quickly.
Adverb of Degree or Quantity – This answers the
questions, “To what degree?” or “How much?” It is
usually placed before the adjective and the adverb.
Example: It is too dark for us to see anything.
Last night it rained very heavily..
Adverb of Frequency – This answers the question
“How often?”
Example: He will never have finished in time.
We always go to school by bus.
Affirmative Adverb (yes) and Adverb of
negation (No)
Example: yes, surely, certainly, indeed, by
all means, no, not at all, by no means.
Interrogative Adverb (Question)
Example: When? Where? How? Why?
How much/often?
Relative Adverb: when, where, how, why
These words are the same in form as
Interrogative Adverbs; but they are not questions.
Example: The time when he arrived.
The scene where the
accident occurred.
He knows how to do it.
The reason why he left.
Comparison of Adverbs
Similar to the comparison of adjectives,
adverbs have three degrees of comparison – the
Positive, the Comparative and the Superlative. Most
Positive Comparative Superlative
comfortably more comfortably most comfortably
happily more happily most happily
kindly more kindly most kindly
loudly more loudly most loudly
noisily more noisily most noisily
Exercise
Choose the most suitable adverb to fill each
blank:
(angrily, enough, never, outside,
yesterday ,down, last week, often, quickly,
rarely ,always, just, nearly, online, unusually )

1. She left _____ for the university

where she is doing a degree course.
2. We are standing _____ his house waiting for
him.
3. He told us _____ not to walk on the grass.
4. I am not strong _____ to help him carry that
box.
5. She will _____ be happy in that job.
6. _____, I saw him walking to the church.
7. My father is _____ late for work.
8. He drove _____ to avoid being late.
9. I _____ play badminton with my sister.
10. This is the place where he fell _____.
11. It took _____ two hours to get here.
12. They were _____ very friendly.
13. He has _____ strong hands.
14. She has _____ completed her degree
course.
15. This dictionary went _____ in 2003.
Answers
1.yesterday 2.outside 3.angrily 4.enough
5.never 6.Last week7.rarely 8.quickly 9.of-
ten 10.down. 11nearly 12.always
13.unusually 14.just 15.online
 2. Before the name of a place, town,
THE ARTICLES country, street, or road.
Example: Barcelona is a beautiful
Definite Article – ‘The’
city. (not A or The Barcelona)
Indefinite Article – ‘A’ or 3. Before names of materials.
‘An’ ‘A’ is used: Example: Gold is found in Australia.
Before a word which begins with a (not A or The gold)
consonant. Example: a woman 4. Before abstract nouns used in a general
Before a singular, countable noun. sense. Example: We love all beauty.
Example: a banana (not a beauty or the beauty)
When we mention something for the first Exercise
time. Example: I saw a dog. Fill each blank with ‘a’, ‘an’, ‘the’ or leave it blank.
Before a word with a long sound of ‘u’. 1. He left _____ home without informing anyone.
Example: a university, a uniform, a useful 2. There is _____ box of sweets on _____ table.
book, a European, 3. Do you need _____ degree in Economics or
Before the word one. Example: a one-way ____ degree in finance to be a better manager?
street, a one-eyed man, a one-year course, a 4. When we arrived, she went straight to _____
one-day holiday, etc. kitchen and started to prepare ___ meal for us.
‘An’ is used: 5. He has _____ cut on his leg and _____
Before a noun which begins with a bruise on _____ chin.
vowel. Example: an apple. 6. Mt. Everest is _____ highest mountain in
Before a word which begins with a vowel sound _____ world.
or a silent ‘h’. 7. Switch off _____ air-conditioner please. I have
Example: an hour, an honest man, an heir, an _____ cold.
honour, an honourable man, etc 8. We reached _____ top of _____ hill during
Before a singular, countable noun which begins _____ afternoon.
with a vowel or silent ‘h’. 9. Do you like _____ weather here? Isn’t it
Example: an orange too hot during _____ day but it is very cold at
‘The’ is used: night?
1. When the same thing or person mentioned
10. _____ attempt has been made to collect
again, that is, a particular thing or person.
funds to start _____ public library in _____ town
Example: I bought an orange. The
where I live.
orange is sweet..
Answers
2. When there is only one such thing.
Example: the earth, the sun, the moon.
3. Before the names of famous buildings, etc.
Example: The Eiffel Tower, The Great Wall
of China.
4. When a singular noun is used to point
out a whole class, race, group, etc.
Example: The bear is a strong animal.
5. Before the special names of rivers, seas,
oceans, mountain ranges, groups of islands,
certain organizations, political parties, and
countries such as the U.S.A., the U.K., the
U.S.S.R. and the U.A.E., The Nile, The Dead
Sea, The Pacific Ocean, The Himalayas, The
United Nations, The Republican Party, etc.
6. Before the names of holy or important
books. Example: The Koran, The Bible.
7. Before an adjective when the noun is
under-stood.
Example: The poor need help.
Articles are not used:
1. Before the name of a person:
Example: I am a fan of Michael Jackson.
(not A or The Michael Jackson)
1.–– 2.a, the 3.a,a 4.the,a 5.a, a, the
6.the,the7.the,a 8.the,a, the 9.the,the, 10.an, a, the
 Direct Speech / Quoted Speech
Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted
speech) Here what a person says appears within quotation marks (“...”) and should be
word for word. For example: She said, “Today’s lesson is on presentations.” or
“Today’s lesson is on presentations,” she said.
Indirect Speech / Reported Speech
Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn’t use quotation marks to enclose what the
person said and it doesn’t have to be word for word.
When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we
are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in
the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.
For example:
Direct speech
“I’m going to the cinema”, he said.
Indirect speech
He said he was going to the cinema.
Tense change
As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense: (the tense on the left
changes to the tense on the right):

Direct speech Indirect speech

Present simple Past simple
She said, “It’s cold.” She said it was cold.
Present continuous Past continuous
She said, “I’m teaching English online.” She said she was teaching English online.
Present perfect simple Past perfect simple
She said, “I’ve been on the web since 1999.” She said she had been on the web since 1999.
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
She said, “I’ve been teaching English for seven years.” She said she had been teaching English for seven years.
Past simple Past perfect
She said, “I taught online yesterday.” She said she had taught online yesterday.
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
She said, “I was teaching earlier.” She said she had been teaching earlier.
Past perfect Past perfect
She said, “The lesson had already NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had already started when
started he arrived.” he when arrived.
Past perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
She said, “I’d already been NO CHANGE - She said she’d already been teaching for
teaching for five minutes.” five minutes.
Modal verb forms also sometimes change:
Direct speech Indirect speech
will would
She said, “I’ll teach English online tomorrow.”› She said she would teach English online tomorrow.
can could
She said, “I can teach English online.” › She said she could teach English online.
must had to
She said, “I must have a computer to teach English online.”
› She said she had to have a computer to teach English online.
shall should
She said, “What shall we learn today?” › She asked what we should learn today.
may might
She said, “May I open a new browser?” › She asked if she might open a new browser. Note -
There is no change to; could, would, should, might and ought to.
Direct speech Indirect speech
“I might go to the cinema”, he said. He said he might go to the cinema.
You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still true i.e. my name has always
been and will always be Leela so:-
Direct speech Indirect speech
“My name is Leela”, she said. She said her name was Leela. or She said her name is Leela
You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event.
Direct speech (exact quote) Indirect speech (not exact)
“Next week’s lesson is on reported speech “, she said. She said next week’s lesson is on reported speech.
Time change
If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the time of reporting.
For example we need to change words like here and yesterday if they have different meanings at the time
and place of reporting.
Today Indirect speech
“Today’s lesson is on presentations.” She said yesterday’s lesson was on presentations.
Expressions of time if reported on a different day
this (evening) › that (evening)
today › yesterday
these (days) › those (days)
now › then
(a week) ago › (a week) before
last weekend › the weekend before last / the previous weekend
here › there
next (week) › the following (week)
tomorrow › the next/following day
In addition if you report something that someone said in a different place to where you heard it you must change the
place (here) to the place (there).
For example:-
At work At home
“How long have you worked here?” She asked me how long I’d worked there.
Pronoun change
In reported speech, the pronoun often changes.
For example:
“I teach English online.” She said she teaches English online.
Reporting Verbs
Said, told and asked are the most common verbs used in indirect
speech. We use asked to report questions:-
For example: I asked Prema what time the lesson started.
We use told with an object.
For example: Sasikala told me she felt tired.
Note - Here me is the object.
We usually use said without an object.
For example: Sophy said she was going to teach online.
If said is used with an object we must include to ;
For example: Romy said to me that she’d never been to China.
Note - We usually use told.
For example: Aruna told me that she’d never been to China.
There are many other verbs we can use apart from said, told
and asked. These include:-
accused, admitted, advised, alleged, agreed, apologised, begged, boasted, complained, denied,
explained, implied, invited, offered, ordered, promised, replied, suggested and thought.
Using them properly can make what you say much more interesting and informative.
For example:
He asked me to come to the
party:-He invited me to the party.
He begged me to come to the party.
He ordered me to come to the party.
He advised me to come to the party.
He suggested I should come to the party.
Use of ‘That’ in reported speech
In reported speech, the word that is often used.
For example: He told me that he lived in Germany
However, that is optional.
For example: He told me he lived in Germany
!Note - That is never used in questions, instead we often use if.
For example: He asked me if I would come to the party.
Exercise
Rewrite the following in the Reported Speech.
1. He said, “I have eaten my lunch.”
2. She said, “I am doing a degree at the university”
3. The teacher said to the class, “Pay attention.”
4. My mother said to me, “Buy some bananas for
me.”
5. My father said to me, “Don’t waste your money.”
6. She said to me, “Where is the hospital?.”
7. My friend said to me. “Don’t be late tomorrow.”
8. He asked me, “When will the train arrive?”
9. His teacher said to him, “Try to do it by your
self.”
10. She asked me, “What are your favorite
online games?”
Answers
1. He said that he had eaten his lunch.
2. She said that she was doing a degree
at the university.
3. The teacher told the class to pay attention.
4. My mother told/asked me to buy some bananas.
5. My father told me not to waste my money. .
6. She asked me where the hospital is.
7. My friend asked me not to be late tomorrow.
8. He asked me when the train will arrive.
9. His teacher told him to try to do it by himself. .
10. She asked me what my favorite online games
are.
 Simple Present/Past:

Auxiliary verbs
Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called helping verbs
because they are needed to form many of the
tenses. The most used auxiliary verbs are the
verbs to be, to do and to have. For example: the
auxiliary to do is needed to ask questions in the
present and past simple tenses. To be is needed
for the present and past continuous, and all the
passive forms. The auxiliary to have is used in the
present and past perfect tenses. Here are some
examples of the common auxiliary verbs in action:

Do you like German food?

Does your mother speak English?
Did you come to school
yesterday? Why are you talking?
You should be listening to me!
I was having a bath when you called!
A new road is being built behind the
school. Have you done your homework?
My father has never visited the USA.
How long have you been living in
Germany? By this time next year I will have
been learning English for 35 years!
Auxiliary Verbs are the verbs be, do, have, will
when they are followed by another verb (the full
verb) in order to form a question, a negative
sentence, a compound tense or the passive.
The verb “be”
The verb be can be used as an auxiliary and a
full verb. As an auxiliary we use this verb for
compound tenses and the passive voice. Note
that be is an irregular verb:
Simple Present:
I am, he/she/it is, we/you/they are
Simple Past:
I/he/she/it was, we/you/they were
Past Participle:
been
You can tell that in the following sentences be is
an auxiliary because it is followed by another
verb (the full verb). (For progressive forms use
the “-ing” form of the full verb; for passive voice,
use the past participle of the full verb.)
Progressive Forms
Present Progressive:
He is playing football.
Past Progressive:
He was playing football.
Present Perfect Progressive:
He has been playing football.
Past Perfect Progressive:
He had been playing football.
Passive
The house is/was built. have as an auxiliary verb:
Present/Past Perfect: I have not got a car.
The house has/had been built. Have I got a car?
Future I: T h eThe verb “will”
house will be built. The verb will can only be used as an auxiliary. We
“be” as a full verb use it to form the future tenses.
The verb be can also be a full verb. In this case, it’s The auxiliary verb
not followed by another verb. If be is used as a full “will” Future I:
verb, we do not need an auxiliary in negative He will not play football.
sentences or questions. positive sentence: They Future II:
are fifteen years old. He will have played football.
negative sentence: They are not fifteen The verb will remains the same for all forms (no “s” for 3rd
years old. question: Are they fifteen years person singular). The short form for negative sentences is
old?
The verb “have”
The verb have, too, can be used both as an
auxiliary and as a full verb. As an auxiliary we
use this verb to form compound tenses in active
and passive voice. (Use the past participle of
the full verb.)
Compound Tenses - Active Voice
Present Perfect Simple: He has played
football. Past Perfect Simple: He had played
football.
Present Perfect Progressive:
He has been playing
football.
Past Perfect Progressive:
He had been playing football.
Compound Tenses -
Passive Voice
Present/Past Perfect:
The house has/had been built.
Note that have is an irregular verb,
too: Simple Present: I/we/you/they have,
he/she/it has Simple Past:
I/he/she/it/we/you/they had
Past Participle: had
“have” in positive sentences
As a full verb have indicates possession. In
British English, however, we usually use have
got (have being the auxiliary, got the full verb).
full verb:
I have a
car.
auxiliary
verb:
I have got a car.
“have” in negative sentences and questions
When we use have as a full verb, we must use the
auxiliary do in negative sentences and questions. If
we use have got, however, we do not need another
auxiliary.
have as a full verb:
I do not have
a car. Do I
have a car?
won’t.’ would to request or offer Would you like a cup of tea?
eg; I will, he will I
will not = I won’t
The verb “do”
The verb do can be both an auxiliary and a full verb. As
an auxiliary we use do in negative sentences and
questions for most verbs (except not for be, will, have
got and modal verbs) in Simple Present and Simple
Past. (Use the infinitive of the full verb.)
The auxiliary “do” in negative sentences
Simple Present: He does not play football. Simple
Past: He did not play football.
The auxiliary “do” in questions
Simple Present: Does he play
football? Simple Past: Did he play
football? The verb do is irregular:
Simple Present: I/we/you/they do, he/she/it
does Simple Past: I/he/she/it/we/you/they did
The full verb “do”
As a full verb we use do in certain expressions. If we
want to form negative sentences or questions using do
as a full verb, we need another do as an auxiliary.
positive sentence: She does her homework every day.
negative sentence:She doesn’t do her homework
every day.
question: Does she do her homework every day?
Sentences without the auxiliary “do”
In the following cases, the auxiliary do is not used in
negative sentences/questions:
the full verb is “be”
eg; I am not angry. / Are you okay?
the sentence already contains another auxiliary
(e.g. have, be, will)
eg; They are not sleeping. / Have you heard that?
the sentence contains a modal verb (can, may,
must, need, ought to, shall, should)
eg; We need not wait. / Can you repeat that,
please? the question asks for the subject of
the sentence eg; Who sings that song?
Other common auxiliary verbs are: will, should, would,
can, must, might, may, could (These verbs are often
called modal verbs).
Modal verbs
The modal verbs include can, must, may, might, will, would,
should. They are used with other verbs to express ability,
obligation, possibility, and so on. Below is a list showing the
most useful modals and their most common meanings:
ModalMeaning Example
can to express ability I can speak a little Russian.
can to request permission Can I open the window?
may to express possibility I may be home late.
may to request permission May I sit down, please?
must to express obligation I must go now.
must to express strong belief She must be over 90 years
old.
should to give advice You should stop smoking.
would in if-sentences If I were you, I would say sorry.
Modal verbs are unlike other verbs. They do not change their
form (spelling) and they have no infinitive or participle
(past/present). The modals must and can need substitute
verbs to express obligation or ability in the different tenses.
Here are some examples:
Past simple Sorry I’m late. I had to finish my
math test.
Present perfect She’s had to return to Korea at short
notice.
Future You’ll have to work hard if you want
to pass the exams.
Infinitive I don’t want to have to go.
Past simple I couldn’t/wasn’t able to walk until I
was 3 years old.
Present perfect I haven’t been able to solve this
problem. Can you help?
Future I’m not sure if I will be able to come
to your party.
Infinitive I would love to be able to play the
piano.
Modals are auxiliary verbs. They do not need an
additional auxiliary in negatives or questions.
For example:
Must I come? , or: He shouldn’t smoke
Contracted auxiliaries
The auxiliary verbs are very often contracted. For
example, you can say I’m playing tennis tomorrow,
instead of I am playing tennis tomorrow. The contracted
form (which needs an apostrophe) is more likely to be
used in spoken language.
The short form itself often has two alternatives, which
are equally usual and correct.
For example:
She’s not going to the dance. She
isn’t going to the dance. I haven’t
seen him for ages. I’ve not seen him
for ages.
* The full form is common in spoken language when
the speaker wants to emphasize what she is saying.
For example:
Why don’t you call him? I have
called him.
I do not want to see him again.
 modal verbs such as ‘can’ and ‘must’.
Conditional Clauses
Zero conditional
When we talk about things that are generally or
always true, we can use:
If/When/Unless plus a present form PLUS
present simple or imperative
Eg. If he gets there before me, ask him to wait.
When you fly budget airline, you have to
pay for your drinks and snacks.
Unless you need more space, a small car is
big enough for one person.
Note that we are not talking about a specific
event but something which is generally true.
In the condition clause, we can use a variety of
present forms. In the result clause, there can
only be the present simple or imperative.
Eg. If you visit London, go on the London Eye.
If unemployment is rising, people tend to stay
in their present jobs.
If you’ve done that, go and have a coffee.
When you go on holiday, take plenty of sun
cream. It’ll be very hot.
When I’m concentrating, please don’t make
so much noise.
When I’ve finished an article, I always ask
Kate to read it through.
Notice that ‘unless’ means the same as ‘if not’.
Eg. Unless he asks you politely, refuse to do any
more work on the project.
Unless prices are rising, it’s not a
good investment.
Unless you’ve been there yourself, you
don’t really understand how fantastic it is.
The first conditional
We use the First Conditional to talk about future
events that are likely to happen.
Eg. If we take John, he’ll be really pleased.
If you give me some money, I’ll pay you
back tomorrow.
If they tell us they want it, we’ll have to
give it to them.
If Mary comes, she’ll want to drive.
The ‘if’ clause can be used with different present
forms.
Eg. If I go to New York again, I’ll buy you a
her. souvenir from the Empire ate Building.
The If she hasn’t heard the bad news yet, I’ll tell
“future
clause”
can contain ‘going to’ or the future perfect as
well as ‘will’.
Eg. If I see him, I’m going to tell him exactly
how angry I am.
If we don’t get the contract, we’ll have wasted
a lot of time and money.
The “future clause” can also contain other
Eg. If you go to New York, you must have champagne for everybody.
the cheesecake in Lindy’s. Note that the ‘If clause’ can contain the past simple
If he comes, you can get a lift home or the past continuous.
with him. Eg. If I was still working in Delhi, I would commute
Second conditional by train.
The Second Conditional is used to talk about If she were coming, she would be here by
‘impossible’ situations. now.
Eg. If we were in London today, we would be If they were thinking of selling, I would
able want to buy.
to go to the concert Hyde Park. Note that the main clause can contain ‘would’ ‘could’
If I had millions dollars, I’d give a lot to
or ‘might.
charity.
If there were no hungry people in this
world,
it would be a much better place.
If everyone had clean water to drink,
there
would be a lot less disease.
Note that after I / he/ she /it we often use the
subjunctive form ‘were’ and not ‘was’. (Some
people think that ‘were’ is the only ‘correct’ form
but other people think ‘was’ is equally ‘correct’ .)
Eg. If she were happy in her job, she
wouldn’t be
looking for another one.
If I lived in Japan, I’d have sushi every
day.
If they were to enter our market, we’d
have
big problems.
Note the form ‘If I were you’ which is often used to
give
advice.
Eg. If I were you, I’d look for a new place to
live.
If I were you, I’d go back to school and
get
more qualifications.
The Second Conditional is also used to talk
about ‘unlikely’ situations.
Eg. If I went to China, I’d visit the Great
Wall.
If I was the President, I’d reduce taxes.
If you were in my position, you’d
understand.
Note that the choice between the first and the
second conditional is often a question of the
speaker’s attitude rather than of facts.
Compare these examples.
Joy thinks these things are possible, Peter
doesn’t. Joy – If I win the lottery, I’ll buy a big
house. Peter – If I won the lottery, I’d buy a
big house. Joy – If I get promoted, I’ll throw a
big party. Peter – If I got promoted, I’d throw
a big party.
Joy – If my team win the Cup, I’ll buy
champagne for everybody.
Peter – If my team won the Cup, I’d buy
Eg. If I had the chance to do it again, I would Exercise
do it differently. Give suitable words to fill in:
If we met up for lunch, we could go to 1) If you like, you ----- for two days.
that new restaurant. 2) If I ------ the film in the cinema, I wouldn’t
If I spoke to him directly, I might be able have watched it on TV again.
to persuade him. 3) If the parents bought the cat, their children ---
Also note that sometimes the ‘if clause’ is implied - very happy.
rather than spoken. 4) Metal ------- if you heat it.
Eg. What would I do without you? (“if you 5) He ------- my e-mail if he’d been online
weren’t here”) yesterday evening.
Where would I get one at this time of 6) They’d have been able to return the
night? (“if I wanted one”) bottle if they------- the labels.
He wouldn’t agree. (“if I asked him”) 7) If she -------- up her room, she must find
Third conditional the receipt.
We can use the Third Conditional to talk about 8) What ------- if you had a million dollars.
‘impossible’ conditions, impossible because they are in 9) Where would you live if you------ younger.
the past and we cannot change what has happened. 10) If you ------ for a little moment, I’ll tell the
Eg. If I had worked harder at school, I would
have got better grades.
If I had had time, I would have gone to
see him. But I didn’t have time.
If we had bought that house, we would
have had to rebuild the kitchen.
If we had caught the earlier train, we
would have got there on time but we were late.
Notice that the main clause can contain ‘would’,
‘could’ or ‘might.
Eg. If I had seen him at the meeting, I would
have asked him. (But he hasn’t there so I
didn’t.) If I had seen him at the meeting, I
could have asked him. ( But he wasn’t
there so it wasn’t possible.)
If I had seen him at the meeting, I might have
asked him. (But I’m not sure. Perhaps if the
opportunity had arisen.)
If I had paid more attention in class, I
would have understood the lesson.
doctor you are here.
Answers
1.can stay 2. had seen 3. would be
4.expands 5. should have received
6.hadn’t torn off 7. tidies up 8.would you do
9. were 10.will wait
 Example: (a) The man whom they caught was sent
PRONOUNS to prison. (b) The man to whom you should speak is
A Pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. It my uncle.
refers to a person or thing without giving the name.
There are two types of Personal Pronouns:
(1) those used as subjects; and
(2) those used as objects.
Personal Pronouns
Singular Plural
Subject Object Subject Object
Ist Person I Me We Us
IInd Person You You You You
IIIrd Person He Him They Them
She Her They Them
It It They Them
Reflexive Pronouns
We use the Reflexive Pronoun when the action of
the doer goes back to himself so that the Subject
of the sentence is the same person as the object.
Example: He has hurt himself.
Pronouns like ‘himself’ are called Reflexive
Pronouns. They always end in ‘self ‘.
Reflexive Pronouns
Singular Plural
Ist Person Myself Ourselves
Ist Person Yourself Yourselves
Third Person Himself Themselves
Herself Themselves
Itself Themselves
Relative Pronouns
The Relative Pronouns take the place of Nouns
or Pro-nouns; and they are used to join two
sentences about the same person or thing.
Examples of relative pronouns: who, which,
that, whom and whose.
In most cases, we use who, whose and whom
to make statements about people.
¨ We use who to join two sentences.
Example: “The man is an artist. He drew that
picture.” “The man is an artist who drew that picture.”
¨ We use whose to show possession or rela-
tionship.
Example: “That is my uncle whose son is my
cousin.” We use which or that in almost the
same way as we use who but it refers to things,
not human beings. There is one other difference
in the way we use who and which.

After who we put a verb. After which we can put

a verb, a pronoun or a noun.
Example: That is the camera which costs fifty
dollars. That is the camera which he bought.
That is the cam-era which John likes.
¨ We use whom to make a statement about human be-
ings. It is used in place of who (a) when it is the object of
a verb or (b) when it comes after a preposition.
Exercise
Fill in the blanks with ‘which, ‘who’, ‘whom’
and ‘whose’.
1. The boy, _____ father is a doctor, is my best
friend.
2. This is not something _____ we like to do.
3. That man, _____ left leg was amputated,
suffers from diabetes.
4. The thief, _____ they caught, was sent to the
prison.
5. Our friends, _____ we invited to the party,
arrived rather early.
6. The girl, _____ broke the mirror, was
scolded by her mother.
7. That is my uncle, _____ car was stolen.
8. That woman, _____ you saw, was my
auntie.
9. Kangaroos, _____ use their pouch to carry
their ba-bies, are found in Australia.
10. The policeman, ______ caught the thief, is
a very brave man.
Answer
1.whose 2.which 3.whose 4.whom
5.whom 6.who 7.whose 8.whom 9.which
10.who
 PREPOSITIONS Fill in the blanks with these words: against, at, by,
for, from, in, like, near, of, on, to, up, with.
Prepositions are words placed before Nouns 1. She is doing a degree course _____ a university.
and Pro-nouns. They are used to show time, 2. His trousers were washed _____ the washing machine.
position and di-rection. 3. We had to climb slowly _____ the hill.
Examples of Prepositions showing time: My 4. His house looks _____ a temple.
birthday falls in September. Most 5. How many _____ the members will join the trip?
shops are closed on Sunday. I 6. Don’t lean that ladder _____ the wall.
have an appointment at 9 o’clock. 7. I don’t usually feel tired _____ the morning.
Examples of Prepositions showing position: 8. Have you heard anything _____ him yet?
He is standing at the door. 9. My house is quite _____ to your school.
The glass is on the table. 10. Put this _____ your drawer and do not let anyone see it.
The cat is sleeping under the chair. Answer
Examples of Prepositions showing
direction: She got into the taxi.
The girl is walking towards her
mother. I have to go to town.
Other examples of expressions using prepositions:
The picture was drawn by his brother.
She likes to go out with her friends.
They say I walk like my father.
Her parents give her a box of sweets.
Expressions using Prepositions:
good at get up fall off interested in
clever at wake up get off involved in
bad at look up set off send in
point at clean up break off work in
stare at add up finish off fill in
fight against get into turn on made of
speak against cash into switch on built of
vote against jump into get on a box of
hit against turn into carry on half of
lean against dive into put it on many of
Exercise
1.at 2.by 3.up 4.like 5.of 6.against
7.in 8.from 9.near 10.in
Table of English Tenses

Examples Examples Examples

Tense Signal words Use Form
affirmative negative interrogative
something happens I work. I don't work. Do I work?
every day repeatedly
Does he
He works. He doesn't work.
sometimes how often something work?

happens I go. I don't go. Do I go?

always
one action follows
Simple another
often
Present infinitive he/she/it
or things in general + -s
usually
Present Simple
after the following
seldom He goes. He doesn't go. Does he go?
verbs (to love, to
never hate, to think, etc.)

first ... then future meaning:

timetables,
programmes
something is Am I
I'm working. I'm not working.
now happening at the working?
same time of speaking
Is he
or around it He's working. He isn't working.
Present at the moment to be (am/are/is) + working?
Progressive or

infinitive + -ing
Present Continuous Look! future meaning: when I'm going. I'm not going. Am I going?
you have already

Listen! decided and

arranged to do it (a He's going. He isn't going. Is he going?
fixed plan, date)
last ... action took place in I worked. I didn't work. Did I work?
Simple regular:
Past ... ago the past, mostly infinitive + -ed He worked. He didn't work. Did he work?
connected with an

or expression of time (no irregular: I went. I didn't go. Did I go?

connection to the
Past in 1990 2nd column of table

Simple of irregular verbs

present) He went. He didn't go. Did he go?
yesterday
an action happened in Was I
I was working. I wasn't working.
the middle of another working?
action
Past Was he
He was working. He wasn't working.
Progressive or while someone was doing was/were + working?
Past Continuous
infinitive + -ing

sth. at a certain time I was going. I wasn't going. Was I going?

(in the past) - you do

not know whether it Was he

He was going. He wasn't going.
was finished or not going?
just Have I
I have worked. I haven't worked.
worked?
yet
Has he
He has worked. He hasn't worked.
never you say that sth. has worked?

ever happened or is have/has + past I have gone. I haven't gone. Have I gone?
Simple finished in the past
participle*
Present and it has a
Perfect already connection to the
*(infinitive + -ed) or
or present
so far, (3rd column of
Present
table of irregular
Perfect action started in the
up to now, verbs)
past and continues up He has gone. He hasn't gone. Has he gone?
to the present
since

for

recently
all day action began in the I have been I haven't been Have I been
past and has just working. working. working?
Present Perfect the whole day stopped He has been He hasn't been Has he been
Progressive or have/has + been + working. working. working?
infinitive + -ing
Present how long how long the action

Perfect has been happening I haven't been Have I been

I have been going.
Continuous since going. going?
emphasis: length of
He hasn't been Has he been
for time of an action He has been going.
going. going?
mostly when two Had I
I had worked. I hadn't worked.
actions in a story are worked?
Simple related to each other: had + past
Past already the action which had participle* He had worked. He hadn't worked. Had he
Perfect already happened is worked?

or just put into Past Perfect, *(infinitive + -ed) or I had gone. I hadn't gone. Had I gone?
Past the other action into (3rd column of

Perfect never Simple Past table of irregular

(Simple) verbs)
He had gone. He hadn't gone. Had he gone?
the past of the
Present Perfect
 I had been working. I hadn't been Had I been
working. working?
Past Perfect how long how long something He had been He hadn't been Had he been
Progressive or since had been happening had + been + working. working. working?
Past Perfect before something else infinitive + ing
Had I been
Continuous happened I had been going. I hadn't been going.
for going?
He hadn't been Had he been
He had been going.
going. going?
predictions about the I'll work. I won't work. Will I work?
future (you think that
sth. will happen) He'll work. He won't work. Will he work?
I'll go. I won't go. Will I go?
you decide to do sth.
will - future spontaneously at the will + infinitive
time of speaking, you
haven't made a
decision before He'll go. He won't go. Will he go?

main clause in type I

of the if clauses
I'm not going to Am I going to
I'm going to work.
when you have work. work?
already decided to do He's not going to Is he going
He's going to work.
going to - future sth. in the future be (am/are/is) + work. to work?
going to + infinitive
Am I going to
what you think what I'm going to go. I'm not going to go. go?
will happen
He's not going to Is he going
He's going to go.
go. to go?
An action will be in I'll be working. I won't be working. Will I be
progress at a certain working?
time in the future.
This action has begun He'll be working. He won't be Will he be
Future Progressive or before the certain will + be + infinitive working. working?
Future Continuous time. + ing Will I be
I'll be going. I won't be going.
Something happens going?
because it normally Will he be
He'll be going. He won't be going.
happens. going?
I won't have Will I have
I'll have worked.
Simple will + have + past worked. worked?
participle*
Future sth. will already have He won't have Will he have
He'll have worked.
Perfect happened before a *(infinitive + -ed) or worked. worked?
or certain time in the
(3rd column of Will I have
Future Perfect future I'll have gone. I won't have gone.
Simple table of irregular gone?
verbs)
He'll have gone. He won't have gone. Will he have
gone?
Will I have
I'll have been I won't have been
been
working. working.
sth. will already have working?
Future happened before a He'll have been He won't have been Will he have
Perfect certain time in the been
working. working.
Progressive or future will + have + been working?
Future + infinitive + ing
Will I have
Perfect I'll have been going. I won't have been been
Continuous emphasis: length of going.
time of an action working?
He'll have been He won't have been Will he have
been
going. going.
working?
I wouldn't Would I
I would work.
sth. that might work. work?
happen Would he
He would work. He wouldn't work.
Conditional Simple would + infinitive work?
main clause in type II
of the if-clauses I would go. I wouldn't go. Would I go?
He wouldn't Would he
He would go.
go. go?
I would be working. I wouldn't be Would I be
working. working?
Conditional sth. that might He would be He wouldn't be Would he be
Progressive happen
would + be + working. working. working?
or
infinitive + ing
Conditional emphasis: length of I would be going. I wouldn't be going. Would I be
Continuous time of an action going?
He wouldn't be Would he be
He would be going.
going. going?
Conditional Perfect sth. that might have would + have + I would have I wouldn't have Would I have
happened in the past past participle* worked. worked. worked?
(It's too late now.)
*(infinitive + -ed) or He would have He wouldn't have Would he
main clause in type III (3rd column of worked. worked. have
of the if clauses table of irregular worked?
verbs)
 gone. gone?
He would have He wouldn't have Would I have
gone. gone. gone?
Would I have
I would have been I wouldn't have
been
working. been working.
working?
Conditional Perfect sth. that might have
Would he
Progressive happened in the past He would He wouldn't have
would + have + have been
or (It's too late now.) have been going. been going.
Conditional been + infinitive + working?
ing
Perfect emphasis: length of I would have been I wouldn't have Would I have
Continuous time of an action going. been going. been going?
Would he
He would have been He wouldn't have
have been
going. been going.
going?
General English
ON E WOR D SUBSTITUTION

For every competitive examination a few questions can be expected from One Word Substitution.
Moreover this section will certainly help you to increase your English vocabulary. The words included
here will help you to write and speak English precisely and effectively. Learning them will be a great asset in
life. In order to keep these words in your mind complement your study with extensive reading. One of the
practical methods is to study ten to fifteen words each day. If you make it a practice, with each passing day
there will be steady improvement in your knowledge.
In the first part of this section we have given you a list of over 600 words which are commonly asked in
One Word Substitution. In the second part we have collected some objective type questions for you to
practice with. They are followed by their answers. All these questions were asked for various examinations.
Learn all these words carefully. After learning each word try to use it in a sentence of your own. This method
will help you to stamp the word in your mind.

LIST - I
ABATTOIR : A place where animals are
slaughtered.
ACCOMPLICE : A partner in crime.
AESTHETE : A person with a highly
developed sense of beauty.
AFFLUENT : Wealthy; having abundance of
money.
AGORAPHOBIA : Unreasonable fear of open
spaces.
ALLEVIATE : To lessen, make less
severe.
ALTRUIST : One who does good work
for others without thought of
personal gain.
AMBIDEXTROUS : Able to use the left hand as
well as the right.
AMBIGUOUS : A word or statement which
can be interpreted in two
ways.
ANACHRONISM : That which appears to be in
the wrong period.
ANGLOPHILE : An admirer of the English
people, language, manners
or way of life.
ANGLOPHOBE : One who dislikes the
English and England.
ARMISTICE : An agreement to stop
fighting in a war.
ARISTOCRACY : A government run by the rich
and the elite people; a class
of well-born people.
ARTISTE : Professional singer, dancer etc.
ATHEIST : A person who does not
believe in the existence of God.
AUTOCRACY : A government where the
 power is concentrated
in the hands of one person.
AUTOPSY : Medical examination of a
dead body.
BANKRUPT : A person who cannot pay
his debts.
BARBARIAN : An uncivilised person.
BARRICADE : Hastily erected barrier
across a street.
BELLIGERENT : One who is engaged in
fighting a battle or war.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : A list of writings on a subject.
BIBLIOPHILE : One who loves books.
BIOGRAPHY : The story of a person’s life.
BLASPHEMOUS : One who is irreverent
towards God.
BREVITY : Briefness; shortness of
time.
BREWERY : A place where beer is made.
BUREAUCRACY : A government run by civil
servants.
CALLIGRAPHY : The art of beautiful hand
writing.
CARDIOLOGIST : A doctor specialising in
matters relating to the heart.
CATHOLICITY : Broad outlook, free from
prejudice.
CELIBACY : The state of being
unmarried.
CHARLATAN : One who deceives others
by claiming to be an expert.
CIRCUMLOCUTION : A roundabout way of
expression.
CLAUSTROPHOBIA : A morbid fear of confined
spaces.
COAGULATE : Change from liquid into
solid by chemical reaction.
COLLOQUIAL : Suitable for ordinary
informal conversation.
COMBUSTIBLE : That which can catch fire
and burn easily.
COMEDIAN : One who plays funny parts
in plays or films.
COMMODITY : An article of trade or
commerce.
COMPATRIOT : A person belonging to one’s
own country.
COMPLEXION : The natural colour and
appear- ance of skin.
COMPULSORY : That which must be done.
CONDUCTOR : That which acts as a path for
electricity, heat etc.
CONNOISSEUR : A person who is competent
to pass critical judgement
upon anything.
CONSCRIPT : A person who is compelled
by law to serve in the armed
forces.
CONSORTIUM : A combination of several
businesses for a common
purpose.
CONTAGIOUS : That which spreads easily,
especially a disease.
CONTRETEMPS : An unlucky event, an
unexpected set-back.
CONTROVERSIAL : That which causes debate
or argument.
CONVENTION (2) : A formal assembly or
conference of people of the
same business to discuss
practices.
CORRIGENDUM : Something to be corrected
in a printed book.
COUNTERFEIT : Copy something exactly in
order to deceive.
COUP D’ÉTAT : Sudden overthrow of a
government, especially by force.
CRUISE : A sea voyage for pleasure.
CYGNET : A young swan.
CYNIC : One who has little faith in
human sincerity or honesty.
DEBACLE : A sudden complete failure.
DENOUEMENT : The last part of a play, book
etc. where all the
 complications of the plot are
solved.
DETERGENT : A cleaning agent, especially
a synthetic substance.
DETERRENT : Something to discourage
people from doing wrong.
DILETTANTE : An admirer of the fine arts.
DISARMAMENT : Reduction of weapons by
governments.
DISINFORMATION : False information spread
intentionally to spread
propaganda.
DOMICILE : A place where one lives
permanently.
DRAGNET : A system of connected
actions and methods for
catching criminals.
DRUDGERY : Hard, uninteresting work.
DUET : Song sung by two people
together.
EBULLIENT : High-spirited, exuberant.
EFFEMINATE : A man who has the qualities
of a woman.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA : A book giving information on
all branches of knowledge.
ENTOMOLOGY : The scientific study of
insects.
EPIC : A long narrative poem.
EPILOGUE : Concluding part of a literary
work.
ERGONOMICS : The study of the efficiency of
people in their working
environment.
ERR : Make a mistake, do wrong.
ESTUARY : The wide mouth of a river.
EVOLUTION : Gradual development from
simple life forms to complex
ones.
EXCISE : Tax on goods produced and
used in a country.
EXERTION : Making an effort; trying very
hard to do something.
EXTEMPORE : A speech made without any
previous thought or
preparation.
EXTERMINATE : To put an end to something by
killing.
EXTROVERT : A person who is active, lively
and enjoys the company of
others.
EXUBERANT : Lively, high-spirited.
FALLACY : A false idea or belief.
FARCE : A light-hearted humorous
play with silly action.
FASTIDIOUS : One who cannot be easily
pleased.
FAVOURITISM : The practice of giving
favoured treatment to
certain people.
FEBRILE : Of or caused by fever.
FEMINIST : A supporter of the cause of
women.
FIANCÉE : A girl to whom a man is
engaged to be married.
FISSION : Splitting of the nucleus of an
atom.
FLOGGING : Severe beating with a whip.
FLUVIAL : Of, found in, or produced by
rivers.
FOOLSCAP : A size of paper, also called
‘legal’ format.
FOREMAN : A skilled worker in charge
of other workmen.
FOURTH ESTATE : Influential newspapers and
journalists.
FRANCOPHILE : An admirer of the French
people, language, manners
or way of life.
FRANCOPHOBE : One who dislikes the
French and France.
FRATRICIDE : The murder of one’s brother.
FREIGHT : Goods carried by train, ship
etc.
FUDDY-DUDDY : An elderly person who does
not understand or approve
of modern ideas.
FUMIGATE : To clear of disease, bacteria
etc., by means of chemical
smoke.
GARAGE : A building in which
motorcars are parked.
GARRULOUS : One who talks too much
about uninteresting things.
GASTRONOMY : The art and science of
cooking and eating good
food.
GENOCIDE : Elimination or killing of a
whole race.
GERMANOPHILE : An admirer of the German
people, language, manners
or way of life.
GERMANOPHOBE : One who dislikes the
Germans and Germany.
GERMICIDE : A medicine that kills germs.
GLACIER : A mass of ice moving very
slowly down a mountain
 valley.
GLUT : A larger supply than
necessary.
GRAFFITI : Rough drawing or writing on
public walls.
GRAMINIVORE : An animal that eats grain.
GRATIS : Without payment, free of cost.
GUBERNATORIAL : Of a governor.
HALLUCINATION : Seeing something which is
not actually present.
HAVEN : A place of calm and safety.
HEDONIST : One who lives for pleasure.
HERBIVORE : A plant-eating animal.
HISTRIONICS : Overreacting in a theatrical
manner.
HOLOCAUST : Great destruction and the
loss of many lives; the mass
killing of Jews in World War
II.
HOLSTER : A leather holder for a pistol.
HOMICIDE : The killing of one man by
another man.
HOMONYM : A word which agrees with
another in pronun-ciation and
perhaps also in spelling but is
different in meaning.
HONORARY : An office for which no salary
is paid.
HOOLIGAN : A noisy rough person who
causes trouble.
HORTICULTURE : The art of garden cultivation.
HUB : The central part of a wheel.
HYPERCRITICAL : Excessively critical.
HYPOCHONDRIAC : One who has exaggerated
anxiety about his health.
HYPOCRITICAL : Pretence of virtue or goodness;
saying one thing while thinking
another.
HYPOTHESIS : Supposition made as basis
for reasoning.
IDEALISM : Practice of forming and
following ideals.
IDEOLOGY : Set of ideas at the basis of
certain economic or political
systems.
IDOLATRY : Worship of idols.
IGNORAMUS : A thoroughly ignorant person.
ILLEGAL : That which is contrary to law.
ILLEGIBLE : Handwriting which cannot
be read.
ILLITERATE : One who is unable to read or
write.
IMMEMORIAL : Too old to be remembered,
ancient beyond memory.
IMMINENT : About to happen.
IMMORTAL : That which never dies.
IMPASSABLE : That which cannot be passed
through.
IMPLACABLE : Impossible to satisfy, change
or make less angry.
IMPREGNABLE : That which cannot be attacked
or taken by force.
INACCESSIBLE : That cannot be approached
or reached.
INAUSPICIOUS : Not of good omen.
INCORPOREAL : Without a body.
INCREDIBLE : That cannot be believed.
INDEFATIGABLE : One who is incapable of
being tired.
INDELIBLE : Incapable of being effaced or
cancelled or obliterated.
INDIGENOUS : Belonging naturally to a place.
INDOPHILE : An admirer of the Indian
people, its culture, manners or
way of life.
INDOPHOBE : One who dislikes the Indians
and India.
INEDIBLE : Something which cannot be
eaten.
INEVITABLE : That which is bound to
happen.
INEXPLICABLE : That which cannot be
explained.
INFLAMMABLE : Capable of catching fire.
INFLATE : To fill with air or gas.
INGENIOUS : Very clever.
INIMITABLE : That which cannot be imitated.
INNATE : That which one is born with.
INNOCUOUS : That which is quite harmless.
INTANGIBLE : That cannot be mentally
grasped.
INTELLIGENTSIA : The class of people who
think independently.
INTOLERABLE : That which cannot be
endured.
INTROSPECTION : Examination of one’s own
mental processes.
INTUITION : Immediate apprehension by
mind reasoning.
INVINCIBLE : That cannot be conquered or
defeated.
INVULNERABLE : That which cannot be
wounded.
IRREPARABLE : That which cannot be
repaired.
IRREPROACHABLE : So good that no criticism can
 be made.
JAYWALK : To cross streets on foot in a
careless and dangerous
way.
JOEY : A young kangaroo.
JUDICIOUS : Wise, sound in judgement.
KIMONO : A loose gown of silk as worn
in Japan.
KNIGHTHOOD : The right to put ‘Sir’ in front of
one’s name.
LACKEY : One who behaves like a
servant by always obeying.
LAMINATE : To cover with thin sheets of
metal or plastic.
LEGIBLE : Capable of being read
clearly.
LEONINE : Of or like a lion.
LEXICOGRAPHER : One who compiles diction-
aries.
LIBERTARIAN : One who believes that one
should have freedom of
expression.
LIMERICK : A humorous short poem with
five lines.
LITERATI : People with knowledge of
literature.
LOQUACIOUS : One who talks a lot.
LOWBROW : One who has no interest in
literature, art etc.
LULLABY : A pleasant song sung to
send children to sleep.
MACHETE : A knife with a broad heavy
blade.
MAGNUM OPUS : A great work of art, particularly
literary.
MALEDICTION : Evil, vicious speech.
MANUAL : A book giving information about
how to work something.
MANUSCRIPT : Handwritten script of a book.
MARTINET : A strict disciplinarian.
MASCOT : Something chosen as a
symbol to bring good luck.
MASOCHIST : One who enjoys pain or
humiliation.
MEDIOCRE : One who is neither intelligent nor
dull.
MEGALOMANIA : The belief that one is
extremely important.
MELODIOUS : Sweet sounding.
MERCANTILE : Of trade and business.
METEOROLOGY : The scientific study of
weather conditions.
METICULOUS : A person who is very careful
about details.
MILITIA : Those trained as soldiers
but not belonging to a regular
army.
MISANTHROPE : One who hates mankind.
MISOGAMIST : One who hates marriage.
MISOGYNIST : One who hates women.
MONOMANIAC : One who keeps thinking of
one particular thing only.
MONOTHEISM : The practice of worshipping
only one god.
MULTINATIONAL : A company having branches
in many countries.
MYCOLOGY : The scientific study of fungi.
NAUSEA : Strong feeling of wanting to
vomit.
NAUTICAL : Of sailors, ships or sailing.
NEMESIS : Downfall that satisfies
natural justice.
NEOLOGISM : A new word.
NEPOTISM : Undue favour shown by a
person in power to his
relatives.
NOTARY : A public official who makes
written statements official.
NUMISMATIC : One who collects coins.
OBITUARY : Notice of a person’s death
in a newspaper.
OBLIGATORY : That which is required to be
done by law.
OBSOLETE : That which is out of use, or
replaced by a newer
model.
OMNIPOTENT : One who is all powerful.
OMNISCIENT : One who knows everything.
OMNIVOROUS : One who eats anything.
ONTOLOGY : Philosophy concerned with
the nature of existence.
OPTHALMOLOGIST : An eye-doctor.
OPTOMETRIST : A technician who measures
your eyesight.
PACHYDERM : A thick-skinned animal,
especially an elephant or
rhinoceros.
PACIFIST : One who believes in the
abolition of war.
PALAEOGRAPHY : The study of ancient writing.
PALAEONTOLOGY : The study of fossils.
PANACEA : A remedy which can cure all
diseases.
PARADOX : Contradictory statement.
PARASITE : One that lives on another.
PARIAH : One who is not accepted by
society.
PATENT : Sole right to make and sell
one’s own invention.
PAUNCH : A man’s fat stomach.
PEDANT : One who exhibits his book
learning.
PENULTIMATE : Last but one.
PERQUISITE : Gain over and above one’s
salary.
PETROLOGY : The scientific study of rocks.
PHILISTINE : Person of material outlook
who is indifferent to culture.
PHILOLOGIST : One who is well versed in the
science of languages.
PIGMENT : The natural colouring matter of
plants and animals.
PLAINTIFF : One who bring a charge
against someone in court.
PLATONIC : A very close, non-sexual
friendship between two
people.
PLEBEIAN : Of the lower social classes.
POLYANDRY : The practice of having more
than one husband at the same
time.
POLYGAMY : The practise of having more
than one husband or wife at
the same time.
POLYGLOT : One who speaks many
languages.
POLYGRAPH : A lie-detector.
POSTHUMOUS : A child born after the death of
its father.
POSTSCRIPT : A note added at the end of a
letter, after the signature.
PRAGMATIST : One who uses common
sense.
PRESCIENT : Able to foretell what will happen
in the future.
PROFILE (1) : A side view of someone’s
head.
PROPELLANT : An explosive for firing a bullet
or a rocket.
PSEUDONYM : A pen-name assumed by a
writer.
PULMONARY : Of or having an effect on the
lungs.
QUIXOTIC : Trying to do the impossible,
usually to help others, while
putting oneself into danger.
RACONTEUR : One who is good at telling
stories in an interesting way.
RAPPORT : A good relationship between
two people.
RECEPTIVE : Capable of receiving new
ideas.
RED TAPISM : Excessive use of official
formalities which causes
unnecessary delay.
REFLATION : A government policy of
increasing the amount of
money in circulation.
REINFORCE : Strengthen by additional men
or material.
RENAISSANCE : A renewal of interest in art,
literature etc.
REQUISITION : An official demand or request.
RETRIBUTION : A severe deserved punish-
ment.
RINGLEADER : One who leads others to do
wrong or make trouble.
RODENT : A small herbivore usually
considered a pest..
RUSSOPHILE : An admirer of the Russian
people, language, manners or
way of life.
RUSSOPHOBE : One who dislikes the
Russians and Russia.
SABOTAGE : Wanton destruction especially
of a factory, etc. b y
dissatis- fied workers.
SACRILEGE : The violation or profaning of
sacred things.
SANATORIUM : A place for invalids and
convalescents.
SANCTIMONIOUS : Making a show of piety.
SCAFFOLD : A structure on which criminals
used to be hanged.
SCEPTIC : Person who doubts the truth
of what he is told.
SCUBA : An instrument used for
breathing when swimming
under water.
SEDENTARY : Done while sitting down.
SEER : One who can see into the
future.
SENSATIONALISM : The intentional producing of
excitement or shock.
SEPTUAGENARIAN : One in his seventies.
SILHOUETTE : Black shadow-like picture on
white background.
SIMULTANEOUSLY : Taking place or happening at
the same time.
SINECURE : Any office with good salary but
no work.
SINOPHILE : An admirer of the Chinese
people, language, manners or
way of life.
SINOPHOBE : One who dislikes the Chinese
and China.
SMALL FRY : Unimportant people.
SNIPPET : A small piece from something
spoken or written.
SOJOURN : A short stay at a place.
SPINSTER : An unmarried woman.
STALE : Something which is not fresh.
STAMPEDE : A sudden rush of a large
 number of frightened people
or animals.
STELLAR : Of the stars.
STOCKBROKER : One who buys and sell shares
for others.
STOIC : One who is indifferent to pain
and pleasure.
STRATAGEM : A trick to deceive an enemy.
STRINGENT : Very strict.
SUBCUTANEOUS : Beneath the skin.
SUB JUDICE : A subject which cannot be
publicly discussed because it
is being considered by a court
of law.
SUBSIDY : Money paid by a government to
make prices lower.
SUBVERSIVE : Attempting to weaken or
overthrow authority.
SUPERANNUATED : Too old for work.
SURREAL : Having a strange, dreamlike
unreal quality.
TABLEAU : A lifelike representation of a
famous scene by a group of
people who do not move or
speak.
TAXIDERMY : The art of stuffing animals and
setting them in life-like poses.
TECHNOCRAT : A specialist in technology.
TEETOTALLER : One who abstains from all kinds
of alcoholic drinks.
TERMINATE : Come or bring to an end.
THEIST : One who believes in the
existence of God.
THEOCRACY : Government by priests.
TIMBER : Wood cut down for building etc.
TOPIARY : The art of trimming trees and
bushes to decorative shapes.
TRAITOR : One who is disloyal to his
country.
TYRANT : A ruler with complete power
who rules cruelly.
UNISEX : Of one type, used by both
males and females.
UNANIMOUS : A decision taken by the votes
of all.
UPSTART : A person who has suddenly
risen from low rank to wealth
and importance.
UXORICIDE : The killing of one’s wife.
UXORIOUS : Greatly or excessively fond of
one’s wife.
LIST - II

CREDULOUS

ARISTOCRACY
PLUTOCRACY

DEMAGOGUE

DESPERADO

EDIBLE
EPICURIAN

ELECTROCUTE

ENDEMIC

EXTROVERT

EPHEMERAL
EMBALM

EPITOME
ENIGMA

EMBARGO

ENTOMOLOGY
FIANCEE
FARRIES
FUGITIVE

FANATIC

GEOLOGIST

GARRISON

HOMICIDE : The act of killing a human

being
HAWKER : One who travels from place
to place selling
miscellaneous articles
HEDONIST : One who believes that
pleasure is the highest tool.
HORTICULTURE : The art of cultivating and
managing gardens
HYPERBOLE : Exaggerated statement
made for the sake of effect
HOSTAGE : Person given to an enemy as
a pledge
INVALID : A person who is sick
INCENDIARY : One who maliciously sets
fire to building
INSOLVENT : One who cannot pay one’s
debts
IGNORAMUS : An ignorant person
IMMIGRANT : One who comes into a
foreign country to settle there
INVINCIBLE : That which cannot be
conqured
INCOMBUSTIBLE : Incapable of being burnt
INVISIBLE : That which cannot be seen
IMMORTAL : Living for ever
INIMITABLE : That which cannot be
imitated
INDEFATIGABLE : Persons that cannot be
wearied
INTERNECINE : Causing destruction to both
sides
INTERPOLATE : make (spurious &
misleading) additions to a
book
JUXTAPOSE : To place side by side
LETHAL : causing death
LACONIC : Expressing in a few words
LAUNDRY : A place where clothes are
washed and ironed
LIMNOLOGY : The study of lakes and
other fresh water bodies
MANIFESTO : A declaration of plans and
promises put forward by a
political party
MIGRATE : To move from one country
to another
METEOROLOGIST : One who studies the
elements of weather.
MISANTHROPE : One who hates mankind
METALLURGY : The science dealing with
the production of metals
MONOLOGUE : A long speech by one
person
MOBILIZE : To collect together for
service in war
MAUSOLEUM : A magnificent tomb
MACHIAVELLIAN : Unscrupulous in gaining
what is wanted
MEMENTO : Something kept or given as
a reminder
MIVIPAROUS : Producing young that are
fully developed .
MEGALOMANIAC : A person with a false
impression that he is great
and powerful.
NUMISMATICS : The study of coins
NICHE : A hollow place in wall
NEOLOGISM : A new word coined by an
author
NEPOTISM : Special favour shown by a
person in high position to
his relatives.
ORCHARD : A place where fruit trees are
grown
OPTIMIST : One who looks on the bright
side of things.
OMNISCIENT : One who knows everything
OMNIPRESENT : One who is present
everywhere
OCULIST : One who attends to the
diseases of the eye
ORNITHOLOGY : The study of birds
OBITUARY : An account, in the
newspaper, of the funeral of
 one deceased
OSTLER : One who attends to horses
at an inn
OPTICIAN : One who makes or sells
eye-glasses
OOLOGY : The study of eggs
OCCIDENTAL : Belonging to the west
OSTRACIZE : Expel from society
POSTHUMOUS : Occurring after death
PLAGIARISM : Literary theft, or passing off
an author’s original work as
one’s own.
PYROTECHNICS : The art of making fireworks
PARASITE : A plant or animal growing on
another
PANACEA : A cure for all diseases
PHILATELIST : One who collects postage
stamps
PHILANTHROPIST : One who devotes his
service or wealth for the love
of mankind.
PEDANT : One who makes a display
of his learning
PEDLAR : One who goes from house
to house selling small
articles.
PAEDIATRICIAN : Doctors who treat children’s
diseases
PALAEOGRAPHY : The study of ancient modes
of writing
PHONETICS : The science of speech,
sounds and their production
PYROTECHNICS : The art of making fireworks
PROTAGONIST : Chief person in a drama,
story etc.
PSEUDONYM : A fictitious name used by an
author
QUACK : One who dishonestly
claims to have knowledge
and skill, esp. in medicine.
QUARANTINE : Confinement to one place to TRANSMIGRATION : Belief that the soul passes at
prevent spread of infection. death into another body.
RUMINANT : A cud-chewing animal UTOPIAN : Ideally perfect but
REFUGEE : One who takes refuge in a impracticable
foreign country. UNDERTAKER : A tradesman who manages
funerals
REINSTATE : Put back in a former station
or condition. UPHOLSTERER : One who makes or deals in
carpets, curtains, beds,
RACONTEUR : One who tells anecdotes or
cushioned seats, etc.
stories
SOMNAMBULIST : One who walk in his sleep USURER : One who lends money at an
excessive rate of interest
SPENDTHRIFT : One who spends too much
UPSTART : One who has suddenly
SCULPTOR : One who carves in stone, risen to wealth and
metal, wood, etc. importance
SURGEON : One who treats diseases by ULTIMATUM : final proposal of terms given
operations by one party to another
SANATORIUM : A hospital esp, for UNANIMOUS : Of the same opinion
tuberculosis patients and
VETERINARIAN : One skilled in the treatment
convalescents.
of diseases of animals
SYMPOSIUM : Collection of views of
several persons on a topic VAGABOND : One who wanders without
settled home
SYNONYM : A word with the same
VALETUDINARIAN : One who is overanxious
meaning as another
about one’s health
SABOTAGE : Wanton destruction of a
VOLUNTEER : One who takes part in an
plant by workmen
enterprise of his own free
SIMULTANEOUS : happening or done at the will
same time
VERBATIM : Word for word
SUPERFLUOUS : More than is needed
VERSATILE : Of many sided ability
TEETOTALLER : One who doesn’t consume
VICARIOUS : Done for another
alchoholic drinks
WARREN : A place for breeding or
TRAITOR : One who betrays his
preserving rabbits
friends, ruler, country, etc.
WINNOW : To separate the husks from
TAXIDERMY : The art of preparing, stuffing
the grain
and mounting the skins of
animals, birds and fish. WANTON : Recklessly inconsiderate
TOPOGRAPHY : The art of representing the WIDOWER : A man whose wife is dead
physical features of a place XENOMANIAC : A person having an
on a map. excessive attachment to
THESAURUS : Lexicon, esp, a collection of foreign living
words ZOO : A place where many kinds
TABOO : An act which religion or of animals are kept for show
custon regards as
ZOOLOGY : The science of animal life
forbidden.