General Vector Space

General vector space
General vector space 1 / 47

Goals
1 Introduce vector spaces in full generality, abstract vector space

2 Revisit some concepts such as combination, subspace, spanning,
linear independence, dimension in general vector space

Vector space Rn
Table of contents
1 Vector space Rn
2 General vector space
3 Subspace and Spanning Set

Subspace
Linear combination and spanning set
4 Linear Independence and Dimension

Linear Independence
Bases and Dimension
5 Finite Dimension Spaces

Vector space Rn
Vector space (Rn , +, .)

Definition (Vector space Rn )
Set of all n - vector with addition and scalar multiplication is a vector
space, called vector space Rn
Properties
For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any numbers (scalars) a, b, we have
1 u+v=v+u
2 (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
3 u+0=0+u=u
4 u+ (-u) = 0
5 a(u + v) = au + av
6 (a + b)u = au + bu
7 a(bu) = (ab)u
8 1u = u
Table of contents
1 Vector space Rn

Subspace

Linear Independence
Bases and Dimension

A real vector space is a set V of elements on which we have two

operation ⊕ and ⊙ defined with the following properties:
For any vectors u, v, w ∈ V and any numbers a, b, we have
1 u ⊕ v = v ⊕ u
2 (u ⊕ v) ⊕ w = u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
3 u ⊕ 0 = 0 ⊕ u = u
4 There exist a vector −u such that u ⊕ (−u) = 0
5 a ⊙ (u ⊕ v) = a ⊙ u ⊕ a ⊙ v
6 (a + b) ⊙ u = au ⊕ bu
7 a ⊙ (b ⊙ u) = (ab) ⊙ u
8 1 ⊙ u = u

The elements of V are called vectors

The elements in the set of real numbers are called scalar
The operation ⊕ is called vector addition
the operation ⊙ is called scalar multiplication.
The vector −u in property 4 is called a negative of u

Example
The set of all real numbers with ⊕ as the usual addition of real numbers
and ⊙ as the usual multiplication of real numbers is a vector space.
Example
The set Mmn of all m × n matrices is a vector space using matrix addition
and scalar multiplication. Vector 0 is a m × n zeros matrix

Example
h i
Let Rn be the set of all 1 × n matrix a1 a2 . . . an and define ⊕ by
h i h i h i
a1 a2 . . . an + b1 b2 . . . bn = a1 + b1 a2 + b2 . . . an + bn
and define ⊙ by
h i h i
c ⊙ a1 a2 . . . an = ca1 ca2 . . . can
then Rn is a vector space

Example
The set P of all polynomials is a vector space with the foregoing addition
and scalar multiplication.
(Addition) If p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . and
q(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + . . . then
p(x) + q(x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + (a2 + b2 )x2 + . . .
( Scalar multiplication)
cp(x) = ca0 + ca1 x + ca2 x2 + . . .
for any real number c
Two polynomial p(x) and q(x) are equal if p(x) = q(x) for all x. This
happens if and only if ai = bi for all i.
Vector 0 is a polynomial with all zero coefficient
Example
The set
Pn = {a0 + a1 x + n · · · + an xn }
of all polynomials whose degree is at most n is a vector space with the
foregoing addition and scalar multiplication.
(Addition) If p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn and
q(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bn xn then
p(x) + q(x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + (a2 + b2 )x2 + · · · + (an + bn )xn
( Scalar multiplication)
cp(x) = ca0 + ca1 x + ca2 x2 + · · · + can xn
for any real number c

Denote P[a, b] is a set of all function on [a, b]

Two functions f and g in F[a, b] are equal if f (x) = g(x) for all
x ∈ [a, b]
Define the sum f + g and scalar product cf by
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) ∀x ∈ [a, b]
(cf )(x) = cf (x) ∀x ∈ [a, b]
called pointwise addition and scalar multiplication
Example
The set F(a, b) with pointwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector
space. The vector 0 is a constant function denoted by 0 and defined by
0(x) = 0 ∀x ∈ [a, b]
The negative of function f , denoted by −f is given by
(−f )(x) = −f (x) ∀x ∈ [a, b]

Cancellation rule
Let u, v, w be vectors in a vector space V . If
v+u=v+w
then by adding both sides by −v, we have
−v + v +u = −v
| {z }
+ v +w
| {z }
0 0
thus
u=w

Example
Let u, v, w be vectors in a vector space V . Simplify the expression
2(u + 3w) − 3(2w − v) − 3[2(2u + v − 4w) − 4(u − 2w)]

Subspace and Spanning Set
Table of contents
1 Vector space Rn

Subspace

Linear Independence
Bases and Dimension

Subspace and Spanning Set Subspace
Subspace
Definition
If V is a vector space, a nonempty subset U ⊂ V is called a subspace of V
if U is itself a vector space using the addition and scalar multiplication of
V

Subspace
Definition
If V is a vector space, a nonempty subset U ⊂ V is called a subspace of V
if U is itself a vector space using the addition and scalar multiplication of
V
Subspace Test
A subset U of a vector space is a subspace of V if and only if it satisfies
the following three conditions:
1 0 lies in U where 0 is the zero vector of V .
2 u1 and u2 are in U ,then u1 + u2 is also in U .
3 If u is in U , then au is also in U for each scalar a.

Example
If V is any vector space, then {0} and V are subspaces of V .
Example
The set U of all polynomials in P that have 3 as a root
U = {p ∈ P| p(3) = 0}
is a subspace of P
Example
P3 the set of polynomials with degree at most 3 is a subspace of P

Example
Let v be a vector in a vector space V then
Rv = {av|a ∈ R}
is a subspace in V
Example
Mnn is a vector space of square matrix of size n and Snn is the set of
symmetric matrix in Mnn . Then Snn is a subspace of Mnn

Subspace and Spanning Set Linear combination and spanning set
Combination and Spanning

Definition
Let {v1 , . . . , vm } be a set of vectors in a vector space V . A vector v is
called a linear combination of the vector v1 , . . . , vm if it can be expressed
in the form
v = a1 v1 + · · · + am vm
where 1 , a2 , ... an are scalars, called the coefficients of v1 , . . . , vm .
The set of all linear combinations of these vectors is called their span, and
is denoted by
span(v1 , . . . , vm ) = {a1 v1 + · · · + am vm | a1 , a2 , · · · ∈ R}
If V = span(v1 , . . . , vm ) then these vectors are called a spanning set for

V
Example
Consider the vectors p1 = 1 + x + 4x2 and p2 = 1 + 5x + x2 in P2 .
Determine whether p1 and p2 in span{1 + 2x − x2 , 3 + 5x + 2x2 }

Example
Solution
For p1 , we need to determine whether exists real numbers s, t such that
p1 = s(1+2x−x2 )+t(3+5x+2x2 ) ⇔ 1+x+4x2 = (s+3t)+(2s+5t)x+(−s+2
Equating coefficients of powers of x (where x0 = 1) gives
1 = s + 3t 1 = 2s + 5t 4 = −s + 2t
These solutions have solution s = −2, t = 1 so p1 is in

span{1 + 2x − x2 , 3 + 5x + 2x2 }

Example
Solution
For p1 , we need to determine whether exists real numbers s, t such that
p1 = s(1+2x−x2 )+t(3+5x+2x2 ) ⇔ 1+x+4x2 = (s+3t)+(2s+5t)x+(−s+2
Equating coefficients of powers of x (where x0 = 1) gives
1 = s + 3t 1 = 2s + 5t 4 = −s + 2t
These solutions have solution s = −2, t = 1 so p1 is in

span{1 + 2x − x2 , 3 + 5x + 2x2 }
How about p2 ?

Pn = {a +0 +a1 x + · · · + an xn | ai ∈ R ∀i}
Example
Pn = span{1, x, x2 , . . . , xn }

Theorem
Let U = span{v1 , . . . , vn } in vector space V . Then
1 U is a subspace of V containing each of v1 , . . . , vn
2 U is the “smallest” subspace containing these vectors in the sense
that any subspace that contains each of v1 , . . . , vn must contain U .

Example
Show that P3 = span{x2 + x3 , x, 2x2 + 1, 3}

Example
Show that P3 = span{x2 + x3 , x, 2x2 + 1, 3}
Solution
Let U = span{x2 + x3 , x, 2x2 + 1, 3}
Prove that U ⊆ P3
All the elements in spanning set of U is in P3 . Thus U ⊆ P3 .
Prove that P3 ⊆ U
We know that P3 = span{1, x, x2 , x3 }. So in order to prove that
P3 ⊆ U , we will show that 1, x, x2 , x3 are all in U
1
It is clear that x and 1 = 3 · 3 lie in U . We can verify that
1 1 1
x2 = [(2x2 + 1) − 1] and x3 = (x2 + x3 ) − (2x2 + 1) − · 3
2 2 6
That is x2 , x3 also lie on U .
Hence P3 = U
Exercise
Let u and v be two vectors in a vector space V . Show that
span{u, v} = span{u + 2v, u − v}

Linear Independence and Dimension
Table of contents
1 Vector space Rn

Subspace

Linear Independence
Bases and Dimension

Linear Independence and Dimension Linear Independence
Definition (Linear Independence and Dependence)

A set of vectors {v1 , v2 , ..., vn } in a vector space V is called linearly
independent (or simply independent) if it satisfies the following
condition:
If s1 v1 + s2 v2 + · · · + sn vn = 0, then s1 = s2 = · · · = sn = 0.
A set of vectors that is not linearly independent is said to be linearly

dependent (or simply dependent).

Example
Show that {1 + x, 3x + x2 , 2 + x − x2 } is independent in P2

Example
Show that {1 + x, 3x + x2 , 2 + x − x2 } is independent in P2
Solution
Suppose a linear combination of these polynomials vanishes
s1 (1+x)+s2 (3x+x2 )+s3 (2+x−x2 ) = 0 ⇔ (s1 +2s3 )+(s1 +3s2 +s3 )x+(s2 −s
Equating the coefficients of 1, x, and x2 gives a set of linear equations.
s1 + 2s3 = 0
s1 + 3s2 + s3 = 0
s2 − s3
The only solution is s1 = s2 = s3 = 0. Hence {1 + x, 3x + x2 , 2 + x − x2 }

is independent

Example
Show that {sin(x), cos(x)} is independent in the vector space F[0, 2π] of
function defined on the interval [0, 2π].

Example
Show that {sin(x), cos(x)} is independent in the vector space F[0, 2π] of
function defined on the interval [0, 2π].
Solution
Suppose that a linear combination of these functions vanishes
s sin(x) + t cos(x) = 0
This must hold for all values of x in [0, 2π]. Taking x = 0 yields s = 0.
Similarly, t = 0 follows from taking s = π2 .

Example
Suppose that A is an n × n matrix such that Ak = 0 but Ak−1 ̸= 0. Show
that B = {I, A, A2 , . . . , Ak−1 } is independent in Mnn

Solution
Suppose that
s0 I + s1 A + s2 A2 + · · · + sk−1 Ak−1 = 0
Multiply both side by Ak−1 , we have
s0 Ak−1 + s1 Ak + · · · + sk−1 A2k−2 = 0
For all m ≥ k, we have Am = Ak Am−k = 0Am−k = 0. So the previous

equation becomes
s0 Ak−1 = 0 ⇒ s0 = 0 since Ak−1 ̸= 0
Thus we have
s1 A + s2 A2 + · · · + sk−1 Ak−1 = 0
Now multiply by Ak−2 to conclude that s1 = 0. Continuing, we obtain
si = 0 for each i, so B is independent
Exercise
Let V be a vector space

1 If v ̸= 0 in V then {v} is an independent set.
2 No independent set of vectors in V can contain the zero vector.

Unique linear combination representation in terms of

vectors in independent set
Let {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be an indepdendent set of vectors in a vector space V .
If a vector v has two representations
v = s1 v1 + s2 v2 + · · · + sn vn
v = t1 v1 + t2 v2 + · · · + tn vn
then substract these equation gives
(s1 − t1 )v1 + (s2 − t2 )v2 + · · · + (sn − tn )vn = 0
The independence of {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } leads si − ti = 0 for all i, that is

si = ti for all i
In other words, every vector in V can be written in a unique way as a

linear combination of the vi
Theorem (Fundamental Theorem)

Suppose a vector space V can be spanned by n vectors. If any set of m
vectors in V is linearly independent, then m ≤ n.

Proof.
Let V = span{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } and {u1 , u2 , . . . , um } is an independent set
in V then
u1 = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn
Since u1 ̸= 0, not all of ai are zero, say a1 ̸= 0 then
V = span{u1 , v2 , . . . , vn }. Hence write
u2 = b1 u1 + b2 v2 + · · · + bn vn ̸= 0
some bi ̸= 0. And because {u1 , u2 } are independent, we have

V = span{u1 , u2 , . . . , vn }. If m > n, we continue the process untill all vi
are replaced by u1 , . . . , un . So
V = span{u1 , u2 , . . . , un }
We have un+1 ∈ V so un+1 is a linear combination of u1 , u2 , . . . , un which

is contradicted with independence of ui . Thus m ≤ n.

Linear Independence and Dimension Bases and Dimension
Definition (Basis of a vector space)

A set {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } of vectors in a vector space V is called a basis of V
if it satisfies the following two conditions:
1 {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } is linearly independent
2 V = span{e1 , e2 , . . . , en }
As a consequence of Fundamental theorem, we have
Theorem (Invariance Theorem)

Let {e1 , . . . , en } and {f1 , . . . , fm } be two bases of a vector space V then
m = n.
Definition (Dimension)
The number of vectors in any basis of a vector space V is the same and
called by the dimension of V .
The zero vector space {0} is defined to have dimension 0.

Example
Show that {1, x, . . . , xn } is a basis, called the standard basis of Pn and
then dim(Pn ) = n + 1

Example
Show that {1, x, . . . , xn } is a basis, called the standard basis of Pn and
then dim(Pn ) = n + 1
Solution
Each polynomial p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn in Pn is a linear
combination of {1, x, . . . , xn } so Pn = span{1, x, dots, xn }. If a linear
combination of {1, x, dots, xn } vanishes, that is
a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn = 0 for all x then a0 = a1 = · · · = an = 0
So {1, x, . . . , xn } is linearly independence and hence a basis of Pn . The

basis contains n + 1 vector so dim(Pn ) = n + 1

Exercise
Prove that (" # " # " # " #)

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
, , ,
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
is a basis of M22 - vector space of 2 × 2 matrices and then dim(M22 ) = 4

Exercise
Show that the set V of all symmetric 2 × 2 matrices is a vector space, and
find the dimension of V

Finite Dimension Spaces
Table of contents
1 Vector space Rn

Subspace

Linear Independence
Bases and Dimension

Lemma (Independent Lemma)

Let {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be an independent set of vectors in vector space V . If
u ∈ V but u ∈ / span{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } then {u, v1 , v2 , . . . , vn is also
independent.
Proof.
Consider
tu + s1 v1 + · · · + sn vn = 0
First t must be equal to 0 because if t ̸= 0, we can represent
s1 sn
u=− v1 − · · · − vn
t t
thus u ∈ span{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }, contrary to our assumption. Hence t = 0
and then
s1 v1 + · · · + sn vn = 0
The independence of {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } implies that s1 = . . . sn = 0. That is
what we want.
Definition (Finite Dimensional and Infinite Dimensional Vector

Spaces)
A vector space V is called finite dimensional if it is spanned by a finite
set of vectors. Otherwise, V is called infinite dimension
Lemma
Let V be a finite dimensional vector space. If U is any subspace of V ,
then any independent subset of U can be enlarged to a finite basis of U .
Proof.
Let I be an independent set in U . If span(I) = U then I is already a
basis of U . If span(I) ̸= U then choose u1 ∈ U such that u1 ∈ / span(U ).
Hence {u1 , I} is an independent set in U . If span{u1 , I} = U , we are
done. Otherwise, choose u2 ∈ U but u2 ∈ / span{u1 , I}. Hence {u1 , u2 , I}
is independent and process continues. Because the number of element in a
basis of U is finite, the process must stop after several time and we reach
the basis of U .
Theorem
Let V be a finite dimensional vector space spanned by m vector. Then
1 V has a finite basis and dim(V ) ≤ m
2 Every independent set in V can be enlarged to a basis of V by adding
vectors from any fixed basis of V
3 If U is a subspace of V then
1 dim(U ) ≤ dim(V )
2 If dim(U ) = dim(V ) then U = V
Theorem
Let V be a finite dimensional vector space. Any spanning set for V can be
cut down (by deleting vectors) to a basis of V .

Example
Find a basis of P3 containing the independent set {1 + x, 1 + x2 }
Solution
The standard basis of P3 is {1, x, x2 , x3 } so including two of these vector
will do.
1∈/ span({1 + x, 1 + x2 }) so we enlarge {1 + x, 1 + x2 } to a bigger
independent set {1, 1 + x, 1 + x2 }
x ∈ span{1, 1 + x, 1 + x2 } so we can not enlarge independent set
with x
x2 ∈ span{1, 1 + x, 1 + x2 } so we can not enlarge independent set
with x2
x3 ∈/ span{1, 1 + x, 1 + x2 } we enlarge the independent set to
{1, 1 + x, 1 + x2 , x3 }. That is the basis that we want.

Exercise
Enlarge the independent set

(" # " # " #)
1 1 0 1 1 0
D= , ,
1 0 1 1 1 1
to a basis of M22

Example
Find a basis of P3 in the spanning set
S = {1, x + x2 , 2x − 3x2 , 1 + 3x − 2x2 , x3 }.

Example
Find a basis of P3 in the spanning set
S = {1, x + x2 , 2x − 3x2 , 1 + 3x − 2x2 , x3 }.
Solution
Since dim(P3 ) = 4, we must elimimate one polynomial from S
{1} is independent
x + x2 ∈
/ span{1} so {1, x + x2 } is independent
2x − 3x2 ∈
/ span{1, x + x2 } so {1, x + x2 , 2x − 3x2 } is independent
1 − 3x − 2x2 ∈ span{1, x + x2 , 2x − 3x2 } so we should remove
1 − 3x − 2x2
It is clear that {1, x + x2 , 2x − 3x2 , x3 } is indepenent so it is a basis
of P3

Theorem
Let V be a vector space with dim(V ) = n and S is a set of exactly n
vectors. Then S is independent if and only if S is a basis of V or S span V

Let U and W be subspaces in a vector space V . Define
sum U + W = {u + w|u ∈ U and w ∈ W }
and
intersection U ∩ W = {v ∈ V |u ∈ U and v ∈ W }
then they are also subspaces of V
Theorem
If V is a finite dimensional vector space then U + W is finite dimensional
and
dim(U ) + dim(W ) = dim(U ) + dim(W ) − dim(U ∩ W )

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General vector space

General vector space 1 / 47

1 Introduce vector spaces in full generality, abstract vector space

General vector space 2 / 47

2 General vector space

3 Subspace and Spanning Set

4 Linear Independence and Dimension

5 Finite Dimension Spaces

General vector space 3 / 47

Vector space (Rn , +, .)

2 General vector space

3 Subspace and Spanning Set

4 Linear Independence and Dimension

5 Finite Dimension Spaces

General vector space 5 / 47

General vector space

A real vector space is a set V of elements on which we have two

4 There exist a vector −u such that u ⊕ (−u) = 0

General vector space 6 / 47

The elements of V are called vectors

General vector space 7 / 47

General vector space 8 / 47

then Rn is a vector space

General vector space 9 / 47

p(x) + q(x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + (a2 + b2 )x2 + . . .

cp(x) = ca0 + ca1 x + ca2 x2 + . . .

for any real number c

p(x) + q(x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + (a2 + b2 )x2 + · · · + (an + bn )xn

cp(x) = ca0 + ca1 x + ca2 x2 + · · · + can xn

for any real number c

General vector space 11 / 47

Denote P[a, b] is a set of all function on [a, b]

The negative of function f , denoted by −f is given by

(−f )(x) = −f (x) ∀x ∈ [a, b]

Let u, v, w be vectors in a vector space V . If

then by adding both sides by −v, we have

General vector space 13 / 47

2(u + 3w) − 3(2w − v) − 3[2(2u + v − 4w) − 4(u − 2w)]

General vector space 14 / 47

2 General vector space

3 Subspace and Spanning Set

4 Linear Independence and Dimension

5 Finite Dimension Spaces

General vector space 15 / 47

General vector space 16 / 47

General vector space 16 / 47

General vector space 17 / 47

General vector space 18 / 47

Combination and Spanning

If V = span(v1 , . . . , vm ) then these vectors are called a spanning set for

General vector space 20 / 47

p1 = s(1+2x−x2 )+t(3+5x+2x2 ) ⇔ 1+x+4x2 = (s+3t)+(2s+5t)x+(−s+2

Equating coefficients of powers of x (where x0 = 1) gives

These solutions have solution s = −2, t = 1 so p1 is in

General vector space 20 / 47

p1 = s(1+2x−x2 )+t(3+5x+2x2 ) ⇔ 1+x+4x2 = (s+3t)+(2s+5t)x+(−s+2

Equating coefficients of powers of x (where x0 = 1) gives

These solutions have solution s = −2, t = 1 so p1 is in