Fsufs 07 1093605

TYPE Review
PUBLISHED 14 June 2023

DOI 10.3389/fsufs.2023.1093605
Rice and paddy industry in

OPEN ACCESS Malaysia: governance and policies,
research trends, technology
EDITED BY
Dipayan Sarkar,
United States Department of Agriculture,
United States
REVIEWED BY
adoption and resilience
Ajaz Ahmad Lone,
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural
Sciences and Technology, India
Deivaseeno Dorairaj 1
and Nisha T. Govender 2
*
Naleeni Ramawat, Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor,
1
Agriculture University, Jodhpur, Malaysia, 2 Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor,
India Malaysia
*CORRESPONDENCE
Nisha Govender
[email protected]; Rice is an important staple food for nearly half the world’s population. In Malaysia,
[email protected] rice and paddy cultivation kickstarted in the early 60s with small-scale farming,
RECEIVED 09 November 2022 which later expanded by leaps and bounds before emerging as the country’s
ACCEPTED 19 April 2023
utmost important food crop. Over the decades, Malaysian rice production system
PUBLISHED 14 June 2023
has been suffering from various challenges which include extreme weather
CITATION
Dorairaj D and Govender NT (2023) Rice and
conditions, poor soil fertility and nutrient management, farmers’ lack of awareness
paddy industry in Malaysia: governance and and knowledge, hesitancy against genetically-modified planting materials and
policies, research trends, technology adoption poor deployment of technology. The national rice production and consumption,
and resilience.
Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 7:1093605.
simply measured as self-sufficiency status staggers in between 67 and 70%. The
doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2023.1093605 Southeast Asia region has been an important rice export trader with Thailand,
COPYRIGHT
Vietnam and Cambodia, among the biggest rice-producing nations. Food
© 2023 Dorairaj and Govender. This is an security, under the context of sustaining international rice trading ties, succumbs
open-access article distributed under the terms to functional fluctuations of global supply chains. During the unprecedented
of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction COVID-19 pandemic, the containment period during the outbreak led to significant
in other forums is permitted, provided the disruptions to the food production chain. During the early phase of the pandemic,
original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) Malaysia experienced a volatile rice import trend, facing difficulty to secure a
are credited and that the original publication in
this journal is cited, in accordance with committed rice trading partner. In this review, we discuss the trajectory of the rice
accepted academic practice. No use, and paddy industry in Malaysia since its inception, lab-to-field translated breeding
distribution or reproduction is permitted which strategies adopted for rice yield improvement, governmental participation and
does not comply with these terms.
contribution (approaches, policies and programs) and technologies in use for rice
production. Further, relevant cutting-edge technologies, agricultural methods
and practices catered for modern Malaysian rice farming, with opportunities
to improve and enhance crop health and resilience are included. The review
findings inform new rice agricultural practices, suggest research directions
toward sustainable rice farming and provide a comprehensive knowledge base
to accelerate innovation, technology diffusion and technology adoption for a
resilient rice production system in Malaysia.
KEYWORDS
agriculture, food security, policy, sustainability, Oryza sativa, rice and paddy, Malaysia
Introduction
According to IRRI (1995), more than a billion people around the world rely on rice
cultivation for subsistence and livelihood. In developing countries, rice farming is the main
source of income for about 200 million households (FAO, 2004) (Figure 1). Feeding more than
3.5 billion people, rice is the second most important food crop as it is relatively cheap, nutritious
Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 01 frontiersin.org

Dorairaj and Govender 10.3389/fsufs.2023.1093605
and fulfils the average calorie requirement of an individual (IRRI, produced from 52 million ha of rainfed lowlands (GRiSP, 2013). Rice
2010). Besides, rice provides a significant portion of dietary protein occupies about 46% of the total irrigated area in Asia, receiving about
for about 520 million people living in poverty in Asia (Muthayya et al., 40 and 30% of the world’s irrigation water and the world’s developed
2014). Globally, rice is grown in over 100 countries encompassing freshwater resources, respectively. As two-thirds of the total rice
about 162.06 million hectares with an annual production of 495.78 production is grown under the irrigated system (Maclean et al., 2002),
million tonnes of milled rice (715 million tons of paddy rice) rice production is increasingly constrained by water supply (Arora,
(FAOSTAT, 2020; Figures 2, 3). In Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, rice 2006), coupled with increasing pressure over water use (global water
is mostly grown on small farms stretching between 0.5 and 3 ha while crisis) in irrigation-supported rice production systems (Tuong and
in others such as Australia, the USA and South American countries, Bouman, 2003).
the farms are much larger, at about 2–3 thousand acres (Rao et al., The increasingly growing shortage of water resources will throw a
2017). It is estimated that rice production must increase by 114 million spanner in the work of the rice production system until and unless
tons by 2035 in parallel with the expected population growth (Suzanne farmers switch to sustainable methods or technologies which could
et al., 2012). Under this context, rice production intensification with significantly increase the plant water use efficiency. Due to the
minimal impact on natural resources and the engaging agro-systems unlimited water supply in the irrigated lowland rice systems, the
sets a challenging call for food security (Ladha et al., 2015). average productivity of these granaries are much greater (about 5.4 t/
Rice production systems are subjected to unique ecological and ha) than rainfed lowland rice systems which yield around 1–2.5 t/ha
climatic conditions; rainfed and irrigated lowlands, uplands and deep- (GRiSP, 2013). As for rainfed upland rice systems, the average yield
water areas. Major rice production comes from irrigated lowland rice fetches the lowest at 1 t/ha (GRiSP, 2013). Besides biotic and abiotic
system which accounts for 75% of the global rice yield (about 93 factors, social constraints and the use of local varieties by farmers that
million ha). On the other hand, another 19% of the global rice yield is fail to respond favorably to environmental cues collectively result in
FIGURE 1
Rice import (A) and export (B) values in selected Asian countries from 2017 to 2022. Data for 2021–2022 are predictive. FAOSTAT.

FIGURE 2
(A,B) Rice production and consumption in selected Asian countries from 2017 to 2022. Data for 2021–2022 are predictive. FAOSTAT.
low yield (Bouman et al., 2007). Finally, aerobic rice and upland rice umbrella of adverse environmental challenges and crises. Rice systems
are normally established by direct seeding in non-puddled and in Peninsular Malaysia are classified as high (>4 tonnes/ha) and low
non-flooded fields (Tuong and Bouman, 2003). However irrigated (<4 tonnes/ha) performing granaries and the yield differences among
upland rice cultivation is somewhat very limited while aerobic rice is them are strongly influenced by farming practices, climate, pest and
only grown on about 80,000 hectares in China and 250,000 hectares pathogen, soil native fertility and nutrient management. In this review,
in Brazil (Rao et al., 2017). the rice and paddy industry in Malaysia is explored thoroughly,
In developing countries such as Malaysia and Thailand, the particularly on key aspects such as research trends and initiatives,
heavily regulated and subsidized rice industry is equated to food farmers’ perception of technology adoption and governance and
security and political stability. In 2016, Malaysians consumed 2.7 policy. Further, rice productivity constraints are highlighted and
million tonnes of rice, of which, 67% was produced locally while the discussed along with realistic improvement strategies.
balance was imported from neighboring countries (Thailand, India,
Vietnam and Pakistan). In the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic,
Thailand, also the biggest rice producer in the Southeast Asian region Rice cultivation in Malaysia
(self-sufficiency level = 200%) decided to discontinue its rice export to
Malaysia in the quest for national-level food security reinforcement In Malaysia, rice is the third most important crop, after oil palm
and domestic consumption. This in turn offered India, an opportunity and rubber. Rice is planted twice (cropping seasons) annually. The
to become Malaysia’s biggest rice partner. Malaysia’s rice supply is in main season (humid weather, Aug-Feb) is based on a non-irrigation-
mere jeopardy until or unless the nation hits a 100% SSL status. Rice dependant system, whereas the off-season (dry weather, Mac-July)
is amongst the most thinly traded crop worldwide and thus, the requires an irrigation system. Generally, rice granaries are distributed
country may not be sworn with a stable import rice supply under the across Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak: (1) Muda Agricultural

FIGURE 3
Government policies and instruments crafted for the paddy and rice industry in Malaysia.
Development Authority (MADA), (2) Kemubu Agricultural Research Institute (2019), Malaysians consumed 80 kg of rice per
Development Authority (KADA), (3) North Terengganu Integrated person which equalled to 26% of the total caloric intake per day. On
Agriculture Development (KETARA), (4) Project Barat Laut Selangor average each household spends RM44/month (USD$ 9.93) on rice.
(PBLS), (5) Krian, (6) Seberang Perak, (7) Seberang Perai, (8) Both Sabah (RM73/USD$16.50) and Perlis (RM13/USD$2.93) are
Kemasin, (9) Rompin, (10) Kota Belud and (11) Batang Lupar ranked as states that spend the most and least on rice consumption,
(Figure 4). Granaries are defined as rice farms with proper irrigation respectively.
systems and land areas spanning >4,000 ha (Rahmat et al., 2019). Fast forward, the national SSL has now dipped slightly to 69% due
Apart from these recognized granaries, there are 74 secondary to the looming pandemic which resulted in food supply chain
granaries and 172 minor granaries distributed sporadically in Malaysia disruption and increased consumption of staple food. While the
and contribute up to 28,441 and 47,653 hectares, respectively (Rahmat population has increased to more than 32 million, rice production
et al., 2019). In the Southeast Asian region, Malaysia has the smallest areas have remained relatively constant since the 1990s. Comparatively,
total rice planting area of 689,268 ha (Radin Firdaus et al., 2020), of the SSL of neighboring countries within the Southeast Asia region are
which two third of the total planting area is distributed in Peninsular significantly greater; Indonesia; SSL = 97%, The Philippines; SSL = 93%
Malaysia and the remainder is found in Sabah and Sarawak (Ramli while Thailand, Vietnam and Cambodia have surplus production,
et al., 2012). Approximately 195000 farmers are toiling up in rice with up to SSL > 200% (Khazanah Research Institute, 2019). Although
cultivation and productivity (Khazanah Research Institute, 2019). rice production shows an annual growth of 1.6%, the small growth
In early 2019, Malaysia’s paddy and rice production stood at 2.9 rate does not sufficiently meet the consumption need of the
and 1.88 million MT, respectively while the self-sufficiency level (SSL) population. The national average rice yield hovers at 4.2 ton/ha while
was reported at 72.85% (MARDI, 2010). According to Khazanah high-performing granaries such as IADA Barat Laut Selangor, IADA

FIGURE 4
Rice harvest areas in selected Asian countries from 2017 to 2022. Data for 2021–2022 are predictive. FAOSTAT.
Pulau Pinang, IADA Ketara and MADA yield above 5.0 ton/ha, spending on the cost of production did not necessarily translate into
low-productivity granaries such as Kemasin, IADA Pekan and higher productivity (Zorya and Santos, 2014). According to other
Rompin yield below 3.0 ton/ha (Ministry of Agriculture, 2016; studies, if fertilizer subsidy is removed, the cost of production will
Tables 1, 2). Kedah is the rice bowl of Malaysia as MADA contributes increase, however, rice productivity is projected to drop (Ramli et al.,
to half of the total paddy production of the nation (Figure 5). 2012). Though many criticize these government policies, BERNAS as
the guardian of the country’s rice stockpile had continuously protected
the national rice sector against world market price fluctuations.
Rice history, trading partners and Further, BERNAS keeps rice imports checked while ensuring that the
governmental policies in Malaysia farmers always have a buyer even when the demand is low. BERNAS
is committed at sustaining a sufficient rice stockpile for the entire
Before independence (1957) the food policies in Malaysia were nation over a course of 45 days of buffering period. If indeed the
implemented to serve the colonial masters who focused mainly on domestic production drops, MoU is in place with Thailand and
plantation crops (oil palm, rubber and cacao) for export and foreign Vietnam as the next layer of insulation (Serin et al., 2019).
investments. There were no support programs dedicated to In 2008, main rice exporting countries such as Vietnam, India,
infrastructure development, and research and development. As the China and Cambodia halted export to secure supply for domestic
SSL of rice was below 50%, tapioca was the main source of consumption. The international price for rice showed pronounced
carbohydrates for the poor (Ariffin, 2014). Post-independence, the escalation during the fuel and financial crisis. This pressed the panic
Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) button on net rice importers such as Malaysia and the Philippines.
was established to lead research on agriculture which included rice The latter, which was also the world’s largest rice importing country,
and paddy. In 1971, the National Board of Paddy and Rice (LPN) was resorted to establishing trading with Thailand which decided to
formed to oversee the national rice supply and farmers’ welfare. The hike up the price to $700/metric tonne. The price then went up to
first notable milestone for the paddy industry was the construction of $1,000/metric tonne when other neighboring countries joined the
Muda Irrigation Project (1966–1970) which supplied water for the rice race to secure enough stockpiles of rice for their consumption.
granaries in Kedah and Perlis. In 1994, LPN was corporatized to form Before 2008, the price of rice hovered between $200-300/metric
Padiberas Nasional Berhad (BERNAS), the nation’s single rice tonne (Tey, 2010).
gatekeeper (Khazanah Research Institute, 2019). The rice crisis in the Food security has always been on the agenda for food-related
1970s set the tone for a blanket shield on rice production. Heavy policies even before the latest food crisis. Various policies under
subsidies, market control, guaranteed minimum price (GMP) for different names were drawn to ensure the country does not go through
farmers, fixed retail ceiling price and import monopoly by BERNAS another round of crisis. The National Food Security Policy and
were triggered by this crisis. Agrofood Policy (2011–2020) were introduced to increase the national
The monopoly by the gatekeeper suppressed open market rice buffer stock (Serin et al., 2019). These policies were implemented
practices. In 1988, the World Bank raised a red flag on Malaysia’s in the interest of food security and to increase farmers’ income
market intervention approach which heavily caters for subsidies that (Figure 6). In Malaysia, food security is equated to rice security and
burdens the economy and hence labelled the rice industry as both hence the government had mandated full SSL but to date, the values
non-viable and unsustainable (World Bank, 1988). Moreover, higher has been staggering around 70%. According to the United Nations

Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems
Dorairaj and Govender

TABLE 1 Average paddy yield and paddy production in granaries in Malaysia 2016–2020.
Granary 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Average Paddy Average Paddy Average Paddy Average Paddy Average Paddy
yield (kg/ Production yield (kg/ Production yield (kg/ Production yield (kg/ Production yield (kg/ Production
ha) (mt) ha) (mt) ha) (mt) ha) (mt) ha) (mt)
MADA 5,284 1,063,247 4,841 974,387 5,111 1,028,867 4,933 993,206 5,611 1,129,218
KADA 4,610 248,172 4,448 240,490 4,695 252,149 4,032 203,011 5,082 272,975
KERIAN 3,949 165,027 4,087 171,237 3,957 165,790 3,584 150,162 4,403 185,039
IADA BLS 5,825 222,033 4,510 165,571 4,731 174,432 4,756 174,088 5,600 206,456
IADA PULAU
PINANG 5,801 148,297 5,737 146,660 5,228 133,636 4,660 119,116 6,178 157,929
06
IADA
SEBERANG
PERAK 3,729 103,388 3,180 88,198 3,417 94,784 2,923 79,884 3,788 105,466
IADA KETARA 5,623 54,836 5,172 50,438 5,349 52,164 5,162 50,335 5,828 58,022
KEMASIN
SEMERAK 3,771 27,456 3,779 26,938 4,079 28,154 3,733 28,233 4,294 30,418
PEKAN 2,052 13,425 1,506 10,286 2,673 17,183 2,642 17,562 2,323 14,943
ROMPIN 2,793 14,437 3,338 17,028 2,910 14,756 2,373 12,120 3,454 17,227
KOTA BELUD – – 2,511 22,805 3,112 30,096 2,908 25,598 3,086 29,037
BATANG
LUPAR – – 2,009 2,252 2,492 2,794 2,754 3,087 2,311 2,748
10.3389/fsufs.2023.1093605
frontiersin.org
TABLE 2 Planting hectareage and rice production in granaries in Malaysia 2016–2020.
Granary 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Area Rice Area Rice Area Rice Area Rice Area Rice
(ha) production (ha) production (ha) production (ha) production (ha) production
(mt) (mt) (mt) (mt) (mt)
MADA 201,239 691,111 201,259 633,352 201,324 668,763 201,338 645,584 201,264 733,992
KADA 53,836 161,312 54,067 156,319 53,710 163,897 50,348 131,958 53,719 177,434
KERIAN 41,788 107,268 41,898 111,304 41,898 107,764 41,898 97,605 42,028 120,275
IADA BLS 38,114 144,321 36,708 107,621 36,868 113,380 36,602 113,158 36,868 134,196
IADA
PULAU
PINANG 25,564 96,393 25,564 95,329 25,564 86,864 25,564 77,425 25,564 102,654
IADA
SEBERANG
PERAK 27,723 67,202 27,735 57,329 27,735 61,610 27,334 51,925 27,842 68,553
IADA
KETARA 9,752 35,643 9,752 32,785 9,752 33,907 9,752 32,718 9,956 37,714
KEMASIN
SEMERAK 7,281 17,846 7,129 17,509 6,902 18,300 7,564 18,351 7,084 19,772
PEKAN 6,541 8,726 6,832 6,686 6,429 11,169 6,646 11,415 6,434 9,713
ROMPIN 5,169 9,384 5,101 11,069 5,071 9,591 5,108 7,878 4,987 11,198
KOTA
BELUD – – 9,083 14,367 9,672 18,961 8,803 16,127 9,408 18,293
BATANG
LUPAR – – 1,121 1,351 1,121 1,676 1,121 1,852 1,189 1,649
Committee on world food security, all people at all times are physically, Rice farming in Malaysia: incentives,
socially and economically accessible to sufficient, safe and nutritious subsidies and market interventions
food that meets their preferences and dietary needs for an active and
healthy lifestyle (FAO, 1996). As previous food policies reached the BERNAS acts as the buyer of last resort by procuring paddy from
end of its term, the current National Food Security Policy Action Plan farmers at a GMP of RM1200/tonne. Farmers receive a subsidy of
(2021–2025) had vouched to embrace the five pillars of food security RM248.10 for every tonne of paddy that is harvested (unhusked rice
as per the UN’s definition: availability, accessibility, consumption, grain), in addition to another RM650 per metric tonne, granted as a
stability and sustainability. Under the Malaysian context, availability revenue incentive with at least a 1 % yield increase from the base
is referred to sufficient domestic rice production otherwise recognized, season (Siwar et al., 2014). As for input subsidies, farmers get RM200/
when all Malaysians consume locally produced rice, free from import hectare for pesticide purchases. Further, farmers also receive 240 kg/
dependence. Accessibility imparts equitable distribution among ha of compound fertilizer and 80 kg/ha of urea fertilizer per hectare,
people and equal purchasing power. In this regard, the governance and 100 kg/ha of organic fertilizer for cultivated rice (Harun, 2017).
and regulatory policies in Malaysia have set the feedstock price of Apart from that, ploughing aid is paid at the rate of RM240/ ha (Er
unhusked raw rice at a guaranteed minimum price (GMP). The selling et al., 2021). These aids are a huge relief for the farmers as the average
price imposes a 20% deduction from the fresh weight of the unhusked cost of production is about RM3024/hectare (Harun, 2017). The cost
rice grain which accounts for rice husk agro-waste. According to of production (COP) covers land rent, machinery, input cost and
personal communications with local farmers, the selling price labour. According to the KRI report (2019), the cost of land rental and
fluctuates in accordance with the grain quality, as well. The market machinery is more than 30% of the total input cost which significantly
price for a kilogram of rice has been ranging between RM3-6. The affects the COP in each granary. These two variables have continuously
consumption and stability criteria are interconnected with availability shown increments over the years. In 2020, National Farmers
and thus, are heavily modulated by the national rice productivity. Organisation (NAFAS) was appointed as the sole distributor for the
Sustainable agricultural technologies build resilience to shocks and Certified Paddy Seed Incentive to ensure farmers are not short-
better manage trade-offs in food security during unprecedented times. changed by the nine seed suppliers in the country. The ceiling price
The main thrusts for the paddy sector are to increase rice productivity was set at RM35 per 20 kg of rice seeds to overcome price
via mechanisation, empowerment of research and technology, manipulation. Additionally, to cater for low-income households, the
intensification of the use of rice by-products, improve the management maximum retail prices of 15, 10 and 5% of broken rice were capped at
of rice stockpile, and restructuring of the rice subsidies and incentives. RM1.80, RM2.40 and RM2.60 per kilogram, respectively (DOA, 2016).

FIGURE 5
Distribution of major rice granaries in Peninsular Malaysia.
FIGURE 6
The Malaysia rice granaries paddy production in 2020.

Research and development: rice another HYV, namely IR5 (Bahagia) which had a similar yield to IR8
breeding for yield improvement but exhibited better taste, was long-grained, required less seed and
labour inputs, was easier to harvest and thresh and most importantly
Before the 1960s, paddy farming was relatively traditional as the could be grown on existing field conditions (Baiti, 1974). Thereafter,
operation was heavily reliant on human labour and the use of buffaloes the drawing board of breeders began scouting for locally adaptive
for ploughing. The Japanese occupation introduced off-season parent planting materials for the development of HYV with better
varieties such as Ryushu, Taichung 65, and Pebifun from Taiwan grain quality; Setanjung, Sekencang and Sekembang (Varughese
(Wasano, 1982) for large-scale rice cultivation. The first double- et al., 1982).
cropping variety, Malinja was released in 1964 which replaced single- The pioneering Malinja, Mahsuri and Bahagia varieties that were
cropping rice varieties such as Nachin 5,057 and Serendah Kuning. released by DOA before the establishment of MARDI were bred under
The traditional rice varieties were low yielding (1.4 t/ha) and hence the International Rice Commission programme. Selection of
necessitated a shift to double cropping varieties with improved yield genotypes was done in farmers’ field and progressed further at the
(DOA, 2011). Development and breeding of rice varieties formally Rice Research Centre in Cuttack India; crossing and breeding of the
began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Malaysian F1 generation (Habibuddin, 2012). The phenotypic evaluation of the
Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI). F2–F7 generations was conducted in Malaysia before the varieties
Nevertheless, national rice breeding programmes under the were released (Nurul Nahar et al., 2020). Since transplanting and
jurisdiction of the Department of Agriculture had released four rice harvesting were done manually, these varieties were tall (ease the
varieties before the transfer of mandate: Malinja, Mahsuri, Ria and shattering process) and showed a total of 140 average days to
Bahagia. The average yield of these varieties was 2.47 t/ha, double the reach maturity.
yield of traditional varieties. Malinja and Mahsuri were part of the At this time, lodging was a serious concern among the local
largest japonica-indica rice hybridization project that aimed to farmers. MARDI embarked on breeding for shorter varieties with an
enhance the yield component and fertilizer response in indica varieties average culm height of 100–115 cm. Besides lodging, a host of plant
via the integration of japonica’s inherent adaptive traits to local diseases started cropping up, with blast, bacterial leaf blight, tungro
cultural conditions, diseases, and insects. and brown planthopper, to name a few. In 1979, the most preferred
In the 1950s, Asia was on the brink of famine. In response to rice varieties, both Malinja and Mahsuri severely succumbed to
global food security, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) panicle blast. In response to the undesirable yield lost, MARDI
actively embarked on a mission to develop high-yielding rice varieties released the first blast resistant variety (Sekencang or MR7) against
(HYVs) in the 1960s. Various crosses between tall and dwarf rice P. oryzae. Thereafter, various other blast resistant varieties emerged as
planting materials were accomplished. Amongst which was the preferred planting materials among the local farmers namely, MR 232,
dwarfXtall cross between Dee-geo-woo-gen (dwarf variety from MR 253 and MR 263. These varieties were superior than the previously
Taiwan) and Peta (tall variety from Indonesia). The discovery of a released varieties and were high yielding too. From 1990 to 2006, the
single recessive gene for shortness (sd-1) in the segregating F2 focus of research and development activities shifted into selecting
population led to the development of IR8-288-3 rice variety, after semi dwarf plants with an average culm height of 60–90 cm. The
successful multi-location trials in the Philippines, Hong Kong, ultimate goal was to limit lodging with shorter plants. Hence, MR84
Malaysia, Thailand, and Taiwan (IRRI, 2016). The IR8 rice variety and MR219 with satisfying plant height and yield potential of 6–8 t/ha
officially released in 1966 was touted as “miracle rice” as it kick-started were released. For the record, from 1984 till 2002, about 97% of rice
Green Revolution in rice. Before the release of IR8, it was Dr. De granaries in Malaysia were planted with MR84. After which, MR84
Datta, an agronomist from India who chanced upon the possibility of was displaced by MR219 which then gained preference as popular
maximizing yield by examining the fertilizer response of IR8 under planting variety among local farmers, reigning for over last 20 years.
dry season. The average rice yield came up to about 9.4–10.5 ton/ha Over time, rice breeding strategies gained significant momentum as
which was 50% more than untreated IR8. Dr. Datta’s findings paved evident through manipulation of various traits of interest: erect leaves,
the route and laid a significant foundation for IR8 utilization as a erect tillers, low tillering capacity, high germination rate, shorter plant
prototype in the development of unique national rice varieties in height, better rooting structure and panicle-weight type rather than
Malaysia, Myanmar, Mexico, Indonesia and many other countries panicle-number type. Among the white rice varieties, the following
alike. In Malaysia, the Ria rice variety that was released by DOA in were successfully bred as part of the high yielding rice production
1966 was based on IR8 which underwent massive rebranding (Chew system: MR253, MR263, MR269, MR284, MR303. Few of these
and Shivanaser, 1972). varieties were able to grow on marginal land, and conferred foliar and
In Malaysia, rice cultivation with IR8 did not sustain long. panicle blast resistant.
Farmers refused and rejected to pursue IR8 as the major planting In 1999, aromatic rice MRQ50 was released to expand the rice
material in their fields due to its poor adaptability and rice quality niche market which was dominated by white rice. Progressing down
(Varughese et al., 1982). Though anticipated to bring sheer joy, the IR8 the road, Mas Wangi (MRQ74) which resembled Basmathi was
cultivation turned into unprecedented shocks. As a result, farmers released thereafter. Comparatively, Mas Wangi displayed a much lower
switched back to the use of old varieties (Mahsuri) that offered the glycemic index and high GABA content than MRQ50. On the other
promised rice quality and profitable cost of production. According to hand MRQ76 (released in 2012) was akin to Jasmine rice. The
Baiti (1974), among other reasons that led to IR8 planting hesitancy pioneering glutinous rice varieties were Masria and Pulut Malaysia1
among local farmers in Malaysia were high seed and labour costs, which were released in the 1970s whereas PH9 released in 1990
poor taste and low rice quality. These factors collectively affected the remained as the only black glutinous rice released in Malaysia.
selling price apart other additional requirements such as precise field While most varieties focused on disease resistance and high
conditions as opposed to the existing natural conditions. Then came yielding, two Clearfield rice varieties namely MR220CL1 and

MR220CL2 were released in 2010 to address weedy rice introgression. production systems in Malaysia (Mispan et al., 2019). In 2015,
Clearfield rice varieties were tolerant to the toxic herbicide accounting for 43% of total rice disease incidence, Rosnani et al.
(imidazolinone) and displayed high yield at 6–9.5 ton/ha. Next, to (2015), reported blast disease as the most predominant disease
address the issue of water shortage, an aerobic rice variety, MRIA1 that affecting rice cultivation. Blast disease caused by the Pyricularia
consume 50% less water was released. While all the rice varieties oryzae Carava [teleomorph: Magnaporthe grisea (Herbert) Barr]
released by MARDI were pure inbred lines that were initially crossed fungus is categorized into two types based on host preference: (i) foliar
with two or more different varieties followed by selection of self- blast; infects at the rice seedling stage and (ii) panicle blast; infects the
pollinating generations till a uniform population plants are produced, panicle during the reproductive stage. The disease occurrence,
hybrid rice is basically the F1 progeny (Jamal et al., 2013). The first 100% distribution and infestation is weather-driven. The first incidence of
local hybrid rice Kadaria 1 developed based on cytoplasmic male blast disease in Peninsular Malaysia was reported in 1945
sterility was the result of 7–8 years of intensive research and 21 seasons (Habibuddin, 2012) following a 70% yield loss observed on Jaya, a
of multi-location trials (Jamal et al., 2013). F1 progenies display susceptible rice variety (Nurul Nahar et al., 2020). Besides Jaya,
heterosis or hybrid vigor whereby a cross of two very genetically distant Sekencang and Setanjung too succumbed to panicle blast which
parents will produce offsprings that are far superior especially in yield reduced grain filling, panicle breakage and subsequent yield loss
(Teo). During trials, this hybrid rice was capable of producing 15–20% (Chuwa et al., 2014; Latiffah and Norsuha, 2018). In 2011, the blast
more rice in moderately fertile granaries (Jamal et al., 2013). In a resistant MR219 succumbed to panicle blast in MADA granary
pioneering trial at KADA, Kadaria managed to double the production, (Zakaria and Misman, 2018) while in 2017, Norlida (2017) reported
from 4 ton/ha to 8 ton/ha (Harian, 2019). It was predicted that this that a total of 1,453 ha and 957 ha of rice fields were infected by leaf
hybrid rice could yield up to 10 ton/ha in BLS granary. blast and panicle blast, respectively. The most infected granary was
While MARDI was mandated to lead the national rice breeding KADA followed by MADA and IADA BLS. MARDI had since then
R&D, a couple of public universities joined the initiative to secure food released MR253, MR263, MR269 and MR284 with improved disease
security through the generous funding support offered by MOSTI and resistance. Besides these varieties, MR297 also known as Siraj
MOHE. Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) through funding from LRGS conferred blast resistant, tungro resistant and BPH moderate resistant
for Food Security released 2 rice varieties, namely PadiU Putra 1 and (Zakaria and Misman, 2018).
PadiU Putra 2 in 2017. The former is resistant to blast disease and has a The bacterial leaf blight disease (BPH) caused by Xanthomonas
yield potential of 12 ton/ha. It is the product of marker-assisted backcross oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) is assumed to be the oldest and most important
breeding whereby broad-spectrum blast resistance genes (Piz, Pi2 and disease in rice history (Chukwu et al., 2019). BPH is characterized
Pi9) were introgressed from local resistant rice variety (Pongsu Seribu 1) with wilting of paddy seedlings and/or yellowing/drying of the leaves
into high-yielding but highly blast-susceptible (MR219). The rice cultivar (Afolabi et al., 2016). Farmers’ first encountered BPH in 1980s
MR219 was used as the recurrent parent, and Pongsu Seribu 1 was used (Sankaran et al., 2010), however, over the decade, no reports of the
as the donor (Miah et al., 2017). As for PadiU Putra 2, a submergence- disease incidence were observed. In the recent years, the disease
tolerant rice variety which could withstand flood, it was developed re-emerged and reared its ugly head on at least 12,080 ha of rice fields
through marker-assisted backcrossing method. MR219 was used as the in Peninsular Malaysia (DOA, 2019). Similar to blight disease,
recurrent parent while Swarna-Sub1 which possessed the trait for Shamsudin et al. (2019) reported 30–50% potential loss of yield due
submergence tolerance was the donor; Sub1 gene is the gene for to bacterial leaf blight (BLB) disease infection. The most severe leaf
submergence tolerance (Ahmed et al., 2016). blight disease outbreak in the last 30 years occurred in the paddy field
Universiti Kebangsaan Malysia (UKM) was the first in the country of Sekinchan, Selangor, in 2016 causing 50–70% loss of yield (Toh
to release cross-breed rice varieties by crossing O. sativa (MR219 variety) et al., 2019). During the outbreak, the farmers had planted the new
with the wild rice, O. rufipogon. Both UKMRC2 and UKMRC8 are bred variety MR284 that was released just a year ago. In 2017, another type
through advanced backcrossing techniques. These high-yielding varieties of blight, namely bacterial panicle blast (BPB) caused by Burkholderia
(12–14 ton/ha) are resistant to blast and are submergence tolerant (Sabu glumae (Goto and Ohata, 1956; Urakami et al., 1994) showed up at
et al., 2006). Besides high-quality white rice, UKM had successfully Ache River, Penang and a year later in Kelantan (Ramachandran et al.,
released a superior red rice variety that is marketed as Primera 2021). BPB infected rice plants have upright panicles, florets with
(UKMRC9). This was the result of conventional breeding which involved darker basal portion of the glumes, and reddish–brown border across
controlled cross-breeding between cultivar MR219 and wild rice the florets. According to MARDI, granaries in various states in
O. rufipogon. UKMRC9 is suitable for the consumption of diabetic Peninsular Malaysia have recorded up to 50% losses due to BPB. As
patients as it has a low glycemic index and high antioxidants (Se et al., for sheath blight (ShB), Rhizoctonia solani is the soilborne
2016). In addition to the three varieties above, the University had released necrotrophic fungal causative agent that is responsible for yield loss of
three other rice varieties. A descriptive list of rice varieties released in up to 45% (Margani and Widadi, 2018). The symptoms are the
Malaysia is provided in Table 3. formation of lesions on the sheath leading to softness and lodging of
the sheath and inhibition of grain filling (Wu et al., 2012).
Besides blast and blight, the rice plants have always been prone to
Resilience: addressing pests and tungro disease (Penyakit virus merah) that is transmitted by green
diseases across Malaysian rice leafhopper, Nephotettix virescens (Kobayashi et al., 1983). The disease
granaries results from an infection by two distinct viruses, Rice tungro
bacilliform virus (RTBV) and Rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV)
Pests and diseases such as the rice blast disease, bacterial leaf (Habibuddin et al., 1997). Although the symptoms of yellow-orange
blight, tungro and brown plant hopper are constant threats to the rice leaf discoloration, plant stunting and reduced yield were recognized

TABLE 3 Description of rice varieties released in Malaysia from 1964 to 2019.
Variety Released Parent material Rice type Trait Problem

year
Malinja 1964 Siam 29 × Pebifun White rice 135 days to maturity Susceptible to blast
100–110 cm tall slightly susceptible to lodging
yield 2.5–4 ton/ha
Mahsuri 1965 Mayang Ebos 80 × Taichung 65 White rice yield 3–4.5 ton/ha Tall
120–130 cm tall prone to lodging
135 days to maturity susceptible to blast, tungro
excellent eating quality moderately susceptible
short-medium grain BPH,BLB
easy shattering
Ria (IR8) 1966 Peta × Dee-Geo-Woo_Gen White rice semi-dwarf rice Bold and chalky grain
90–100 cm high amylase content
125–127 days to maturity easily broken during milling
yield 3.5–5.6 ton/ha (could double
with N)
sturdy stems; moderate tillering;
lodging resistance; erect leaves
Bahagia (IR5) 1968 Peta × Tangkai Rotan White rice 137–145 days to maturity Bold and chalky grain
110–125 cm high amylase content
yield 3.5–5 ton/ha easily broken during milling
long grained
better taste
Murni 1972 Bahagia × Ria White rice 135–140 days to maturity Susceptible to BLB, tungro
85–100 cm
yield 4–5.6 ton/ha
Masria 1972 IR8 × Muey Nahng 62 M White glutinous 123–126 days to maturity Susceptible to blast, BLB,
85–91 cm tungro
yield 3–4 ton/ha
Jaya 1973 rebranding of C4-63 White rice 123–127 days to maturity Susceptible to blast, tungro
93–100 cm
Sri Malaysia 1 1974 Peta × Tangkai White rice 135–145 days to maturity Susceptible to BLB, tungro
100–115 cm tall moderately susceptible to
yield 4.5–5.5 ton/ha BPH,blast
moderately resistant to sheath blight
Sri Malaysia 1I 1974 Ria × Pankhari 203 White rice 128–130 days to maturity Susceptible to BLB, tungro
yield 3.9–5 ton/ha BPH,blast
moderately resistant to sheath blight
Pulut Malaysia I 1974 Pulut Sutera × Ria wg 135–145 days to maturity Susceptible to tungro
95–110 cm tall
moderately resistant to blast
Setanjung/MR1 1979 IR22 × Pazudofusu White rice 135–143 days to maturity Susceptible to BPH,tungro
110–120 cm tall hard grain
lodging resistant
resistant to BLB
moderately tolerant sheath blight
(Continued)

TABLE 3 (Continued)

year
Sekencang/MR7 1979 Jaya × Tadukan White rice 120–125 days to maturity Susceptible to BPH, BLB,
97–120 cm tall tungro
yield 3.1–5 ton/ha moderately susceptible sheath
moderately resistant to blast blight
hard rice
Sekembang/MR10 1979 Seribu Gantang × Ria 163 White rice 96–109 cm tall Susceptible to BPH, BLB,
140–146 days to maturity tungro
yield 3.2–5.8 ton/ha hard rice
moderately resistant to blast, sheath
blight
Kadaria/MR27 1981 Seribu Gantang × TKM-6 White rice 125–132 days to maturity Susceptible to tungro
yield 3.5–5 ton/ha BLB,BPH
could be grown on all soil types
Pulut Siding 1981 Pulut Sutera × Ria wg 135–143 days to maturity Susceptible to tungro, BLB
97–115 cm tall
yield 2.7–4.7 ton/ha
Manik/MR52 1984 Radin × Tadukan White rice 140–145 days to maturity Susceptible to tungro
115–125 cm tall difficult to mill (high bras
yield 4–5 ton/ha hancur)
resistant to blight and bacterial leaf
blast
long grained
lodging resistant
Muda/MR71 1984 RU 243 × BRJ51 White rice 126–132 days to maturity Prone to lodging if matures
resistant to blight and BLB during rainy season
yield 5 ton/ha susceptible to tungro, BPH
80–85 cm tall
Seberang/MR77 1984 MR 50 × IR 4215 White rice 110–115 cm tall Moderately susceptible to

133–135 days to maturity sheath blight
resistant bacterial blight
moderately resistant to blast,
BPH,tungro
Makmur/MR73 1985 Setanjung × Pongsu Seribu White rice 130–140 days to maturity Susceptible to BPH
80–90 cm tall
yield 4.5–5.5 ton/ha
lodging resistant
resistant to blast, bacterial leaf blight
tolerant to tungro
MR84 1986 CR261-7039-236 × MR 50 White rice 81–90 cm tall Susceptible to sheath blight
124–137 days to maturity and BLB, BPH
resistant to blast
moderately resistant to tungro
lodging resistant
(Continued)

TABLE 3 (Continued)

year
MR81 1988 MR24 × IR36 White rice 132–137 days to maturity 99–107 cm Susceptible to tungro
tall yield 4.2–6 ton/ha resistant to
blast,brown spot,BLB for infertile
soil, eg Kelantan n Besut
MR103 1990 RU 1217–432 × RU 1378-24-4 White rice 124–140 days to maturity 105–110 cm Susceptible to tungro
tall yield 4.2–6 ton/ha resistant to
blast, BLB
MR106 1990 MR71 × IR 21912–131)/MR71 White rice 124–140 days to maturity 93–98 cm susceptible to tungro, sheath
tall yield 4.5–7 ton/ha resistant to blight
BPH,blast
PH9 1990 MR23 × PULUT HITAM SIAM Black glutinous 124–140 days to maturity 88–102 cm Susceptible to tungro, BLB
tall yield 4–4.5 ton/ha resistant to
blast,sheath blight
MR123 1991 Y776 × Y680 White rice 114–120 days to maturity 88–95 cm Susceptible to tungro, sheath
blast,BLB
MR127 1991 Setanjung, Sekencang, Muda White rice 120–128 days to maturity 101–110 cm Susceptible to tungro, sheath
blast, BLB
MR159 1995 Y833 × IR5491 White rice 124–139 days to maturity 75–92 cm Susceptible to BPH, sheath
tall yield 3–5.4 ton/ha Resistant to blight
blast, bacterial blight, tungro
MR167 1995 Y978/PTB18//Muda White rice 121–132 days to maturity 79–89 cm Moderately susceptible to
tall yield 4–6 ton/ha Resistant to blast tungro, BPH
moderately resistant to bacterial
blight, sheath blight
MR185 1995 Y1056 × MR133 White rice 112–120 days to maturity 76–83 cm NA
tall yield 6–9 ton/ha resistant to blast,
bacterial blight moderately resistant
to BPH, tungro, sheath blight
MR211 1999 MR84 × Hoshiyutaka White rice 90–100 days to maturity 76–83 cm tall NA
yield 6–9.6 ton/ha low amylase
content resistant to blast, BLB
MRQ50 1999 Q34 × KDML White aromatic first aromatic rice long slender grain NA
123 days to maturity yield 4–5 ton/ha
tolerant to lodging resistant to blast,
BLB
MR219 2001 MR151 × MR137 White rice 83–87 cm tall yield 6.5–10.5 ton/ha Susceptible to panicle blast
105–112 days to maturity developed moderately susceptible to
by direct seeding resistant to blast, sheath blight
bacterial blight moderately resistant drought intolerant
to BPH, tungro
MR220 2001 MR151 × MR137 White rice 76–80 cm tall yield 5–9.5 ton/ha Drought intolerant
105–113 days to maturity resistant to moderately susceptible to
blast, BLB sheath blight
MRQ74 2005 Q34 × KDML ///Kasturi White aromatic 65–70 cm tall yield 4.5–5.5 ton/ha NA
Maswangi 125 days to maturity similar to
Basmathi GI 40 suitable for diabetic
patient high GABA
(Continued)

TABLE 3 (Continued)

year
MR232 2006 W60 × Y1157 White rice 103–113 days to maturity 78–80 cm Susceptible to sheath blight
tall yield 6.5–8.8 ton/ha lodging
resistant resistant to blast, BPH
moderately resistant to panicle blast
MR220CL1 2010 IMI-TR-1770 × MR220 Clearfield white 105–118 days to maturity yield 6–9.5 High cost for practice of
rice ton/ha control weedy rice tolerant to Clearfield production system
toxic herbicide imidazolinone package
reoccurrence of weedy rice
after continuous planting for 8
seasons
MR220CL2 2010 IMI-TR-1770 × MR220 Clearfield white 97–113 days to maturity yield 6–9.5 NA
rice ton/ha control weedy rice tolerant to
toxic herbicide imidazolinone
MR253 2010 PTB 33 × SPM 92 White rice 100–104 days to maturity 69–74 cm Susceptible to sheath blight
tall Average yield 5.5–6.8 ton/ha
Short and semi-erect plant Resistant
to foliar blast Moderately resistant to
panicle blast and brown plant
hoppers (BPH) Suitable for planting
in peat soil,low pH
MR263 2010 SPM 156 × MR221 White rice Average yield −7.5 to 9 t/ha 59–71 cm Susceptible to sheath
tall 97–103 days to maturity Short blight,tungro,panicle blast
and semi-erect plant Long and
slender grain Intermediate
amylosecontent moderately Resistant
to foliar blast and (BPH)
MRQ76 2012 Q72 × Cuicak Wangi White aromatic Average yield −5 to 6 t/ha) NA
Maturation −109-112 days Moderate
tall plant type Long and slender grain
Soft and sticky rice like Thai Jasmine
riceDesignated for non granary
MR269 2012 P347 × Y1362 White rice Average yield 7.5–9.9 t/ha72-83 cm Not resistant to lodging and
tall Maturation −104-109 days Tall less nitrogen application is
plant Long and slender grain recommended especially in
Intermediate amylosecontent main season
Resistant to foliar and panicle blast
MR284 2015 ER3070 × MR220 White rice 106–108 days to maturity 122–128 cm Susceptible to sheath blight,
tall yield 5–9.2 ton/ha resistant to BLB, tungro, panicle blast
foliar blast moderately resistant to
BPH
MR297/ Siraj 297 2017 MRQ76 × P446)/P446 White rice 110–115 days to maturity 65–70 cm NA
tall yield 8.6–9.5 ton/ha resistant to
panicle and foliar blast, tungro
moderately resistant to BPH
Primera UKMRC9 2017 Oryza rufipugon × MR219 Red rice Low glycemic index (46) Rich in NA
antioxidant Average yield 5.5 t/ha)
Maturation 125 days Blast Resistance
MR303/ Sempadan 2018 (MR256 × MR253)/MR256 White rice 104–106 days to maturity 120 cm tall NA
yield up to 10 ton/ha resistant to
foliar blast moderately resistant to
panicle blast, BPH Can be planted on
marginal soil
(Continued)

TABLE 3 (Continued)

year
MR307/ Sebernas 2018 MR256 × P493 White rice 107–110 days to maturity Foliar and NA
panicle Blast Resistance
MR315 2020 cb Y1512 × MR253 White rice 105–109 days to maturity 103–106 cm Moderately susceptible to
tall yield 6.9–8.4 ton/ha resistant to tungro, BPH,BLB
panicle blast moderately resistant to
sheath blight, foliar blast
MRIA 1 2014 mutation of IR76569-259-1-2-1 Aerobic rice yield 3–5 ton/ha Maturation −90- Poor tillering
95 days Long and slender grain
Intermediate amylose content heat
resistant reduce water shortage by
50% Resistant to foliar blast
UKMRC-9 2012 Oryza rufipogon × MR219 Red rice 125 days to maturity 103–106 cm tall NA
yield 5.5 ton/ha resistant to blast low
GI
UKMRC-2 2019 Oryza rufipogon × MR219 White rice Yield 12 ton/ha Maturation −105- NA
110 days Blast Resistance
Submergence tolerant
UKMRC-8 2019 Oryza rufipogon × MR219 White rice Yield 14 ton/ha Maturation −105- NA
110 days Blast Resistance
Submergence tolerant
PadiU Putra 1 2017 Pongsu Seribu 1 × MR219 White rice Yield 10–12 ton/ha Blast resistance NA
PadiU Putra 2 2017 Swarna-Sub1 × MR219 White rice Submergence tolerant NA
Kadaria 1 2019 0025A × 0025B × 004R Hybrid yield 7.3–12.2 ton/ha Maturation Moderately susceptible to
−104-106 resistant to foliar and BPH, tungro, sheath blight
panicle blast suitable for planting in
KADA
NA, information not available.
since 1934, but its viral nature only came to light in 1965 (Kobayashi The common disease management approach is cultural practices
et al., 1983). Despite the significance of tungro disease, very little work and use of chemical but often times it fails to combat the disease at the
has gone into understanding it except for the first genome sequencing bud. It is imperative to use disease resistant rice varieties as host
of RTBV undertaken in 1999 (Marmey et al., 1999). Annually almost resistance is the best strategy to cut yield losses and ensure the
US$1.5 billion is lost worldwide while in Asia about 10% of loss in rice sustainability of rice and paddy industry (Wu et al., 2020).
yield had been attributed to this disease (Dai and Beachy, 2009). Additionally, the use of certified quality seeds is mandatory to curb
Besides green planthopper, the brown planthopper has been a yield losses. A list of common rice diseases in Malaysian granaries is
constant menace (Matteson, 2000). Nilaparvata lugens causes the presented in Table 4 with the inclusion of each disease description.
notorious brown plant hopper (BPH) disease that is touted to cause a loss
of 90,000 ton/season which is valued at about RM 72 million. BPH
directly feed on rice plants and transmits the grassy stunt disease (Dyck Resilience: soil health, a key
and Thomas, 1979). As for brown spot disease, the causal agent is determinant to paddy and rice
Bipolaris oryzae (telemorph = Cochliobolus miyabeanus). It affects direct production
seeded rice plants and could potentially lead to 90% yield loss if water
supply is scarce or limited and there is an inadequate supply of nitrogen Rice productivity gain is driven by soil quality. Soil quality
(Baranwal et al., 2013). Although brown spot is commonly observed on variables which includes bulk density, organic carbon content,
the leaves and glumes (grain husks) (Ou, 1985), it could also affect other nutrient element content, soil porosity, soil aggregate stability index
plant parts, namely leaf, coleoptile, sheaths, panicle branches and grain. and others are key determinants of the overall rice growth performance
According to Sunder et al. (2014) the pathogen causes brown to dark and productivity. In general, rice cultivation techniques, diversified
brown lesions on panicle stalk at the joint of flag leaf to stalk. As the crop cultivation pattern which integrates alternative upland crop
disease progresses, the pathogen retards plant growth, forms visible grain planting via rotation has long been associated with soil quality
discoloration, reduces the number of grains per panicle and grain weight, improvement, however, no such methods are practiced in Malaysia.
and increases the number of empty grains (Valarmathi and Rice growing areas in Malaysia are distributed in a wide range of soil
Ladhalakshmi, 2019). types: organic clay, brown clay, Jawa, Sedu, Bakau, Bernam, Serong

TABLE 4 List and description of common rice diseases in Malaysian granaries.
Disease Pathogen Symptoms Image

Bacterial leaf blight Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Wilting of seedlings yellowing and drying of leaves
oryzae
Sheath blight Rhizoctonia solani Lesions on the leaves usually have irregular lesions,
often with gray-white centers and brown margins as
they grow older.
Tungro Rice tungro bacilliform Leaf discoloration, stunted growth, reduced tiller
virus (RTBV) and Rice numbers and sterile or partly filled grains.
tungro spherical virus presence of green planthoppers as carriers of the virus
(RTSV)
Blast Pyricularia oryzae Affect leaf, collar, node, neck, parts of panicle, and
Magnaporthe grisea sometimes leaf sheath white to gray-green lesions or
spots, with dark green borders Older lesions on the
leaves are elliptical or spindle-shaped and whitish to
gray centers with red to brownish or necrotic border
(Continued)
and others. These soil types varies by their unique rhizosphere Acid-sulfate soil (ASS) contains pyrite (FeS2) which releases sulfuric
microbiome and inherent nutrient composition. In high performing acid upon oxidation. It is high in aluminium and iron content and
rice granaries such as Sabak Bernam and Tanjung Karang disricts, the deficit in phosphorus. Pyrite oxidation causes sulfuric acid drainage
soils are generally less acidic (pH 4–5) compared to low performing and dissolves the bioavailable iron for plant uptake. As a result, plant
rice granaries (pH < 4). nutrition and subsequent growth and development are adversely
The soil acidity level increases with the oxidation of pyrite-bound affected. Agricultural ASSs are subjected to amelioration with basalt,
sediments distributed mainly in the coastal plains of Malaysia. ground magnesium, limestone and organic compounds as a soil pH

TABLE 4 (Continued)
Disease Pathogen Symptoms Image

Bacterial panicle blast Burkholderia glumae Reddish-brown, aborted or partially filled grains and
linear lesions on flag-leaf sheath
Brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens Hopperburn or yellowing, browning and drying of

Rice ragged stunt plant
Brown spot Bipolaris oryzae Brown spots or lesions on leaves
IRRI Knowledge Bank.
corrective measure. Rice granaries distributed on ASS are treated this practice not only focuses on preserving the environment, but also
using lime sources such as ground magnesium limestone (GML), accounts for the welfare, safety and labour health (Ali et al., 2020). In
hydrated lime and liquid lime. Liming increases the cost of production Malaysia, the first certification scheme constructed based on Malaysian
as at least 4 tonnes of GML per ha is required for a decent production Standard MS 1784:2005 Crop Commodities – Good Agriculture
of 3.5–4 t ha of rice under ASS system. Practices (GAP) known as Good Practice Scheme of Malaysia (SALM)
was drawn up by Department of Agriculture in 2002. Under rebranding
measure, SALM became MyGAP in 2013 (My = Malaysia). For a farm to
Resilience strategies: the Malaysian be certified, it is evaluated on the aspects of its environmental setting,
Good Agriculture Practices (MyGAP) verification of farm practices and safety of farm products, incorporating
traceability and ensuring adequate workers’ welfare within the farm
Sustainable agriculture and food safety are the cores of good (Department of Economics Malaysia, 2009). As the benchmark for
agricultural practice (GAP). First mooted by FAO in 2003 (FAO, 2003), MyGAP is against the international GAP certification scheme, it allows

TABLE 5 Paddy Check guideline criteria.

for Malaysian produce to penetrate into the global market and gain better
recognition and acceptance (Mohamed et al., 2016). However, the Number Checklist Remark
numbers for paddy farms adopting this scheme is very low for the
1 Soil acidity status Ensure soil is not too acidic
farmers being old and used to conventional farm practices are inept in
2 Plot condition Flat and well maintained
precision farming or precise application of fertilizer inputs (Chee-Wan
and Meng-Chang, 2012). Also the lack of incentive or very little incentive 3 Weed control Follow weed control schedule to
to acquire farming mechanization had derailed the farmers. Based on a reduce yield loss
study on 80 paddy farmers, 80% practiced unsustainable paddy farming 4 Irrigation schedule Follow the irrigation schedule to
with a score of less than 40.0 on a scale of 0–100, 2.5% in the range of save water
intermediate sustainability with none of the farmers close to being 5 Land preparation Tillage and soil levelling
sustainable (Mohamed et al., 2016). The result is an indication that
6 Seed Procurement from a certified
farmers were not following the Paddy Check guideline and are using
dealer
excessive fertilizer, pesticide, and herbicide which contravened MyGAP
(Table 5). Generally, farmers are receptive of sustainable agriculture as it 7 Fertilization Appropriate nutrients and timely
compromises on profitability and maximizing productivity. Moreover, application of fertilizer
the lack of support for the certification was also due to the failure to 8 Water management Efficient water management is
differentiate myGAP and non-MyGAP rice. The non-existent reward for essential to higher productivity
good quality and safe rice produced in a sustainable manner had 9 Pest control Use appropriate amount of
dampened not only the MyGAP practitioners but also discouraged other pesticide at critical stages only
farmers from adopting the stringent guideline. But all is not doom and
10 Harvesting Proper post-harvest handling to
gloom, since recently in May 2021, the first MyGAP rice grown in
reduce losses
KETARA, Terengganu hit the market (BERNAMA, 2021).
Muda Agriculture Development Authority (2012).
Service models for rice farming in handling, maintenance and management of drones. Similar courses
Malaysia (professional drone navigator) are also organized at the community
college levels (eg. Kolej Komuniti Sabak Bernam, Selangor). On a daily
In recent years, unmanned aerial vehicles or drones have become basis, an average 10 l capacity drone could cover up to 10 hectares of
an important tool for precision agriculture. According to the US-based paddy field. The charges are based on area size covered; RM12-20
1996 Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International, 80% (USD$2.70–4.50) for a quarter of an hectare. In a personal
of the future drone market is expected to engage in agriculture sector communication with local farmers (Feb 2020) in Tanjung Karang,
(Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International, 2013). drones were favored for the fast spraying efficiency which subsequently
Drone platform offers opportunities to fetch a wide array of improved rice production via mitigation of pest, disease and lodging.
agronomically important datasets; soil analysis, mapping and
detection of outliers, irrigation, spraying and planting of plants (Zhu
et al., 2021). In rice, the above ground biomass which accounts for Future prospective and opportunities
yield-related traits such as number of panicles, spikelets/grains per toward crop improvement and greater
panicle, percentage of filled kernels/grains, grain weight and others, productivity
cumulatively determine the yield potential of rice at a given growing
cycle. Effective monitoring of yield-related traits is particularly The Malaysian rice farmers are mainly older adults in their 50s
important to gain insights into crop growth stability and yield. and 60s. Youth (less than 40 years) participation in Malaysian rice and
Rice cultivation in Malaysia has a long history of being dominated paddy cultivation is insignificant as they represent less than 17% of the
by small farmers. Generally, they can be classified into five different total farmers population. Literacy wise, farmers aged 60 and above
groups based on the land hold area: marginal; < 1 hectare, small; 1–2 had received up to secondary schooling only. These farmers are
hectare, semi-medium; 2–4 hectare, medium; 4–10 hectares and large comfortable with easy handling tools such as straw cutter, weeding
land holders with >10 hectares. In Malaysia, drone technology for machine and ploughing machine catered at the production level
agriculture is mainly employed in private sectors. Although the drone (Yaacob et al., 2019). In general, the utilization of farming tools
industry had established a broad niche of application in agricultural remains traditional and no apparent application of high-end
systems (oil palm, mainly), the impact on Malaysian rice farmers is technology had been practiced. Since most of these farmers belong to
relatively minimal at engagement in sprayer drones solely. Sprayer the small-scale rice farming group with low buying power, they are
drones are used to facilitate timely application of fertilizer, pesticides highly dependent on the incentives and subsidies provided by the
and other chemicals alike. Professional drone users do not hail from federal government (Adnan et al., 2017). Hence, only large-scale rice
the farmers community. Spray drones are offered as service models farm owners with higher buying power are keen in purchasing and
and are mostly distributed in the high performing rice granaries in owning modern equipment (eg. harvester). In a survey conducted in
Malaysia (Tanjung Karang, Sekinchan). Since drone technology is the MADA rice granary, 65% of the total respondent (rice farmers)
gaining attention, paving new directions in modern rice farming, above 51 years old showed positive acceptance to technology despite
more youngsters are pursuing technical courses which are readily noting the difficult handling procedure. Undeniably, technology
available locally. For example, the My Drone Services offers technical carries a toll on the cost of production. Precision rice agriculture by
courses (basics for drone user and agriculture pilot drone) on the MARDI offer various technologies for land levelling systems, seed

sowing coupled with conversion rate, yield monitoring and early technology-enabled farming practices are least observed (Rahim et al.,
warning system and fertilization technology package. Amongst the 2018). On a global perspective, the rice industry in Malaysia fall behind
most popular accepted? technology developed by MARDI is the in regard to yield and productivity as a result of unattended/widening
levelling technology package and variable rate seedling which costs gaps in the utilization of genetically-modified (GM) planting materials,
RM225/ha (USD$50.50). Even among the paddy farmers with fairly nano fertilization and technology-driven farming practices (Vaghefi et
good acceptance to precision technologies, the rising cost of al., 2016; Masilamany et al., 2021; Sabran and Abas, 2021). There is an
production is a big stumbling block, crossing into their profit margin. urgent need to understand the GM-hesitancy culture among local
As we discuss about food, we can never escape from the controversy farmers and educate them accordingly. Ultimately, farmers are the
surrounding the use of chemical fertilizers (Food and Agricultural backbone support for rice research & development activities in Malaysia.
Organisation, 2004). The usage of chemical or inorganic fertilizer is It takes two hands to clap. Likewise, it takes effective farmer-researcher
widespread and common for the cost-effective production of agricultural communication for meaningful laboratory to farm translational research
crops (Palanivell et al., 2016; Tanaka et al., 2020). It ensures bountiful and acceptance.
harvests at affordable costs but at the expense of human health and our
ecosystem. Besides, rice farming is highly polluting since hundreds of
millions of tons of rice husk and straw are produced along the cycle. The Author contributions
open burning of these wastes leads to air pollution and emission of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) mainly due to incomplete combustion DD and NTG analyzed the data, wrote, read and approved the
(Romasanta et al., 2017). Hence, a paradigm shift to a greener agricultural manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the
practice is needed to ensure sustainability and clean environment. As the submitted version.
country moves toward developed status, green fertilizers and
nanotechnology offer potential solution for sustainable agriculture (Behl
et al., 2022). The utilization of nanomaterials for precision agriculture will Funding
cut on nutrient losses during fertilization and reduce the use of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides by controlled release of nutrients, fertilizers and This work was funded by the Geran Galakkan Penyelidik Muda
pesticides (Fraceto et al., 2016) while elevating productivity (Fraceto et GGPM-2021-048 by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
al., 2016; Adnan and Nordin, 2021). Circular economy promotes the shift
toward sustainable waste management, hence to use the waste products
of paddy farming, such as the rice husk is commendable since this Acknowledgments
practice of value creation will indirectly cut on carbon footprint while
embracing multiple SDGs. The steering away of chemical fertilizer will The financial support by GGPM-2021-048 and Dana
ensure not only a cleaner food chain but will put waste material into Pecutan Penerbitan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia are duly
beneficial agriculture input to enhance productivity. acknowledged.
Conclusion Conflict of interest

The long history of Malaysian rice farming was established at the The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
pre-independence era. In the 1960’s, soils in Peninsular Malaysia were absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
ranked amongst the most superior quality in terms of organic matter be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
factor. The swampy condition of west coast facilitated accumulation of
soil organic matter (SOM). Long standing research on improved rice
planting materials are primarily conducted using traditional breeding Publisher’s note
programmes. Government policy and support for a productive rice
system is most evident through the implementation of Paddy Production All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the
Incentive Schemes and Guaranteed Minimum Price standardization authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
under the paddy supply chain. Despite differences in environmental organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
factors, mainly soil fertility, rice domestic trading has been serving equal reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
in both high and low performing rice granaries. Farmers (>50 years old) claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or
are the main actors of rice agricultural system, however, endorsed by the publisher.
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Glossary
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ASS Acid-sulfate soil
COVID-19 Corona virus disease 2019
IRRI International Rice Research Institute
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FAOSTAT Food and Agriculture Statistics
GRiSP Global Rice Science Partnership
KADA Kemubu Agricultural Development Authority
KETARA North Terengganu Integrated Agriculture Development
USA United States of America
GHGs Greenhouse gases
MARDI Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute
MOHE Ministry of Higher Education
MOSTI Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation
MyGAP Malaysian Good Agriculture Practices
MADA Muda Agricultural Development Authority
SALM Good Practice Scheme of Malaysia
SOM Soil organic matter
SSL Self-sufficiency level
UKM Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
UPM Universiti Putra Malaysia

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TYPE Review

PUBLISHED 14 June 2023

Rice and paddy industry in

Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 01 frontiersin.org

Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 02 frontiersin.org

Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 03 frontiersin.org

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Dorairaj and Govender

Granary 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

TABLE 2 Planting hectareage and rice production in granaries in Malaysia 2016–2020.

Granary 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

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TABLE 3 Description of rice varieties released in Malaysia from 1964 to 2019.

Variety Released Parent material Rice type Trait Problem

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Variety Released Parent material Rice type Trait Problem

Seberang/MR77 1984 MR 50 × IR 4215 White rice 110–115 cm tall Moderately susceptible to

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Variety Released Parent material Rice type Trait Problem

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Variety Released Parent material Rice type Trait Problem

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Variety Released Parent material Rice type Trait Problem

PadiU Putra 2 2017 Swarna-Sub1 × MR219 White rice Submergence tolerant NA

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TABLE 4 List and description of common rice diseases in Malaysian granaries.

Disease Pathogen Symptoms Image

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Disease Pathogen Symptoms Image

Brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens Hopperburn or yellowing, browning and drying of

Brown spot Bipolaris oryzae Brown spots or lesions on leaves

IRRI Knowledge Bank.

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TABLE 5 Paddy Check guideline criteria.

compromises on profitability and maximizing productivity. Moreover, application of fertilizer

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Conclusion Conflict of interest

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ASS Acid-sulfate soil

COVID-19 Corona virus disease 2019

IRRI International Rice Research Institute

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FAOSTAT Food and Agriculture Statistics

GRiSP Global Rice Science Partnership

KADA Kemubu Agricultural Development Authority

KETARA North Terengganu Integrated Agriculture Development

USA United States of America

GHGs Greenhouse gases

MARDI Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute

MOHE Ministry of Higher Education

MOSTI Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation

MyGAP Malaysian Good Agriculture Practices

MADA Muda Agricultural Development Authority

Dorairaj and Govender