Lab 1 Assignment-Lab Workbook (Chapter 12-Endocrine)

Chapter 12 The Endocrine System Animation: Hypothalamus & Pituitary Gland 1. The hypothalamus is sometimes referred to as the master control center. Why? Because it regulates most endocrine functions of the body. 2. Where in the brain is the hypothalamus located? Located at the base of the brain in the anterior portion of the diencephalon. 3. Describe the structure of the hypothalamus. It consists of several groups of neurons called nuclei, each with specific functions. 4. What is the infundibulum? What is its function? The stalk-like infundibulum connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland, or hypophysis. 5. Where is the pituitary gland located? How is it divided? It sits within the hypophyseal fossa of the sphenoid bone, and is divided into anterior and posterior lobes. Each lobe of the pituitary gland interacts with the hypothalamus. 6. What is another name for the anterior pituitary? How is it connected to the hypothalamus? Adenohypophysis is connected to the hypothalamus by a blood vessel network known as the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system. 8. What is another name for the posterior pituitary? How is it connected to the hypothalamus? Neurohypophysis is connected to the hypothalamus by neurons that form the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract. Axons of these neurons transport hormones from the hypothalamus for storage in the posterior pituitary. 10. Name the two classes of hypothalamic hormones that regulate the anterior pituitary. How do they reach the anterior pituitary? What is their function? The two classes are releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones. These hormones reach the anterior pituitary via the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system and stimulate or suppress secretions of anterior pituitary hormones. 11. How do anterior pituitary hormones arrive at their target tissues? Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary then enter the bloodstream for distribution to their specific target tissues. 12. Describe an example of these hormones and their function. Thyrotropin-releasing
hormone secreted by the hypothalamus stimulates thyrotropic cells of the anterior pituitary to increase secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone, which then regulates activity of the thyroid gland.

13. Name the hormones produced by the posterior pituitary. What is the source of posterior pituitary hormones? The posterior pituitary produces no hormones of its own. Rather, neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus synthesize two hormones. 14. Name two posterior pituitary hormones. How do they arrive at the posterior pituitary? Antidiuretic hormone (aka ADH or vasopressin) and oxytocin-that are transported to the posterior pituitary via the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract.

Lab 1 Assignment-Lab Workbook (Chapter 12-Endocrine)

15. Name the structures that store the posterior pituitary hormones. What causes their release? Where are they released? These hormones are stored in nerve terminals in the posterior pituitary and released into the blood upon stimulation of the axons. 16. Name the functions of each posterior pituitary hormone. ADH acts on the kidneys to increase water retention from renal tubules; it also acts to constrict blood vessels. Oxytocin causes smooth muscle contraction in both the male and female reproductive tracts; it also stimulates milk ejection by the lactating mammary glands.

Animation: Hormonal Communication 1. In general, how does hormonal communication begin? What reaction then occurs? Hormonal communication begins with a part of the neuroendocrine system receiving sensory information and reacting by issuing a command to the body in the form of a hormone. 2. How are hormones transported to target cells? Via the bloodstream. 3. What occurs when the hormones arrive at their target cells? When hormone molecules reach target cells they will bind to matching receptors on those cells. 4. What then triggers changes in the target cells? The hormone-receptor complexes will trigger changes in the target cells. Intracellular Receptor Model 1. Describe aldosterone, the hormone used in the animation. Aldosterone is a lipidsoluble hormone that can easily diffuse through the plasma membrane. 3. Where does the aldosterone-receptor complex go, and where does it bind? Inside the cell, aldosterone binds with an aldosterone receptor molecule in the cytoplasm. The aldosterone-receptor complex moves into the nucleus and binds to DNA. 6. What is directed by this binding? What response is produced? The binding of the aldosterone-receptor complex to DNA stimulates the synthesis of messenger RNA, which codes for specific proteins. The messenger RNA moves from the nucleus into the cytoplasm and binds to ribosomes where it directs the synthesis of specific proteins. These proteins produce the response of the cell to aldosterone. Animation: Receptor and G proteins 1. What is located on the membrane-bound receptor on the outside of the cell? The membrane-bound receptor has a receptor site on the outside of the cell for a small signaling molecule called a ligand. 2. What is a ligand? Small signaling molecule. 3. To what does the portion of the membrane-bound receptor on the inside of the cell bind? The portion of the receptor on the inside of the cell can bind to the G protein, which consists of three subunits: gamma, beta, and alpha.
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Lab 1 Assignment-Lab Workbook (Chapter 12-Endocrine)

5. What changes occur in the G protein when the ligand binds to the receptor site? When the ligand binds to the receptor site on the outside of the cell membrane, the G protein changes conformation and separates from the membrane-bound receptor. What changes occur to the alpha subunit? Guanosine triphosphate replaces the guanosine diphosphate on the alpha subunit of the G protein. 7. What occurs when the ligand separates from the receptor site? When the ligand separates from the receptor site, additional G proteins are no longer activated.
The Hypothalamus, Pituitary, and Pineal Glands Exercise 12.1 Endocrine system-Hypothalamus/pituitary/pineal, lateral view Layer 4: A. Pineal Gland D. Pituitary gland Check Point: 1. Describe the structure of the hypothalamus. Its a collection of nuclei located inferior to the thalamus. Includes the infundibulum and mammillary bodies. 2. Name the functions of the hypothalamus. a. Considered master control center for endocrine system b. Secretes releasing and inhibiting hormones that control anterior pituitary gland c. Produces hormones that are transported to and stored in posterior pituitary gland d. Controls autonomic nervous system e. Regulates body temperature, food, and water intake f. Regulates emotional behavior g. Maintains sleep/wake cycle 3. Describe the size and location of the pineal gland. Located in the diencephalon (epithalamus). Its peas-sized endocrine gland. 4. Describe the location and structure of the pituitary gland. Lies midline of middle cranial fossa. Rests in sella turcica of sphenoid bone. Animation: Thyroid Gland 1. Name the largest endocrine gland. Describe its location and structure. The thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland. Located in the neck inferior to the larynx and anterior to the trachea, this butterfly-shaped gland has left and right lobes connected by a narrow band of thyroid tissue called the isthmus. 5. What are located in the loose connective tissue between the follicles? Which cells secrete hormones? Capillaries and parafollicular cells are located in the loose connective tissue between thyroid follicles. Parafollicular cells (also called C cells) secrete the hormone. B. Hypothalamus C. infundibulum of pituitary gland

Lab 1 Assignment-Lab Workbook (Chapter 12-Endocrine)

6. Name that hormone and its function. What is its antagonist? Calcitonin is involved in regulating calcium levels in body fluids. Calcitonin is the antagonist to parathyroid hormone. 7. Name the two different hormones referred to as thyroid hormone. Triiodothyronine (T3) and tetraiodothyronine (T4 or thyroxine). 8. Name the hormone that maintains TH synthesis and secretion. Where is this hormone secreted? Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary maintains TH synthesis and secretion. 9. What is contained in thyroglobulin? Numerous tyrosine amino acids. 14. Name the primary effect of TH. Describe its importance in children. The primary effect of TH is to maintain normal cellular metabolic activity. In children, TH is especially important for the growth and development of many tissues through stimulation of the pituitary gland to release growth hormone. 15. What is hyperthyroidism? What can result from this condition? Excess production of TH (hyperthyroidism) causes increased metabolic rate, which can lead to weight loss, hyperactivity, heat intolerance and goiter (or enlargement of the thyroid). 16. What is hypothyroidism? What can result from this condition? Insufficient TH production (hypothyroidism) results in low metabolic rate and resultant weight gain, sluggishness and sensitivity to cold temperatures. Exercise 12.5 Endocrine system-Thyroid gland, anterior view Layer 1: A. Surface projection of thyroid gland Layer 2: A. Pyramidal lobe of thyroid gland Non-endocrine system structures B. hyoid bone C. Omohyoid muscle Check Point: 1. Describe the structure of the thyroid gland. Bilobed endocrine gland. Composed of pyramidal and lateral lobes. Connected across midline by isthmus of gland. 2. What is the function of the thyroid gland? Synthesize and secrete thyroid hormones T3 (Triiodothyronine) or T4 (thyroxine) 3. What is the name for an enlarged thyroid gland? What is the cause of this condition? Enlarged thyroid gland known as a goiter, typically due to insufficient dietary iodine. Exercise 12.6 Endocrine system-thyroid gland, histology Check point: 1. Name the thyroid cells that produce calcitonin. What is the function of calcitonin? Its parafollicular cell of thyroid gland. Calcitonin lowers blood calcium levels. D. sternohyoid muscle E. Sternocleidomastoid muscle B. Surface projection of clavicle

Lab 1 Assignment-Lab Workbook (Chapter 12-Endocrine)

Animation: Parathyroid Glands 1. Describe the location of the parathyroid glands. How many are there? What arteries supply these glands? Its located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. There are usually four parathyroid glands, although the number varies between two and six. They are supplied by the inferior thyroid arteries. 2. Name the two types of parathyroid gland cells. What are their functions? Chief cells (or principal cells), which synthesize parathyroid hormone, and oxyphil cells, whose function is unknown. 3. What causes the release of PTH? PTH is secreted in response to low blood calcium levels. 4. How does PTH raise blood calcium levels? It promotes resorption of calcium from bone tissue; it increases resorption of calcium in the kidney so its not excreted in urine; and it stimulates synthesis in the kidney of the hormone calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D), which increases calcium absorption from the small intestine. 5. What are the symptoms that may result from hyperparathyroidism? It may lead to bone fractures due to reduced calcium, kidney stones, and psychological changes such as depression, muscular weakness, or even cardiac arrest if blood calcium levels are too high. 6. What is the most common cause of hypoparathyroidism? Inadvertent removal of the parathyroid glands during surgery of the thyroid gland. 7. What are the symptoms of hypoparathyroidism? Tingling in the fingers and limbs, muscle cramps, cardiac arrhythmia, tetany, which may result in death by asphyxiation. Exercise 12.7 Parathyroid gland, histology Checkpoint: 1. Name the most numerous functional cell type in the parathyroid gland. What hormone do they secrete? Chief cell of parathyroid gland; secret parathyroid hormone. 2. What is the function of this hormone? What hormone is an antagonist to this one? Hormone function is to raise blood calcium levels. Parathyroid hormone is antagonist to calcitonin. 3. Name the parathyroid cells that increase in number with age. Oxyphil cell. Animation: Pancreas 1. The organs of the endocrine system secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to assist in the regulation of various body functions. 2. Describe the location of the pancreas. Is it endocrine, exocrine, or both? Its situated between the duodenum of the small intestine and the spleen, inferior to the stomach. Its both an exocrine and endocrine gland. 3. The primary cells of the pancreas are exocrine acinar cells and their associated ducts. What do these cells secrete, and what is the function of these secretions? Organized in glandular clusters, pancreatic acini secrete enzyme-rich pancreatic juice via the pancreatic ducts into the duodenum to aid chemical digestion.

Lab 1 Assignment-Lab Workbook (Chapter 12-Endocrine)

4. Where are the endocrine cells of the pancreas located? What are they called? Scattered among the acini are small clusters of endocrine cells known as pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans. 5. Name the four types of cells located in the pancreatic islets. What type of substances do these cells release? Alpha, beta, delta and F cellsthey release hormones into the bloodstream. 6. Which cells are activated by declining blood glucose levels? What hormone do they release? What action does this hormone stimulate? When blood glucose levels decline, alpha cells secrete glucagon, a hormone that stimulates the liver to break down stored glycogen and release glucose into the bloodstream. 7. Which cells are activated by increasing blood glucose levels? What hormone do they release? What action does this hormone stimulate? When blood levels of glucose and amino acids rise, such as after a meal, beta cells secrete insulin. Insulin stimulates cells to absorb glucose and amino acids from the blood and to store excess nutrients. 8. Which cells release somatostatin? What actions does this hormone initiate? Delta cells synthesize somatostatin. This hormone inhibits the release of insulin and glucagon and slows the activities of digestive organs, thereby slowing the entry of nutrients into the bloodstream. 9. Which cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide? What is the function of this secretion? F cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide to suppress and regulate somatostatin secretion by delta cells. 10. What do these pancreatic hormones together provide for? Together, these pancreatic hormones provide for the orderly uptake and processing of nutrients. Exercise 12.8 Pancreas, anterior view Check point: 1. What is the exocrine function of the pancreas? Digestive enzymes (pancreatic juice) secreted by acinar cells and released into duodenum via pancreatic ducts. 2. What is the endocrine function of the pancreas? Regulation of glucose metabolism: hormones (insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin) secreted by pancreatic islet cells and released into blood. 3. Name two events that can result in diabetes mellitus. Reduction in insulin production or release by pancreatic islet cells can result in diabetes mellitus. Exercise 12.9 Pancreas (endocrine), histology Check point: 1. Name the clusters of cells that form the endocrine portion of the pancreas. Pancreatic islet. 2. Name the hormones produced by these cells. Produces four hormones: insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. 3. Where are these hormones secreted? Endocrine pancreas secretes hormones into bloodstream.

Lab 1 Assignment-Lab Workbook (Chapter 12-Endocrine)

Animation: Suprarenal (adrenal) Gland 1. The organs of the endocrine system secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to assist in the regulation of various body functions. 2. Describe the location of the suprarenal glands. Where do they receive their blood supply? Name the single vein that drains them. Theyre located on the superior pole of each kidney. These glands receive a rich blood supply from multiple arteries and are drained by a single suprarenal vein. 3. The suprarenal glands are composed of what two layers? An outer cortex and an inner medulla. 4. What are corticosteroids? Where are they synthesized? The cortex synthesizes more than 25 steroid hormones, known collectively as corticosteroids. 5. What are mineralocorticoids? Where are they synthesized? The zona glomerulosa is the thin, outer layer. Its cells synthesize mineralocorticoids, a group of hormones that help regulate electrolyte composition and concentration in body fluids. 6. What is the principal mineralocorticoid? What is its function? The principal mineralocorticoids is aldosterone, which helps regulate sodium and potassium ions in the blood and body fluids. 7. What are glucocorticoids? Where are they synthesized? The zona fasciculate is the thick middle layer of the cortex. It is composed of lipid-rich cells that secrete glucocorticoids. These hormones stimulate metabolism of lipids and proteins, help regulate glucose levels in the blood, and play a role in decreasing inflammation. 8. What are the two most common glucocorticoids? Cortisol and corticosterone 9. What are the adrenal sex hormones? Where are they synthesized? The zona reticularis is the deepest layer of the cortex. Its cells are arranged in irregular cords and produce adrenal sex hormones, including weak androgens and small amounts of estrogens. 10. Name the inner core of the suprarenal glands. What cells are located in large numbers there? The inner core, or medulla, of each suprarenal gland consists of large clusters of chromaffin cells. 11. What hormones are produced in this inner core area? What stimulates their release? What is their function? When stimulated by sympathetic neurons of the ANS, the medulla secretes the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine. Exercise 12.13 Ovary, superior view Check point: 1. Describe the structure of the female gonads. Paired, female gonad. Almond shape and size. Contains egg cells. 2. Name the hormones produced by the female gonads. Produces the female sex hormones progesterone, estrogen, and inhibin. 3. What change occurs in these structures after menopause? Size decreases after menopause.

Lab 1 Assignment-Lab Workbook (Chapter 12-Endocrine)

Exercise 12.14 Testis and spermatic cord, anterior view Check point: 1. Describe the structure of the male gonads. Paired, oval, male gonad. Dense outer capsule (tunica albuginea testis). Interior divided into 200-300 lobules. Each lobule contains at least 3 seminiferous tubules. 2. Name the hormones produced by the male gonads. Produces androgens (male sex hormones) such as testosterone. 3. What is the function of testosterone? Regulates hair pattern, sperm production, skeletomuscular growth, and libido. Exercise 12.16 Seminiferous tubule, histology Check point: 1. Name the structures responsible for testosterone production. Interstitial cells of testis. 2. What is another name for these cells? Leydig cells. In review: 1. The pituitary gland rests in what structure of which bone? Sella turcica of sphenoid bone 2. Name the fossa that surrounds the pituitary gland. Cranial fossa 3. Describe the structure and function of the mammillary body. Structure: paired, small, rounded projections. Site of hypothalamic-mammillary nuclear complex. Function: involved in regulation of autonomic functions, emotional behavior, and memory. 4. Name the cell that represents chromophil depleted of hormone. chromophobe 5. List the hormones released by the anterior pituitary gland. Thyroid-stimulating hormone, prolactin (PRL), adrenocorticotropic (ACTH), growth hormone (GH), luteinizing hormone (LH), melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), and follicle-stimulating-hormone (FSH) 6. List the hormones released by the posterior pituitary gland. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin (OT) 7. Name the function of the following hormones: T3 and T4 and calcitonin. T3: same as below, but five times more potent than thyroxine. T4: increases rate of energy release from carbohydrates; increases rate of protein synthesis; accelerates growth; stimulates activity in the nervous system. Calcitonin: lowers blood calcium and phosphate ion concentrations by inhibiting release of calcium and phosphate ions from bones and by increasing the rate at which calcium and phosphate ions are deposited in bones; increases excretion of calcium by the kidneys. 8. Which division of the ANS is responsible for the fight-or-flight response? What two hormones regulate this response? What is the origin of these hormones? When stimulated by sympathetic neurons of the ANS, the medulla secretes the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine.

Lab 1 Assignment-Lab Workbook (Chapter 12-Endocrine)

9. Name two disorders of suprarenal cortex hormone secretion. Addisons disease and cuhsings syndrome 10. Name the layer of the suprarenal gland responsible for mineralocorticoid production. Zona glomerulosa 11. Name the layer of the suprarenal gland responsible for glucocorticoid production. Zona fasciculata 12. In the following chart, list the hormones produced by the suprarenal gland, where they are produced, and their function. Adrenal Cortex Hormone Where produced Function (Mineralocorticoid) Zona glomerulosa It causes kidneys to conserve aldosterone sodium ions and water and to excrete potassium ions. By conserving sodium ions an water, it helps maintain blood volume and pressure. It inhibits protein synthesis, releases fatty acids, and stimulates glucose formation from noncarbohydrates. These hormones are of the male type although some can be converted into female hormones. They supplement the sex hormones produced by the gonads.

(Glucocorticoid) cortisol

Zona fasciculate

Adrenal sex hormones (androgens/estrogens)

Zona reticularis

Adrenal Medulla Hormone Epinephrine and norepinephrine

Where produced Chromaffin cells

Function They produce effects similar to those of the sympathetic nervous system.