E->Ec-Ed = Ionisation energy of the donor.

Nd->Number of donor atoms per unit volume of the material.

m*e→ Effective mass of an electron.
T→ Absolute temperature
10. Write an expression for carrier concentration of holes in the valence band of p-type
semiconductor.
The carrier concentration in p-type is given by

N=(2Na)1/2 (2𝜋m*eKT/h2)3/4 e-E/2KT

Where
E=(Ev-Ea) → ionisation energy of acceptor level
m*h→ Effective mass of hole
Na→ Number of acceptor atoms per unit volume of the material.
T→ Absolute temperature.

P
11. Define Hall-effect and Hall voltage.
When a conductor carrying a current (I) is placed in a transverse magnetic field (B), a potential

magnetic field.
AP
difference is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to the directions of the current and

This phenomenon is known as Hall-effect and the generated voltage is called Hall-voltage.
12. Mention the uses of Hall effect.
R
 It is used to find type of semiconductor.
 It is used to measure carrier concentration.
O

 It is used to find mobility of charge carrier. semiconductor sample of known Hall coefficient.
 It is used to measure the magnetic flux density using a semiconductor sample of known Hall
C

coefficient.
13. What are the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor?
U

S.NO Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

ST

1. Semiconductor in a pure form Semiconnductors which are doped with impurity is

is called intrinsic called extrinsic semiconductor.
semiconductor
2. Here, the charge carriers are Here, the charge carriers are produced due to
produced only due to thermal impurities.
agitation.
3. Examples: Si, Ge, etc. Examples: Si and Ge doped with Al, In, P, As etc.

14. What are the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor?
S.NO n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor
1. When a pentavalent impurity is When trivalent impurity is doped to intrinsic
doped to intrinsic semiconductor, n- semiconductor, p-type semiconductor is
type semiconductor is formed. formed.

2. The impurity is called donor impurity The impurity is called acceptor impurity since
since it donates electron. it accepts electron.

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 3. Majority charge carriers are Majority charge carrieers are holes
electrons.
4. Minority charge carriers are holes. Minority chare carriers are electrons.

15. What is a semiconductor?

Semiconductor is a special class of material which behaves like an insulator at 0 K and acts conductor
at temperature other Semiconductor is a special class of material which behaves than 0 K. Its
resistivity lies in between a conductor and an insulator.

16. Draw the energy level diagram of a semiconductor.

Energy Band diagram of a semiconductor

Conduction Band

P
E Small energy gap
AP } Eg

Valance band
R
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17. What is an intrinsic semiconductor?

Semiconductor in an extremely pure form (without impurities) is known as intrinsic semiconductor.
C

18. What is an extrinsic semiconductor?

A semiconducting material in which impurity atoms added (doped) to the material to modify its
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conductivity is known as extrinsic semiconductor or impurity semiconductor.

19. What is an n-type semiconductor?
ST

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it becomes

semiconductor and it is known as n-type semiconductor.
20. What is a p-type semiconductor?
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it becomes extrinsic
semiconductor impure semiconductor and it is called p-type semiconductor.
21. What is meant by doping and doping agent?
The technique of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as doping and the added
impurity is called doping agent.
22. Explain the concept of hole in semiconductor.
In intrinsic semiconductor, charge carriers are created due to breaking of covalent bonds. When a
covalent bond is broken, an electron escapes to the conduction band leaving behind an empty space in
the valence band. This missing electron is called a hole.
23. What is meant by donor energy level?
A pentavalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic semiconductor donates one electron which
produces an energy called donor energy level.
24. What is meant by acceptor energy level?

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 A trivalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic semiconductor accepts one electron which produces
an energy level called acceptor energy level.
25. Mention the uses of compound semiconductor.
They are used as photovoltaic materials, photoconductive cell, laser materials and for making LED
(Light Emitting Diode).
26. Define drift velocity.
When an electrical field is semiconducting material, the free charge carriers and holes attain drift
velocity ď.
The drift velocity attained by the carries is proportional to the electrical field strienght E.
i.e., d  E
d=µE
where µ is a proportionality constant and it is known as mobility of the charge carrier.
27. Define drift current.
The electric current produced due to the motion of charge carriers under the influence of an external
electric field is known as drift current.

P
28. Define diffusion current.
The non-uniform distribution of charge carriers creates the regions of uneven concentrations in the
semiconductor.
AP
The charge carriers move from the regions of higher concentration to the regions of lower
concentration. This process is known as diffusion. The current is known as diffusion current.

29. What is a Hall device?

R
The device which uses hall effect for its application is the as Hall device.
O

30. What are different types of Hall devices?

There are three types of Hall devices.
They are
C

(a) Gauss Meter

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(b) Electronic Multiplier

(c) Electronic Wattmeter
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31. What is a schottky diode?

It is a junction formed between a metal and n-type semiconductor.
When the metal has a higher work function than that of n-type semiconductor then the junction
formed is called schottky diode.
32. What are advantages of schottky diodes?
 In schottky diode, stored charges or depletion region is negligible. So a schottky diode has a very
low
 In schottky diode, the depleting region is negligible. So the schottky diode will immediately
switch from ON to OFF state (fast recovery time).
 The depletion region is negligible in schottky diode. So applying a small voltage is enough to
produce large current.
 It has high efficiency.
 It operates at high frequencies.
 It produces less noise.
33. What are the application of scholtky diode?
 Schottky diode can be used for rectification of signals of frequencies even exceeding 300 MHz.
 It is commonly used in switching device at frequencies of 20 GHz.
 It is used in radio frequency (RF) applications.

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  It is widely used in power supplies.
34. What are the differences between schottky diode and p-n diode?

S.NO Schottky Diode p-n diode

1. Forward current due to thermionic Forward current due to diffusion currents
emission (majority carrier transport) (majority carrier transport)
2. Reverse current only due to majority Reverse current due to minority carriers
carriers that overcome the barrier diffusing to the depletion layer and drifting to
(less temperature dependent) the other side (strong temperature
dependencies)
3. Cut-in voltage is small (about 0.3 V) Cut-in voltage is large (about 0.7V)

4. High switching speed, because of Switching speed limited by the recombination

majority carrier transport. No time of the injected minority carriers.
recombination time needed.

P
35. What is ohmic contact?
AP
An ohmic contact is a type of metal semiconductor junction. It is formed by a contact of a metal with
a heavily doped semiconductor.
When the semiconductor has a higher work function than that of metal, then the junction formed is
R
called Ohmic junction.
36. What are the uses if ohmic contact?
O

The use of ohmic contacts is to connect one semiconductor device to another, an IC, or to connect an
IC to its external terminals.
C

37. What are the differences between schottky diode ohmic contacts?
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S.NO Schottky Diode Ohmic contact

1. It acts as a rectifier It acts as a resistor
ST

2. Very low forward resistance but very Resistance is same in both forward and reverse
high reverse biased resistance bias
3. Work function of metal is greater Work function of metal is smaller than that of
than that of semiconductor semiconductor
m>semi m<semi
UNIT-3;MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1. On the basis of spin how the materials are classified as para, ferro, antiferro and ferri
magnetic.
 Paramagnetic materials have few unpaired electron spins of equal magnitudes.
 Ferro magnetic materials have many unpaired electron spins with equal magnitudes.
 Anti ferro magnetic materials have equal magnitude of spins but in antiparallel manner.
 Ferrimagnetic materials have spins in antiparallel manner but with unequal magnitudes.
2. What is Curie constant? or What is Curie law?
It is found that susceptibility (x) is inversely proportional to the temperature (T)
  1/T
=C/T
where C is constant and it is known as Curie constant. This relation is known as Curie law.

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 3. State Curie Weiss law and its importance.
Curie - Weiss law is given by

x=C/T-θ

where C → Curie constant

T→ Absolute temperature
→ Curie temperature
Importance: It determines the susceptibility of the magnetic materials in terms of temperatures i.e., If
the temperature is less than curie temperature, a paramagnetic material becomes diamagnetic.
If the temperature is greater than Curie Temperature, a ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic
material.

4.What is ferromagnetism?
Certain materials like Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni) certain alloys exhibit spontaneous
magnetization i.e., they are a small amount of magnetisation (atomic moments are aligned) even in the

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absence of an external magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as ferromagnetism.
5. What are ferromagnetic materials?
AP
The materials which exhibit ferromagnetism are called as ferromagnetic materials.
6. What are the properties of ferromagnetic materials?
 All the dipoles are aligned parallel to each other due to the magnetic interaction between any two
dipoles.
R
 They have permanent dipole moment. They attract the magnetic field strongly.
 They exhibit magnetisation even in the absence of magnetic field. This property of ferromagnetic
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materials is called as spontaneous magnetisation.

C

7. What is domain theory of ferromagnetism?

According to domain theory, a specimen of ferromagnetic material consists of a number of regions or
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domains which are spontaneously magnetized due to parallel alignment of all magnetic dipoles. The
direction of spontaneous magnetisation varies from domain to domain.
ST

8. Mention the energies involved in origin of domains in ferromagnetic material.

(i) Magnetostatic energy
(ii) Crystalline energy
(iii) Domain wall energy
(iv) Magnetostriction energy.
9. What is antiferromagnetism?
In anti-ferromagnetism, electron spin of neighbouring atoms are aligned antiparallel. Anti-
ferromagnetic susceptibility is small and positive and it depends greatly on temperature.
10. State the applications of ferrites.
• They are used in transformer cores for high frequencies upto microwaves.
• They are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity and selectivity of the receiver.
• Ferrites are used in digital computers and data processing circuits as magnetic storage elements.
• They are used as an isolator, gyrator and circulator which are used in microwave devices.
11. What are soft magnetic materials?
Materials which are easy to magnetise and demagnetise are called soft magnetic materials.
12.State the properties of soft magnetic material.
 They have high permeability
 They have low coercive force.

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  They have low hysteresis loss.
13.Mention few sift magnetic materials and their applications.
Soft magnetic materials:
(i) Pure or ingot iron
(ii) Cast iron (carbon above 2.5%)
(iii) Carbon steel
Applications:
 Cast iron is used in the structure of electrical machinery and frame work of d.c.machine.
 Carbon steel has high mechanical strength used in making motor of turbo alternators.
14. What are hard magnetic materials? (A.U. June 2010)
Materials which retain their magnetism and are difficult to demagnetise are called hard magnetic
materials.
15. State the properties of hard magnetic materials.
 They possess high value of B-H product
 They have high retentivity.
 They have high coercivity.

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 They have low permeability.

AP
16. Mention few hard magnetic materials and their application.
 Tungsten steel contains 4.5 to 6% tungsten, 0.5 to 0.7% tungsten and remaining is iron.
 Cobalt steel contains 34% cobalt, 5% chromium 3.5 to 6% carbon and the remaining is iron.
Applications:
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 Tungsten steel is used in making permanent magnets for dynamos, motor.
 Cobalt steel is used in motor, fans and heavy duty instruments.
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17. Differentiate soft and hard magnetic materials. (A.U. April 2008, Jan 2009)
C

S.NO Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials

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1. Magnetic materials can be easily Magnetic materials cannot be

magnetised and easily magnetised and demagnetised.
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Demagnetised.
2. They have high permeability They have low permeability.
3. Magnetic energy stored is Magnetic energy stored is high.
low.
4. Low hysteresis loss due to small High hysteresis loss due to large hysteresis
hysteresis loop area loop area.

18. What are ferrimagnetic materials.

Materials which exhibit ferrimagnetism are called ferrimagnetic materials. They are also known as
ferrites.
19. Mention the properties of ferrimagnetic materials.
(i) These are the ferromagnetic materials in which equal number of opposite spins with different
magnitudes such that the orientation of neighbouring spins is in antiparallel manner.
(ii) Susceptibility is positive and very large for these materials.

20.Why ferrites are advantageous for use as transformer cores?

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 Ferrites are used as transformer cores for frequencies upto microwaves. This is because the eddy
current which prevents the penetration of magnetic flux into the material is very much less in ferrites
than in iron.
21What is saturation magnetisation?
The maximum magnetisation in a ferromagnet when all atomic magnetic moments are aligned is
called saturation magnetization.
22. What are the required magnetic parameters for recording?
The basic parameters required for recording are
(i) Electromagnetic induction should occur in materials.
(ii) The material should easily acquire magnetism.
(iii) It should possess magneto-resistance i.e., the electrical resistance should vary with
respect to the magnetisation.
(iv) Soft magnets should be used for temporary storage and hard magnets should be used for
permanent storage.
23. What is Bohr magneton?
The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an atom can be

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expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment called Bohr magneton.
1 Bohr Magneton = eħ/2m= eh/4m
1 B = 9.27 x 10-24 Am2
24. What is Giant magnetoresistance?
AP
It is a quantum mechanical magnetoresistance effect observed in multilayers composed of alternating
ferromagnetic and non-magnetic conductive layers.
R
The effect is observed as a significant change in the electrical resistance depending on whether the
magnetization of adjacent ferromagnetic layers are in a parallel or an antiparallel alignment. The overall
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resistance is relatively low for parallel aligment and relatively high for antiparallel alignment.
The magnetization direction can be controlled, for example, by applying an external magnetic field.
The effect is based on the dependence of electron scattering on the spin orientation.
C

25. Mention application of GMR.

The main application of GMR is magnetic field sensors, which are used to read data in hard disk drives,
U

biosensors, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and other devices. GMR multilayer structures
are also used in magnetoresistive random-access memory (MRAM) as cell that store one bit of
ST

information.
UNIT-4; OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS.
1. What are optical materials?
The materials which are sensitive to light are known as Optical materials.These optical materials
exhibit a variety of optical properties.
2. What are the type of optical materials?
Generally, optical materials are classified into three types based on the nature of propagation of light
namely,
(i) Transparent
(ii) Translucent
(iii) Opaque
3. Define scattering of light.
It is a process by which the intensity of the wave attenuates as it travels through a medium.
4. Define carrier generation and recombination.

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 The carrier generation is the process whereby electrons and holes are created. The recombination is
the process whereby electrons and holes are annihilated.
5. What are types of carrier generations?
(i) Photogeneration
(ii) Phonon generation
(iii) Impact ionization
6. What are types of recombination process?
(a). Radiative Recombination
(b) Shockley-Read-Hall Recombination
(c) Auger Recombination
7. What is photo diode?
It is a reverse biased P-N junction diode which responds to light absorption.

P
8. What is the basic principle of photo diode?

AP
When light is incident on the depletion region of the reverse-biased pn junction, the concentration of
minority carriers increases. Therefore, reverse saturation current increases.
9. What is solar cell?
R
It is a P-N junction diode which converts solar energy (light energy) into electrical energy.
10. What is LED?
O

It is a p-n junction diode which emits light when it is forward biased.

C

11. What is the basic principle behold LED?

U

The injection of electrons into the p- region from n- region makes a direct transition from the
conduction band to valence band. Then, the electrons recombine with holes and emits photons of
energy Eg
ST

The forbidden gap energy is given by

Eg = h
12. What are the advantages of LEDs?
 LEDs are smaller in size. A number of LEDs can be stacked together in a small space to form
numerical display. second (10 second). So, they are known as fast devices.
 LED's can be turned ON and OFF in less than 1 nano second (10-9 second). So, they are known as
fast devices.
 Variety of LEDs are available which emit light different colours like red, green, yellow etc.
 Light modulation can be achieved with pulse supply.
 It has long life time.
 It has low drive voltage and low noise.
 It is easily interfaced to digital logic circuits.
 It can be operated over a wide range of temperatures.
13. What are the disadvantages of LEDs?
 They require high power.
 Their preparation cost is high when compared to LCD.

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 14. What are the applications uses of LEDs?
 Because of their miniature size, they are widely used in numeric and alphanumeric display
devices.
 They are used as indicator lamps.
 They are used as light sources in fiber-optic communication system.
 Infrared LEDs are used in burglar alarms.
 They are used in image sensing circuits used for picture phone.
15. What is an organic light emitting diodes?
Organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) are solid state devices made up of thin films of organic
molecules that produce light with the application of electricity.
16. What are advantages of OLED?
 OLED's are tough enough to use in portable devices such as cellular phones, digital video
cameras, DVD players,car audio equipment etc.,
 Can be viewed up to 160 degrees.


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High information applications including videos and graphics (Active matrix)
 OLEDs are paper-thin.



AP
Upto 20% to 50% cheaper than LCD processes. .They hold the ability to handle streamlined
video, which could revolutionize the display and cellular phone market.
Takes less power.
17.What are drawbacks of OLED?
R
 The biggest technical problem for OLEDs is the limited lifetime of the organic materials.
 The intrusion of water into displays can damage or destroy the organic materials.
O

 Color - The reliability of the OLED is still not upto the mark. After a month of use, the screen
becomes non-uniform.
C

18. What are the applications of OLED?

U

 OLED technology is used in commercial applications such as small screens for mobile phones
and portable digital audio players (MP3 players), car radios, digital cameras and high-resolution
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micro displays for head-mounted displays.

 They can be used in television screens, computer displays, advertising, information and
indication.
 OLEDs can also be used in light sources for general space illumination and large-area light-
emitting elements.
19. What is a laser diode?
It is a specially fabricated pn junction diode. This diode emits laser light when it is forward - biased.
20. What are the advantages of Laser diodes?
 This laser is very small in size and compact.
 It has high efficiency.
 The laser output can be easily increased by increasing the junction current.
 It is operated with less power than ruby and CO2 lasers.
 It requires very little additional equipment.
 It emits a continuous wave output or pulsed output.
21. What are the applications of Laser diodes?
• Used in fibre optic communication.

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 • Used in various measuring devices such as range finders, bar-code readers.
• Used in printing industry both as light sources for scanning images and for resolution printing plate
manufacturing.
• Infrared and red laser diodes are common in CD players, CD-ROM and DVD technology. Violet
lasers are used in HD - DVD and Blue-ray technology.
• High power laser diodes are used in industrial applications such as heat treating, cladding, seam
welding and for pumping other lasers.
• Used in laser medicine especially, dentistry.
22. What is the principle of CD?
The principle of CD is that the data (Audio/video/text etc.) be stored is first converted into binary
form as Os and Is.
It is then stored in the form of reflecting and non-reflecting micro-points in spiral path on a disc.
During the read-out process, variation in the reflected intensity of laser is converted back to data.

P
23. What are advantages of optical dics?
The optical discs have several advantages over semiconductor memories. Some of these include their
AP
larger data storage capacity, shorter access time size. Therefore, they are used in terminal equipment
of computers as well as in audio visual equipment.

UNIT-5; Nano Devices and Quantum Computing

R
1. Define nano materials.
Nanophase materials are newly developed materials with grain size at the nanometre range (10 -9 m),
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i.e., in the order of 1 - 100 nm. The particle size in a nano material is 1 - 100 nm.
C

2. What is a quantum confinement?

It is a process of reduction of the size of the solid such that the energy levels inside become discrete.
U

3. What is quantum structure?

ST

When a bulk material is reduced in its size, atleast one of its dimension, in the order of few
nanometres, then the structure is known as quantum structure.
4. What is quantum size-effect?
When the size of a nanocrystal becomes smaller than the deBroglie wavelength, electrons and holes
get spatially confined, electrical dipoles get generated, the discrete energy levels are formed.
As the size of the material decreases, the energy separation between adjacent levels increases. The
density of states of nanocrystals is positioned in between discrete (as that of atoms and molecules) and
continuous (as in crystals).
Quantum size effect is most significant for semiconductor nanoparticles.
5. What is single electron phenomena?
Present day, transistors require 10,000 electrons. Rather than moving many electrons through
transistors, it may very well be practical and necessary to move electrons one at a time. The
phenomena in known as single electron phenomena.
6. Define Coulomb - Blockade effect.

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 The charging effect which blocks the injection or rejection of a single charge into or from a quantum
dot is called Coulomb blockade effect.
7. What is single electron tunneling?
The quantization of charge can dominate and tunneling of single electrons across leaky capacitors
carries the current. This is called single electron tunneling.
8. What is a Single Electron Transistor?
SET is three-terminal switching devices which can transfer electrons from source to drain one by one.
9. What are the advantages of single electron transistor?
 The fast information transfer velocity between cells (almost near optic velocity) is carried out via
electrostatic interactions only.
 No wire is needed between arrays. The size of each cell can be as small as 2.5 nm. This made
them very suitable for high density memory.
 This can be used for the next generation quantum computer.

P
10. What are the limitations of single electron transistor?
 In order to operate SET circuit at room temperature, the size of the quantum dot should be smaller


than 10 nm.
AP
It is very hard to fabricate by traditional optical lithography and semiconductor process.
individual structures into logic circuits and these circuits.
 The methods must be developed for connecting the must be arranged into larger 2D patterns.
R
11. What are the applications of single electron Transistor?
• A variety of digital logic functions, including AND or NOR gates, is obtained based on SET
O

operating at room temperature.

C

• It is used for mass data storage.

• It is used in highly sensitive electrometer.
U

• SET can be used as a temperature probe, particularly in the range of very low temperatures.
ST

• SET is a suitable measurement set-up for single electron spectroscopy.

• It is used for the fabrication of a homo-dyn receiver operating at frequencies between 10 and 300
MHz.
12. What is Quantum Cellular Automata?
Quantum Cellular Automata CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide semiconductor) technology has a
lot of limitations while scaling into a nano-level.
In order to improve the performance of a system, new nano-technology approach should be taken into
account. The QCA technology is a perfect replacement of CMOS technology without any limitations.
13. What are the advantages of QCA?
• It is "edge driven," meaning an input is brought to an edge of a QCA block. (ie it is evaluated and
output at another edge). This also means that no power lines need be routed internally.
• The QCA systems should be very low power system because there is no current flowing. Only
enough energy needs to add to lift the electrons from their ground states to higher states.
 The QCA cells are very small.
14. Define Hilber space.

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 Hilbert space is defined as an infinite-dimensional vector space with an inner product and its
associated norm.
 a00+11+…+1i+…+n-1n-1
15. Define Clasical Bits.
Classical bit is an abstraction of a physical system, anyone of two states, either '0' or '1'. Hence it can
take the value 0 or 1. The bit is a smaller and simpler physical system It requires less energy to
speedily process information and to store it. The physical system of bit is at atomic or subatomic
level.
16. What is a qubit?
A qubit is a mathematical model of microscopic physical system such as the spin of electron or the
polarization of a photon. It also exists in a common intermediate states or
superposition states.
17. What are the difference between bits and qubits?
S.No Bits Qubits
1. The device computes by manipulating The device computes by manipulating those

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those bits/manipulating those bits with bits with the help of quantum logic gates.
the help of logical with gates (AND, OR,

2.
NOT).

A classical computer has a memory made

AP
A qubits (quantum bitts) can hold a one, a zero
up of bits where each bit hold either a or crucially a superposition of there.
one or zero.
R
3. Bits are used in classical computers. Qubits (Quantum bits) are used in quantum
computer.
O

4. Information is stored in bits which take Information is stored in quantum bits, or qubits.
discrete values 0 and 1 A qubit can be in states labelled 0 and 1, but
C

it can also be in a superposition of these states,

a0 and b1, where a and b are complex
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numbers. If we think of the state of a qubit as a

vector,, then superposition of states is just
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vector addition.
5. Processing of Bits are slow. Processing of Qubits are faster.
6. Its circuit behaviour is based on classical Its circuit behaviour is based on quantum
physics. mechanics.
18. Define Bloch Sphere.
The Bloch sphere representation is useful in understanding the qubits. It provides a geometric picture
of the qubit and of the transformations takes on the state of a qubit.
19. Define one-qubit quantum gates.
A one-qubit gate transforms an input qubit
|) = |0) +  | 1)) into an output qubit
| ) =  |0) + 1' | 1).
Mathematically, a gate G is represented by a 2 × 2 transfer matrix with complex entries.

20. What are advantages of quantum computing over classical computing?

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 The quantum computers can solve the complex mathematical problems. Traditional computers find
impossible to solve in a practical time frame.
The computing power is sufficient to process excessively large amounts of data (2.5 Exabyte daily i.e.
equal to 5 million laptops)
Due to the teleportation phenomenon known as 'quantum tunneling,' it can work in parallel. It uses
less amount of electricity, hence, reducing the power consumption upto 100 to 1000 times.
A computer is "thousands of times" faster than any classical computer.
It can work without being overheated. (since for its stability it kept cold upto 0.2 Kelvin inside the
quantum system).
It can easily solve optimization problems such as finding the best route and scheduling trains and
flights.
The quantum effect is made to reduce the size of electronic devices.
The simulation efficiency is high in quantum computers than in classical computers.

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21. What are the disadvantages of quantum computing?

AP
Due to advancements in quantum computers, the security of the existing Internet of Things (IoT)
would fall down. Cryptographic techniques, Databases of defense systems can be hacked. Considering
these facts, government and private large organizations, banks, and quantum computers can be terrible
for our future.
The Quantum Computers will work as a different Since, classical computers are better at some places
R
device and cannot replace classical computers entirely. than quantum computers like email, excel, etc.
O

It has not been invented completely yet as only parts are being implemented and people are still
imaging how it would look.
C

It is very delicate and error-prone. Any kind of vibrations affects subatomic particles like atoms and
electrons. Due to which noise, faults, and even failures are possible. It leads to "Decoherence" which
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is a loss of coherence in quantum.

Quantum processors are very unstable and are very hard to test even. For the stability of the quantum
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computer, it is kept at 0.2 Kelvin (absolute Kelvin) which is nearly below the inverse temperature.
22. Define nano materials.?
Nanophase materials are newly developed materials with grain size at the nanometre range (10 -9 m),
i.e., in the order of 10-9m . The particle size in a nano material is 1 - 100 nm.
23. Define density of states.?
It is defined as the number of available electron states per unit volume in an energy interval E and E
+dE. It is denoted by Z (E).
24. Define Fermi energy.?
It is defined as the highest energy level occupied by theelectron at OK in metal
25. What is a quantum confinement?
It is a process of reduction of the size of the solid suchthat the energy levels inside become discrete.
26. What is quantum structure?
When a bulk material is reduced in its size, atleast one of its dimension, in the order of few
nanometres, then the structure is known as quantum structure.

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 27. What is quantum size-effect?
When the size of a nanocrystal becomes smaller than the deBroglie wavelength, electrons and holes
get spatially confined, electrical dipoles get generated, the discrete energy levels are formed.
As the size of the material decreases, the energy separation between adjacent levels increases. The
density of states of nanocrystals is positioned in between discrete (as that of atoms and molecules) and
continuous (as in crystals).
Quantum size effect is most significant for semiconductor nanoparticles.
28. What is single electron phenomena?
Present day, transistors require 10,000 electrons. Rather than moving many electrons through
transistors, it may very well be practical and necessary to move electrons one at a time. The
phenomena in known as single electron phenomena.
29. Define Coulomb - Blockade effect.
The charging effect which blocks the injection or rejection of a single charge into or from a quantum

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dot is called Coulomb blockade effect.
30. What is single electron tunneling?

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The quantization of charge can dominate and tunneling of single electrons across leaky capacitors
carries the current. This is called single electron tunneling.
31. What is a Single Electron Transistor?
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Single Electron Transistor (SET) is three-terminal switching devices which can transfer electrons
from source to drain one by one.
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32. What are the advantages of single electron transistor?

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The fast information transfer velocity between cells (almost near optic velocity) is carried out via
electrostatic interactions only.
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No wire is needed between arrays. The size of each cell can be as small as 2.5 nm. This made them
very suitable for high density memory.
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This can be used for the next generation quantum computer.

33. What are the limitations of single electron transistor?
In order to operate SET circuit at room temperature, the size of the quantum dot should be smaller
than 10 nm.
It is very hard to fabricate by traditional optical lithography and semiconductor process.
The methods must be developed for connecting the individual structures into logic circuits and these
circuits must be arranged into larger 2D patterns.
34. What are the applications of single electron Transistor?
A variety of digital logic functions, including AND r NOR gates, is obtained based on SET operating
at room temperature.
It is used for mass data storage.
It is used in highly sensitive electrometer.
SET can be used as a temperature probe, particularly in the range of very low temperatures. • SET is a
suitable measurement set-up for single electron spectroscopy.

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 It is used for the fabrication of a homo-dyn receiver operating at frequencies between 10 and300
MHz.
35. What is a carbon nano tube?
The carbon nanotubes are the wires of pure carbon like rolled sheets of graphite or like soda straws.
36. What are the types of carbon nano tube structure?
Three types of nanotube structures are considered by rolling a graphite sheet with different
orientations about the axis.
They are
(i) Armchair structure
(ii) Zig-zag structure
(iii) Chiral structure
37. How carbon nanotubes are classified Based on the number of layers, the carbon nanotubes

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are classified as
(i) Single-walled (SWNTs)
(ii) Multi-walled (MWNTs).
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In multi-walled nanotubes, more than one CNTs are coaxially arranged.
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