Equations of state for The Fermi Gas Model and a realistic

model: Properties of neutron stars

Abhass Kumar
School of Physical Sciences
NISER, Bhubaneswar
July 22, 2010
Abstract
This is a report of the summer project that I did during the summer of 2010 at
Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics under Prof. B. K. Agrawal. Graphs were generated
to study the energy vs density features of nuclear matter under two dierent models
the Fermi gas model and the Extended Relativistic Mean Field (ERMF) model. Cal-
culations were done for symmetric nuclear matter and pure neutron matter, nally
going to matter under equilibrium. Knowing the density dependence of the energy
density, we can nd pressure which then gives us the equation of state. These equa-
tions of state were nally used to solve the structure equations for neutron stars which
give variation of mass and pressure as functions of radial co-ordinate.
1 Introduction
Let us start with the meaning of nuclear matter. It is matter essentially composed of
nucleons which extend out to innity and are innitely massive but they have a nite
density. Nuclear matter can be further subdivided into two types symmetric nuclear
matter and non-symmetric nuclear matter. The density of proton and neutron is same
in symmetric nuclear matter while it is dierent in non-symmetric matter, pure neutron
matter being the extreme case composed only of neutrons. We will see that the energy of
pure neutron matter is always greater than that of symmetric nuclear matter because of
the Pauli principle. The wave function of neutrons and protons is anti-symmetric. Hence
no two neutrons or two protons can share the same quantum state. In the symmetric
case, a proton and a neutron can share the same energy state being dierent particles thus
they both start lling out the states from the lowest energy but in pure neutron matter,
every other neutron has got more energy than the previous neutrons. Thus in symmetric
matter, the total energy is less as compared to pure neutron matter.
1
The two models that will be used here to study nuclear matter are the Fermi gas model
and the Extended Relativistic Field model. These models dier in the fact that the Fermi
gas model doesnt take into account the interactions among the nucleons.
Compact stars are so named because they are compact characteristically massive with
a small radius. They are formed from stars nearing the end of their lifetimes. When a
star has lost all hydrogen fuel to burn, it undergoes gravitational contraction until the
core is nothing but a degenerate gas of electrons in the case of white dwarfs and neutrons
in a neutron star. The degenerate gas gives rise to degenreracy pressure which holds the
star against further collapse. However, there is a limiting mass up to which gravity can
be held in place after which the star invariably collapses to a black hole (theoretically).
The matter inside the compact stars is so dense that it cannot be described by Newtonian
physics alone and general relativistic corrections are required to be put into place.
2 Some denitions
Before delving into the details of the equations and graphs, I should rst dene certain
terms. The Fermi momentum k
f
is the maximum momentum that can be possessed by
the gas particles. The number density is a function of this momentum and is given by
=
k
3
f
3
2
. If is the energy density, then the chemical potential is

. The pressure is
obtained from the rst law of thermodynamics
dU = dQpdV (1)
from where we can show that
p = (2)
as follows:- =
A
V
, where A is the mass number and V is volume. Now consider

2
d(/)
d
=
A
2
V
2
d(/)
d(A/V )
=
A
2
AV
2
d(/)
d(1/V )
=
A
V
2
d(/)
(1/V
2
)dV
=
AV
2
V
2
d(/)
dV
= A
d(/)
dV
(3)
The quantity / is the energy per nucleon. Multiplied by A it becomes the total energy
inside the system. So the above equation reduces to
dU
dV
. This is the equation for pressure
if we put T = 0 in (1) whence dQ becomes 0. If we simplify
2
d(/)
d
, we get
d
d
which
is nothing but .
2
This follows with the denition of symmetry energy K
sym
which is
K
sym
=
1
2
d
2
E(, )
d
2
E(1, ) E(0, ) (4)
The so called slope is dened as
L() = 3
dE
sym
d
(5)
The in these eqautions is the dierence between neutron density and proton density
divided by the total density; hence is 1 for pure neutron matter and 0 for symmetric
nuclear matter. The symmetry energy term is the energy per nucleon that will be needed
to put into the system to convert symmetric nuclear matter to pure neutron matter.
The dimesnsions of mass and momentum are in fermi
1
and those of energy density and
pressure are MeV fm
3
or in fm
4
. The conversion factor for MeV to fm and vice versa
is hc = 197.328284MeV fm.
Some other constants are M
n
= 939.57MeV neutron mass, M
p
= 938.28MeV proton
mass and M
e
= 0.511MeV electron mass. When solving the TOV equations, masses will
be given in terms of solar mass which is equal to 1.9891 10
30
Kg. In the ERMF model,
both neutron and proton mass will be taken as the same 939MeV .
Another thing to be kept in mind is that the equation of state that I refer to everywhere in
this report is the equation that determines the relationship between pressure and energy
density as in (2).
3 The Fermi Gas Model
In the Fermi gas model, we assume the system to be made of a degenerate gas of particles
which do not interact with each other. There is a corresponding Fermi energy density to
the Fermi momentum. The energy density is dened as

i
=
1

2
_
k
i
f
0
k
2
_
M
2
i
+k
2
dk (6)
where i denotes the particle in question.
The Fermi model was invented to describe matter composed only of fermions like nucleons
and electrons. Fermions have anti-symmetric wave functions hence are governed by the
Pauli principle which means that only 0 or 1 particle of the same species can occupy any
given state at the zero temperature. Relation of number density to the Fermi momentum

The units of k and M

i
must be same. If not, use the hc factor in the mass term to make it in fm
1
3
as given above in the section 2 is proved as follows: Let dn be the number of particles
between k and k +dk, g be the no. of spin states (2h)
3
be the unit volume then
dn = g
d
3
rd
3
k
(2h)
3
= 2
dV d
3
k
(2h)
3
n = 2V
_
k
f
0
d
3
k
(2h)
3
= 2
_
k
f
0
k
2
dk sin dd
(2h)
3
= 2
1
(2h)
3
_
k
f
0
4k
2
dk
=
k
3
f
3
2
h
3
(7)
= k
3
f
/3
2
(8)
The last line follows after taking h to be 1. Now we will always use (8) for density
calculation. The integration of (6) gives

i
=
1

2
[
k
f
(k
2
f
+M
2
i
)
3/2
4

M
2
i
k
f
_
k
2
f
+M
2
i
8

M
4
i
ln(k
f
+
_
k
2
f
+M
2
i
)
8
+
M
4
i
ln M
i
8
] (9)
I used this and the Simpsons rule of numerical integration to evaluate the energy densities
for a number density range of 0.08 to 0.64 fm
3
. As expected, it was found that the energy
of symmetric nuclear matter was less than pure neutron matter.
Figure 1: Comparinson of symmetric nuclear matter and pure neutron matter energies in
Fermi model
The symmetry enrgy was calculated at all density points and was obtained to be 13
MeV at a density of 0.15fm
3
.
4
Figure 2: The symmetry energy as function of density in Fermi model
4 ERMF Model
The extended relativistic mean eld model was built to take into account the interaction
between the nucleons through meson elds namely , and mesons represented by B,
and V respectively. Here also, we will solve the equation for energy in the cases of
symmetric nuclear matter and pure neutron matter. The expression of energy (a very
cumbersome at that) is
=
kin
+g

V
0

b
+
1
2
g

B
0

3
+
1
2
m
2

2
+g
2

3
+g
3

1
2
m
2

V
2
0
g
9
V
4
0

1
2
m
2

B
2
0
g
6
V
2
0
g
7

2
V
2
0
g
8
B
2
0
g
11

2
B
2
0
g
10
V
2
0
B
2
0
(10)
Here
kin
is the kinetic energy equal to that given by (6) only that it is now the sum over i
being 1 and 2 for neutrons and protons and the mass is the eective mass M

i
= M
i
g

.
Again as expected, the energy of the symmetric nuclear matter was less than that of pure
neutron matter and the symmetry energy at a density of 0.150016 fm
3
was 30.3508
MeV .
b
is the total density of the nuclear matter i.e. the sum of the proton and neutron
densities while
3
is the dierence between the proton density and the neutron density.
Since we will be solving later for neutron stars, we can immediately guess that
3
will be
negative.
To calculate the energy at any density we need to know the values of the dierent coupling
constants g
i
and the values of the elds. The values of the coupling constants were provided
by my guide and I calculated the values of the elds through self-consistent iteration
techniques. To get the value of the eld, we have to solve the partial dierential equations
of the energy vs. the elds and equate them to zero for minimum energy condition i.e.

= 0;

V
0
= 0 and

B
0
= 0. These partial dierential eqautions are also called eld
equations. They form a set of 3 coupled partial dierential equations which when equated
to zero reduce to a set of 3 non-linear equations. Another trick that can be used in the
5
case of symmetric nuclear matter is that B
0
is zero. The 3 eld equations are:-

= g

i=n,p
_
k
i
f
0
M

i
k
2
_
k
2
+M
2
i
m
2

3g
2

2
4g
3

3
+g
6
V
2
0
+ 2g
7
V
2
0
+g
8
B
2
0
+ 2g
11
B
2
0
= 0 (11)

V
0
= m
2

V
0
+ 2g
6
V
0
+ 2g
7

2
V
0
+ 2g
10
V
0
B
2
0
+ 4g
9
V
3
0
g

b
= 0 (12)

B
0
= m
2

B
0
+ 2g
8
B
0
+ 2g
11

2
B
0
+ 2g
10
V
2
0
B
0

1
2
g

3
= 0 (13)
The following gure shows the energy vs density curve for the following set of coupling
parameters
g

= 10.5034068
g

= 13.8008355
g

= 12.1297449
g
2
= 6.56067814
g
3
= 5.87160367
g
6
= 8.80645657
g
7
= 1.03695112
g
8
= 39.6788608
g
9
= 0
g
10
= 146.506307
g
11
= 41.7125185
M
n
= 939MeV
M

= 491.482575MeV
M

= 782.5MeV
M

= 770MeV
The graph for symmetric nuclear matter shows a minima in energy per nucleon at 0.149232
fm
3
where the energy per nucleon is 15.9256 MeV . On both sides of this density the
energy goes up telling us that the matter is most stable at this density and will undergo
various reduction processes to arrive at this state. For example if there is more of neutrons,
they will decay into protons and electrons giving out neutrinos and if there are more
protons, they will absorb an electron and a neutrino and become neutrons. This density
is ttingly called saturation density as nuclear matter becomes saturated at this density
and opposes chage in density from either direction. However when we compare it with
pure neutron matter energy, we see that there is no minimum energy point. The energy
increases monotonically and will be zero only at zero density. The minimum energy point
in symmetric nuclear matter may be explained in terms of strong nuclear attraction which
pull the energy curve into the negative domain i.e. the bound states.
6
Figure 3: Symmetric nuclear matter energy
Figure 4: Comparison of pure neutron matter and symmetric matter energies
All this is still only for cases where we do not include contribution of electrons in the
calculations. Once when contributions from electrons are introduced, however, things
become dierent. Then there is no question of symmetric nuclear matter or pure neutron
matter as electrons ght it out to have the same number density as protons which goes
according to the whims of nature which maintains strict neutrality in everything practical.
5 Introducing electrons into the system
When we introduce electrons in the system, the whole system goes berserk until charge
neutrality is obtained and there is equilibrium i.e. chemical potential of neutrons is
equal to the sum of the chemical potential of protons and electrons
n
=
p
+
e
. As
dened earlier, chemical potential is the derivative of energy density with respect to the
number density of the particular species i.e.
i
=

i
.
7
Figure 5: Symmetry energy
Figure 6: Slope of symmetry energy 3
dE
sym
d
For the Fermi gas model, the chemical potential of any species is very simple being just
_
k
2
f
+M
2
i
. But in the ERMF model, we have other terms also for
n
and
p
.
e
is same
in both the cases. First, however, we should prove that the chemical potential is indeed
what mentioned earlier in this paragraph.
d
d
=
1

2
d
d
_
k
f
0
k
2
_
k
2
+M
2
dk (14)
=
1

2
d
d
_
(3
2
)
2/3
0
(3
2
)
2/3
_
k
2
+M
2

2
(3
2
)
2/3
d
=
d
d
_
(3
2
)
0
_
k
2
+M
2
d
=
_
k
2
f
+M
2
The last line follows from the previous line where we have a derivative with respect to
and an integral with the same variable. The integral can be visualized as an innite
number of summing steps where every step is equal to

M
2
+k
2
with k increasing from 0
to k
f
. All the values of k < k
f
are independent of so the dierentialtion will yield zero.
But the last value k
f
is dependent and here we will have a non-zero derivative. The
8
dierentiation will directly act on the integral with respect to leaving the term under
square root untouched and thus we get

i
=
_
k
i2
f
+M
2
i
(15)
In the ERMF model, the chemical potential for protons and neutrons contains the deriva-
tive of kinetic energy as shown above plus two more terms for the and meson elds.
Looking at (10), we have a term g

V
0

b
and
1
2
g

B
0

3
. We break the density terms into
individual proton and neutron densities to get two terms out of each of them. So the rst
one becomes g

V
0

n
+g

V
0

p
and the second term becomes
1
2
g

B
0

1
2
g

B
0

n
. Therefore
we have for chemical potentials:

n
=
_
k
n2
f
+M
2
n
+g

V
0

1
2
g

B
0
(16)

p
=
_
k
p2
f
+M
2
p
+g

V
0
+
1
2
g

B
0
(17)

e
=
_
k
e2
f
+M
2
e
=
_
k
p2
f
+M
2
e
(18)
The last line follows from the charge neutrality condition which demands that the number
density of protons and electrons be same and hence the Fermi momenta are same.
Applying the equilibrium condition to the Fermi gas model, we have
_
k
n2
f
+M
2
n
=
_
k
p2
f
+M
2
p
+
_
k
p2
f
+M
2
e
(19)
which when solved in Mathematica gives k
p
f
as a function of k
n
f
as follows:
k
p
f
=
[(k
n2
f
+M
2
n
M
2
e
)
2
2M
2
p
(k
n2
f
+M
2
n
+M
2
e
) +M
4
p
]
1/2
2(k
n2
f
+M
2
n
)
1/2
(20)
The same condition in ERMF model reads as:
_
k
n2
f
+M
2
n
+g

V
0

1
2
g

B
0
=
_
k
p2
f
+M
2
n
+g

V
0
+
1
2
g

B
0
+
_
k
p2
f
+M
2
e
_
k
n2
f
+M
2
n
g

B
0
=
_
k
p2
f
+M
2
n
+
_
k
p2
f
+M
2
e
(21)
which however, gives a very very long and cumbersome relationship which becomes ex-
ceedingly dicult to handle and write down for k
p
f
as function of k
n
f
. Hence we used the
numerical techniquies to solve it and get values for k
p
f
and as k
e
f
= k
p
f
, we also get k
e
f
.
After introducing electrons into the system we will no longer get a point of minimum
energy and the energy curve will be an increasing curve.
9
Figure 7: Energy density for ERMF model
Figure 8: Energy density for Fermi gas model
6 Solving TOV Equation
The main thing that we do using the help of TOV equation is that we want to nd out
the mass of a compact star and its radius. We can also know the stability of the star, the
critical mass where the given cental pressure will no longer be able to hold the star against
gravitational collapse (these parts were avoided in the project due to lack of time). The
TOV equations are solved by taking the help of the equation of state. So much more for
the TOV equations but rst let us derive the equations themselves.
6.1 The structure equations of a star
Assuming that the mass of the star and the pressure are only functions of the radius and
not the other co-ordinates (azimuthal and polar), we have
dM(r)
dr
= 4r
2
(r) (22)
10
We all know that pressure is nothing but the force per unit area or
dp =
df
A
=
dF
4r
2
(23)
Also
dF = G
M(r)dM(r)
r
2
= G
M(r)4r
2
(r)dr
r
2
= GM(r)4(r)dr (24)
From (23) and (24) we have
dp =
dF
A
=
GM(r)4(r)dr
4r
2

dp
dr
=
GM(r)(r)
r
2
(25)
Let us express density in terms of energy density (r) so that it is commensurate with our
equation of state. Hence (r) = (r)/c
2
where c is the speed of light in vacuum (this is
Einsteins famous equation). Therefore (22) and (25) become
dM(r)
dr
=
4r
2
(r)
c
2
(26)
dp(r)
dr
=
GM(r)(r)
c
2
r
2
(27)
Equations (26) and (27) are the famous Newtonian equations for astrophysical phenomena.
However, at the densities that we are dealing with which are typical of neutron stars and
white dwarfs, the Fermi momentum is very much larger than mass of electron and we need
to consider the relativistic eects on the equations also. There is no problem with (26) as
such but (27) needs to be modied. The resulting equation is
dp(r)
dr
=
GM(r)(r)
c
2
r
2
(1 +
p(r)
(r)
)(1 +
4r
3
p(r)
M(r)c
2
)(1
2GM(r)
c
2
r
)
1
(28)
Equations (26) and (28) together are the structure equations of a compact star also known
as the TOV equations. TOV stands for three scientists - Tolman, Oppenheimer and
Volkov.
6.2 Equation of state
The equation of state is the relationship between pressure and energy density. In order to
solve the TOV equations, we have a dire need to nd an equation of state. Here, we will
use the equation of state that can be generated from the Fermi gas model and the ERMF
model with contributions of electrons included in the calculation of course.
11
The equation of state is basically a thermodynamic entity and being such a quantity, it
essentially deals with pressure and energy. As we have already seen and derived before,
the equation of state for our purposes is p = . It will however give dierent values
for the Fermi gas model and the ERMF model because of dierent expressions for energy
depending dierently on the number densities.
Figure 9: Equation of state for ERMF model (including electrons)
The g(9) shows the pressure energy density relation for ERMF model where we get energy
from (10) and pressure from (2). It gives a continuously increasing curve denoting that
with increase in energy, the pressure of the system (the thrust that wants to decrease the
density, thus lowering energy) increases.
The pattern of the curve i.e. an increasing pressure is also followed by the Fermi gas model
as shown in g(10).
Figure 10: Pressure vs energy density
12
6.3 Using the equation of state to solve TOV equation
Now that we have all the tools necessary for solving the TOV eqution and get the mass
and radius of star for given central pressure or central density, we shouldnt waste time
and delve headlong into it.
We solve the equation using the ERMF model. The TOV equations were solved by the
straight-forward fourth order Runge-Kutta routine using a given central pressure as the
initial condition. The given central pressure xes the central energy and the central density
all at one go and this energy acts as the initial condition for the mass equation fully while
being a partial initial condition for pressure equation. Here it must be remembered that
the mass obtained from solving this mass equation is the gravitational mass of the star
which acts on the neighbouring space-time fabric and not just the mass present in the star.
The mass obtained here is the total of the mass and energy enclosed by the boundary of
the compact star which inuences and forms the basis for the Einsteins energy-momentum
tensor T

.
Fig(11) shows the variation of pressure with the radius inside the star assuming a central
pressure of 200 MeV fm
3
. The next gure is the variation of the stars mass as function
of radial co-ordinate given the same central pressure of 200 MeV fm
3
.
Figure 11: The variation of pressure inside the star
We see that the presuure falls to zero at around 12 Km whereas mass goes up to around
2.3 solar masses for a neutron star at the central pressure given above (200 MeV fm
3
).
So long so good. However, things will be incomplete if we dont show what happens at
various dierent central pressures and central densities. Figure (13) shows how a dierent
initial condition changes the nal results for mass (given in solar masses) while g(14)
shows the same thing about the radius of the star. Figures (15) and (16) show them with
respect to central density.
13
Figure 12: The variation of gravitational mass inside the star
What we can see from these graphs is that the radius of the star tends to have a maxi-
mum value as we increase the central pressure and starts decreasing after a certain point.
This point may be the critical mass that can be held up with this pressure after which
gravitational collapse may become a possibility. Mass on the otherhand tends to stabilize
after a certain central pressure. This only corroborates our assertion of a gravitational
collapse as any further increase in pressure can only hold upto that much mass. Even if
we increase the central pressure, the mass that the star can carry will not increase. If
we try to increase the mass further, the internal pressure will not hold up and we will
witness a gravitational collapse to may be form a black hole. This is very dierent from
Newtonian physics where the mass carrying capacity keeps on increasing with increasing
pressure as gravity is a very weak force in such cases. This fact is one of the other proofs
of general relativity as our observations always have had a limiting mass for all cases of
visible stars.
For the sake of completeness itself, we also show the behaviour of compact star masses
and radii using the Fermi gas model. Here, we will just nd the mass of the star at
various central pressures and central densities and the radius of the star w.r.t. the central
pressures and the central densities.
14
Figure 13: Mass for dierent central pressures
Figure 14: Radius for dierent central pressures
15
Figure 15: Radius for dierent central densities
Figure 16: Total mass for dierent central densities
Figure 17: Mass of star at dierent central pressures
16
Figure 18: Radius of star at dierent central pressures
Figure 19: Mass of star at dierent central densities
Figure 20: Radius of star at dierent central densities
17
Appendix: Derivation of TOV equation
Here, we will derive the TOV equation. The derivation includes dening the metric for
the space-time in spherically symmetric coordinates, dening the Christoel symbols of
the second kind and their values, getting the Ricci tensor, the energy-momentum tensor
and the Einstein tensor. We will use units where c
2
is 1 shifting to SI units at the end.
The derivation will be following [3] and [4].
The derivation starts with the assumption that the matter inside the boundary of the star
is a perfect uid meaning a uid with no viscosity and no heat conduction. We assume a
frame comoving with the uid so that in that frame, the uid is at rest. The uid may
ow through space-time with a four-velocity that may vary from event to event. It has a
density of mass energy and is under an isotropic pressure in the rest frame of the uid.
We now dene the energy momentum (the general form for non-conducting uids in the
matrix form) as
T

=
_
_
_
_
_
0 0 0
0 P
xx
P
xy
P
xz
0 P
yx
P
yy
P
yz
0 P
zx
P
zy
P
zz
_
_
_
_
_
(29)
Since the uid is non-conducting, all the terms except the rst one in the rst row and the
rst column are zero. Since the uid is non-viscous, it implies that the forces are always
perpendicular to the interface and as pressure is force per unit area, all the non-diagonal
terms are zero. Since the uid is isotropic, all the spatial components of pressure will be
equal to say p. Hence (prime for a frame where uid is at rest)
T

=
_
_
_
_
_
0 0 0
0 p 0 0
0 0 p 0
0 0 0 p
_
_
_
_
_
(30)
Since we have taken a rest frame,
dx
1
d
=
dx
2
d
=
dx
3
d
= 0 while
dx
0
d
= 1 because x
0
is the
temporal component. Being a tensor, the energy momentum tensor transforms as such.
Going to unprimed inertial frame moving w.r.t. the uid, we have
T

=
x

=
x

=
x

x
0
x

x
0
+
x

x
i
x

x
i
p
=
x

+
x

x
i
x

x
i
p (31)
18
We also have the metric tensor g

=
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
. The transformation law for the
metric tensor is the same as that for other tensors and after transforming it to a moving
unprimed frame, we get
g

=
x

x
0
x

x
0
+
x

x
i
x

x
i
=
x

+
x

x
i
x

x
i
(32)
Utilizing (33) in (32), we get
T

=
x

+ (
x

+g

)p
=
x

( +p) +g

p (33)
x

is the four-velocity of the moving frame u

. (34) is our required energy-momentum

tensor.
The line element is
ds
2
= g

dx

dx

(34)
If we use the standard form of the metric for spherical coordinates, we have g
rr
= A(r),
g

= r
2
, g

= r
2
sin
2
and g
tt
= B(r) and we have equation (34) in covariant form
T

= g

p+u

(+p). The velocity four-vector is dened in a way such that g

=
1. For a frame in which the uid is at rest, we have u
r
= u

= u

= 0 and u
t
=
_
g
tt
=

_
B(r). Since everything is time independent and spherically symmetric, p and mass
will be functions of r only.
The Christoel symbols dened as

=
1
2
g

_
g

+
g

_
(35)
have only 13 non-zero components which are given as follows:

r
rr
=
A

2A

=
r
A

=
r sin
2

r
tt
=
B

2A

r
=

r
=
1
r
=

r
=

= sin cos
19

= cot

t
tr
=
t
rt
=
B

2B
(36)
Having obtained the Christoel symbols, we can now easily nd the components of Ricci
tensor which is dened as follows
R

(37)
Thus the only non-zero components are again the diagonal components of the 44 matrix
given as follows:
R
rr
=
B

2B

b

4B
_
A

A
+
B

B
_

rA
(38)
R

= 1 +
r
2A
_

A
+
B

B
_
+
1
A
(39)
R

= R

(40)
R
tt
=
B

2A
+
B

4A
_
A

A
+
B

B
_

rA
(41)
Consider the Einsteins equation
R

1
2
g

R = 8GT

(42)
If we contract this equation with g

, we get:
R
1
2
g

R = 8GT

R
1
2
R
_
g
rr
g
rr
+g
tt
g
tt
+g

+g

_
= 8GT

R
1
2
R(1 + 1 + 1 + 1) = 8GT

R 2R = 8GT

R = 8GT

(43)
Now looking again at (43) we see thar
R

= 8GT

+
1
2
g

8GT

= 8GT

+ 4GT

= 4GT

(44)
Hence, we get
R
rr
= 4G( p)A (45)
R

= 4G( p)r
2
(46)
R

= R

(47)
R
tt
= 4G( + 3p)B (48)
20
Since the star that tthe TOV equation solves for is under hydrostatic equilibrium, we get
a condition on g
00
as follows

p
x

=
(p +)
2
ln(g
00
)
x

(49)

dp
dr
=
(p +)
2
g

00
g
00
=
(p +)
2
B

B
=
2p

p +
(50)
We need to nd out A for which we consider the following quantity
R
rr
2A
+
R

r
2
+
R
tt
2B
=
A

rA
2

1
r
2
+
1
Ar
2
= 8G (51)
which in a simpler form can be written as
_
r
A
_

= 1 8Gr
2
(52)
This equation can be solved if we use the mass equation of (26) as m(r) =
_
r
0
4r
2
dr
(where c
2
is assumed 1). Because
_
r
A
_

=
d(r/A)
dr
= 1 8Gr
2
r
A
=
_
r
0
(1 8Gr
2
)dr
= r 2G
_
r
0
4r
2
dr
= r 2Gm(r) (53)
A =
_
1
2Gm(r)
rc
2
_
1
(54)
The last line follows after we set the dimensions right by introducing c
2
.
Now that we have got A, we can plug it into (40), (47), (51), (53) and (55) to get the value
of
dp
dr
which will then give us the equation for the dierential of pessure. Lets derive it:
1 +
r
2A
_

A
+
B

B
_
+
1
A
= 4G( p)r
2
1 +
r
2A
B

B

rA

2A
2
+
1
A
= 4G( p)r
2
1 +
r
2A
B

B
+
1
A
+
1
2
4Gr
2

1
2A
= 4G( p)r
2
(55)

1
2
+
1
2A

r2p

2A(p +)
= 4Gpr
2
21
1
2A
_
1
2rp

p +
_
= 4Gpr
2
+
1
2
(56)
_
1
2Gm
r
__
1
2rp

p +
_
= 8Gpr
2
+ 1
1
2rp

p +
= (8Gpr
2
+ 1)
_
1
2Gm
r
_
1
rp

p +
=
_
4Gpr
2
+
Gm
r
__
1
2Gm
r
_
1
p

=
p +
r
G
_
4Gpr
2
+
m
r
__
1
2Gm
r
_
1
(57)
Setting the dimensions right by introducing c
2
, we get
dp
dr
=
Gm
c
2
r
2
_
1 +
p

_
_
1 +
4pr
3
mc
2
_
_
1
2Gm
rc
2
_
1
(58)
Thus we have derived the TOV equation (quite rigorously I think!).
22
References
[1] R.R. Silbar and S. Reddy, Am. J. Phys. 72, 892 (2004), nucl-th/0309041
[2] I. Sagert, M. Hempel, C. Greiner, J. Schaner-Bielich, arXiv astro-ph/050041/VI I
June 2005
[3] S. Weinberg, Gravitation and Cosmology, (John Wiley & Sons Inc., U.K, 1971)
[4] F. Weber, Pulsars as Astrophysical Laboratories for Nuclear and Particle Physics, (IoP
Publishing, London, 1998)
[5] N.K. Glendenning, Compact Stars: Nuclear Physics, Particle Physics and General
Relativity, (Springer-Verlag, New York, 2000, 2
nd
edition)
[6] Landau and Lifshitz, Statistical Mechanics, (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1980)
Acknowledgement
This project was worth the two months I spent on and I enjoyed every bit of it. It is
true that at places I got stuck and there seemed to me no way out of it. Many things
were sort of rsts in this project like I was not just studying and deriving equations
but actually watching them unfold themselves into useful pieces of information, I was
generating graphs of the equations I was deriving: In short, I was researching. And
this wouldnt have been possible if not for the guidance and help I received from all
quarters. I would like to thank all of them from my heart.
Prof. B.K. Agrawal: My very sincere thanks to him for being my guide in this
wonderful journey and helping me out at every place I got stuck which was fairly
frequent, for teaching me the way of really knowing stu which is to take a problem
and work on it, not just compile information and many other untold reasons
Prof. Satyajit Saha, Chirman of Summer Programme at SINP: For setting my
project with my guide, helping me with practical problems of living and other
things, granting me entry to the library etc.
Prof. A. Ansari, HoD School of Physics, NISER: For talking on my behalf to SINP
to x my summer project and being there whenever I had some doubt about the
project
Prof. S.C. Phatak: For teaching me almost all the programming stu and other
computational tricks that I know
My parents and sister: For encouraging me to do the summer project without
worrying about anything else and their unfailing love and unending trust
The librarian: For providing me with the books that I felt need for during the
project
23
All of those people at SINP whose names I dont know but who helped in their
own way and though being mentioned at last (only because I dont know their
names), certainly not the least. What they all did was all practical stu which if
not done will leave any institution crumbling to pieces
Many others have a thanks due but they may have been left out of this because of my
ignorance.
24