Chapter 4 Sensors
Chapter 4 Sensors
Chapter 4 Sensors
Conditioning
Ch:5
Mechanical Sensors
Displacement, Location
Or Position Sensors
Applications :
Potentiometer
Advantage:
1.Easy to use
2.Low cost
3. Proven technology
4.High-amplitude output signal
Disadvantage:
1.Noticeable mechanical load(friction)
2.Low speed
3.Friction and excitation voltage cause heating of the
potentiometer
4.Low environmental stability.
Capacitive and inductive sensors
The basic operation of a capacitive sensor can be seen from the familiar
equation for a parallel-plate capacitor
𝐴𝜇𝑁2
L= 𝑙
µ=µr µ0
where,
For a certain force, the object atoms rearrange themselves again to come into equilibrium with
the new set of forces. This rearrangement will change Physical dimensions that is referred to as
deformation of the solid.
Tensile stress-strain
Where F = applied force in N
A = cross-sectional area of the sample in 𝑚2
We see that the units of stress are N/𝑚2 in the SI units
(or lb/𝑖𝑛2 in the English units ) and they are like a pressure.
The strain in this case is defined as the fractional change in length of the sample:
Where ∆l= change in length in m (in)
I= original lentgh in m (in)
Strain is thus a untiless quantity.
Strain and stress
Compressional stress-strain
The only differences between compressional and tensile stress are the direction of
the applied force and the polarity of the change in length.
Thus , in a compressional stress , the force presses in on the sample, as shown in
Figure b.
The compressional stress is defined as in Equation:
𝐹
Compressional stress = 𝐴
The resulting strain is also defined as the fractional change in length as in Equation,
but simple will now decrease in length.
∆𝑙
Compressional strain = 𝑙
Strain and Stress
Shear stress-strain
The force is applied as a couple (that is , not along the same line), tending to shear
off the solid object that separates the force arms.
In the case , the stress is again
𝐹
Shear stress = 𝐴
Where F= force in N
A= cross-sectional area of sheared member in 𝑚2
Strain and Stress
Shear stress-strain
The strain in this case is denned as the fractional change in dimension of the
sheared member.
∆𝒙
Shear strain = 𝒍
where ∆𝒙 = deformation in m
l = width of a sample in m
Strain and Stress
1- This graph shows that the relationship between stress and strain is linear
over some range of stress. If the stress is kept within the linear region, the
material is essentially elastic in that if the stress is removed , the
deformation is also gone.
Strain and stress Curve
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹/𝐴
E=𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝑙/𝑙
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹/𝐴
M= =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑥/𝑙
𝐹/𝐴
E=
∆𝑙/𝑙
So that
𝐹
Strain=
𝐸𝐴
3
10 𝑁
=
(4x 10−4 𝑚2 ) (6.89 x 1010 N/𝑚2 )
∆𝑅/𝑅
Gage Factor is expressed in equation form as: GF=
∆𝐿/𝐿
Strain Gauge
R0 =
Measurement Principles
The basic technique of strain gauge (SG) measurement involves attaching
(gluing) a metal wire or foil to the element whose strain is to be measured.
As stress is applied and the element deforms, the SG material experiences
the same deformation, if it is securely attached. Because strain is a
fractional change in length, the change in SG resistance reflects the strain of
both the gauge and the element to which it is secured.
R(T)=R(T0)(1+µ0DT)
Or
DRT = R0µDT
Where DRT= resistance change because of temperature change
µ0 @0.004/˚C in this case
DT@ 1˚C in this case
R(T0)= 120 W nominal resistance
Then, we find DRT= 0.48 W , which is twice the change because of strain! Obviously,
temperature effects can mask the strain effects we are trying to measure. Fortunately,
we are able to compensate for temperature and other effects, as shown in the signal
conditioning methods in the next section.
Metal Strain Gauges
Gauge Factor
The relation between strain and resistance change is only approximately true.
Impurities in the metal, the type of metal , and other factors lead to slight corrections.
An SG specification always indicates the correct relation through statement of a gauge
factor (GF) , which is defined as
∆𝑹/𝑹
GF=
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Where DR/R = fractional change in gauge resistance because of strain
Strain = Dl/l = fractional change in length
For metal gauges, this number is always close to 2. For some special alloys and carbon
gauges, the GF may be as large as 10. A high gauge factor is desirable because it
indicates a larger change in resistance for a given strain and is easier to measure.
Strain Gauge
Metal Strain Gauge Conditioning
Metal Strain Gauges
Signal Conditioning
The bridge circuit provides the answer to both effects.
1- The sensitivity of the bridge circuit for detecting small changes in resistance is well
known.
2-Using a dummy gauge as shown in Figure a, we can provide the required temperature
compensation. In particular, the dummy is mounted in an insensitive orientation but in
the same proximity as the active SG. Then, both gauges change in resistance from
temperature effects, but the detector does not respond to a change in both strain
gauges. Only the active SG responds to strain effects. This is called a one-arm bridge.
Strain gauges are used in pairs to provide temperature compensation. In some cases,
such as this, only one gauge actually deforms during stress.
Metal Strain Gauges
The sensitivity of this bridge to strain can be found by consideration of the equation
for bridge offset voltage. Suppose R1 =R2 = RD= R, which is the nominal unstrained
gauge resistance. Then, the active strain gauge resistance will be given by
∆𝑅
RA = R (1+ )
𝑅
With no strain, the bridge is balanced. When the strain as applied, the gauge
resistance will change by a value given by
∆𝑅/𝑅
GF = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Thus,
DR = (GF)(Strain)(R)
DR = (2.03)(1.45 x 10−3 )(350)
DR = 1.03 W
Thus, the new resistance R = 351 O. The bridge offset voltage is
Metal Strain Gauges
(351)(10)
Thus, ∆V = 5 -
701
∆V = -0.007 V
10 ∆𝑙 ∆𝑙
∆V = - (2.03) = -10.15
2 𝑙 𝑙
The use of semiconductor material, notably silicon, for strain gauge (SG)
application has increased over the past few years. There are presently several
disadvantages to these devices compared to the metal variety, but numerous
advantages for their use.
Semiconductor strain gauges
Principles
As in the case of the metal SGs, the basic effect is a change of resistance with strain.
In the case of a semiconductor , the resistivity also changes with strain, along with
the physical dimensions.
Gauge Factor
The semiconductor device gauge factor (GF) is still given by Equation
∆𝑅/𝑅
GF = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
However, the value of the semiconductor gauge factor varies between -50 and -200
Thus, resistance changes will be factors of from 25 to 100 times those available with
metal SGs. It must also be noted, however, that these devices are highly nonlinear in
resistance versus strain.
In other words, the gauge factor is not a constant as the strain lakes place.
Thus, the gauge factor may be -150 with no strain,
But drop (nonlinearly) to -50 at 5000 mm/m.
The resistance change will be nonlinear with respect to strain.
To use the semiconductor strain gauge to measure strain,
we must have a curve or table of values of gauge factor versus resistance.
Applications
Solution