Torsion Ignou
Torsion Ignou
Torsion Ignou
Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Torsion of Circular Shafts
1221 TheoryofTmioll
12.22 Resisting Torque
122.3 1)eformations in a Circular Shaft
12.24 Stresses in a Circular Shaft
12.3 Power Transmission by Shafts
12.4 Hollow Circular Shafts
124.1 Strength ofa Hollow Shaft
12.4.2 Torsion of Thin Tubes of Circular Section
12.5 Torsion of Non-circular Sections
12.5.1 Solid Non-circular Section Shafts
12.5.2 Thin Walled Non-circular Section Shafts
12.6 Concept of Plastic Torsion
12.7 Summary
12.8 Answers to SAQs
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The results obtained during the study of shear enable us to pass over to the study of
strength under torsion. Members in torsion are encountered in many engineering
applications. The most common application is provided by transmission shafts, which are
used to transmit power from one point to another, as from a steam turbine to an electric
generator, or from a motor to a machine tool, or from the engine to the rear axle of an
automobile. These shafts may either be solid or they may be hollow. In practice, we come
across torsion very often; a turning force is always applied to transmit energy by rotation.
This turning force is applied either to rim of a pulley, keyed to the shaft, or to any other
suitable point at some distance from the axis of the shaft. The product of this turning force,
and the distance between the point of application of the force and the axis of the shaft is
known as torque, tutning moment or twisting moment.
A major part of this unit is devoted to the treatment of members with circular, or tubular,
cross-sectional areas. Non-circular sections are discussed only briefly. In practice,
members that transmit torque, such as shafts of motors, torque tubes of power equipment,
etc. are predominantly circular or tubular in cross-section.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
conceptualise the theory of torsion,
calculate the strength of the solid and hollow circular shaft, deformations and
stresses developed in the shafts,
detennine the power transmitted by the shafts in MKS and SI units,
design the shaft for the required torque as per the strength criteria and as per
the stiffness criteria,
determine the torque transmitted by the new shaft (should be equal to the
torque transmitted by the replaced shaft) in replacing the shaft,
draw the free body diagram for the aialysis of stepped shaft,'
describe the behaviour of non-circular section shaft under torsion,
compare the analogy between membrane problem and torsion problem, and
calculate the fully plastic torque Tp for various structural sections.
St~ssesinShaPts Shells
and Thermal Stresses
12.2 TORSION OF CIRCULAR SHAFTS
A shaft of circular section is said to be in pure torsion when it is subjected to equal and
opposite end couples whose axes coincide with the axis of the shaft. In other words, if the
moment is applied in a vertical plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam or
a shaft, it will be subjected to a torque causing twist or torsion in the member. As the beam
bends due to bending moment, the shaft twists due to twisting moment. Figure 12.1 shows
a pulley of radius R subjected to a system of couple, i.e. equal and opposite force W.The
couple attached to the shaft which cause the tuming effect on the pulley.
In order that the body should remain in static equilibrium, it must exert an equal amount of
resisting moment.
At any point in the section of the shaft, a shear stress is induced or more exactly, the state
of stress at any point in the cross-section of the shaft is one of pure shear, the direction of
which is tangential at any point in the shaft. By the principle of complementary sheaf
stresses, we know that in a state of simple shear there are two planes carrying the shear
stress of the same intensity. These planes must be perpendicular to each other.
In the case of the shaft in torsion, the planes of shear at a point are
(a) the cross-section itself, and
(b) the plane containing the point and the axis of the shaft.
To find internal torque or resisting moment, in statically determinate members, only one
equations of statics Z M,= 0 is required, where Z axis is directed along the member. As in
the case of determination of twisting moment at any point along the length of the member,
pass a plane at the desired section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member and
remove everything to either side of the cut. The internal or resisting torque necessary to
maintain equilibrium of the isolated part is determined.Considering,for example, the
GENERATOR
/----> ROTATION
system'consisting of the turbine A and the generator B connected by the transmission shaft
AB (Figure 12.2), and breaking the system into its three component parts (Figure 1 2 3 , we
note that the turbine exerts a twisting couple or torque Ton the shaft, and that the shaft
exerts im equal torque on the generator.
The generator reacts by exerting the equal and opposite torque T' on the shaft, and the
shaft by exerting the torque T' on the turbine.
Following assumptions are made, while finding out shear stresses and &formations in a
circular shaft subjected to torsion.
(a) m e material of the shaft is homogeneous and isotropic.
(b) The twist along the shaft is uniform throughout (i.e.) all normal cross-sections
which are at the same axial distance suffer equal relative rotation.
(c) Normal cross-sections of the shaft, which were plane and circular before twist,
remain plane and circular after twist, i.e. no warping or distortion of parallel
planes normal to the axis of the member takes place.
(d) All diameters of the normal cross-section which were straight before twist,
remain straight with their magnitude unchanged, after twist.
(e) Stress is proportional to strain, i.e. all the stresses are within the elastic limit.
(f) Intensity of stress varies uniformly from zero at the centre to a maximum at the
outside surface and hence the stress is proportional to the distance of that point
from the centre.
A little consideration will show that the above assumptions are justified, if the torque
applied is small and the angle of twist is also small.
12.2.1 Theory of Torsion
For the purpose of developing the expressions for the torsional stress and strain, we shall
assume that one end of the shaft is fixed and a moment is applied at the other end, the
plane of application of moment being perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam.
This assumption is valid because whether it rotates at uniform speed to transmit the power
or is at rest, the stress and strain due to equal and opposite couples at its ends will remain
the same.
Consider a shaft fixed at one end, and subjected to a torque (T)at the other end as shown
in Figure 12.3.
Figure 123
Let T = Torque in kg cm
1 = Length of the shaft, and
R = Radius of the shaft.
A balancing torque of equal magnitude and opposite in direction will be induced at the
fixed end.
Let the line CA on the surface of the shaft be deformed to CA' and OA to OA' as shown in
Figure 12.3.
Let LAC$= (I and LAOA'= 8.
As a result of the torque applied, every cross-section of the shaft will be subjected to shear
stresses.
Let f, = shear stress induced at the outermost surface, and
C = modulus of the rigidity of the shaft material.
St~essesin~Lacts& Shells We b o w that
nrd Thermal Streaseo
Shear strain = Deformation per unit length
- -AA'
- I
= tan$
= @ (@being very small)
We also know that the length of the arc AA' = R 8
AA' Re
/. @=7--
- 1
Shear stress
Moreover, deformation =
Modulus of Rigidity
The shaft may be taken to consist of an infinite number of elemental hollow shafts, one
surrounding the other. '
If the deformation of a line on the surface of any such interior cylinder, at a radius r be
considered, the shear stress intensity 'q' at the radius 'r' is given by the relation,
Thus, it can be stated that the intensity of shear stress at any point in the cross-section of a
shaft subjected to pure torsion is proportional to its distance from the centre.
This means that the shear stress is maximum on the outside surface and variation of shear
stress with radius is linear.
C
R R
where, J=j2nr2dr=jda2
0 0
Here, J represents the moment of inertia of the shaft section about the axis of the shaft. The
moment of inertia of a plane area, with respect to an axis perpendicular to the plane of the
figure is called polar moment of inertia with respect to the point, where the axis intersects
the plane. In a circular plane, the point is always the centre of the circle. Therefore, J is
hown as polar moment of inertia, i.e. moment of inertia about ZZ axis.
As per perpendicular axis theorem,
I, = In + I,
x
For a circular section, lu = 1' = -
64
D4
where D is diameter of the circular shaft.
S ~ w h S ~ & ~ r l h J
Pad Thennnl Strcrru The term -
R
is known as torsional section mddulus or polar modulus, denoted by 2, .
M
It is similar to section modulus, 2 ,which is equal to j.
Thus, polar modulus for a solid sbaft
This resisting torque is also known as strength of the shaft. Strength of the shaft is defined
as the maximum torque or power the shaft can transmit from one pulley to another.
Connecting the Eqs. (12.1), (12.2) and (12.3), we get
1
ar =Rf- ' J- -z -1 e (12.4) II
3 .
E
E-q. (12.4) cnn be compared with equation of bending I = y --R-'
Figure 12.5
The shearing strain 'g' in a given element is measured by the change in the angles formed
by the sides of that element. Since the circles defining two of the sides of the element
remain unchanged, the shearing strain 'g ' must be equal to the angle between line AB
and A'B.
iI As we discussed in the preceding section,
The above equation shows that the shearing strain 'g' at a given paint in a shaft subjected
to torsion is proportional to the angle of twist 9. It also shows that 4 is proportional to the
distance 'r ' from the axis of the shaft to the point under consideration. In other words, the
shearing strain in a circular shaft varies linearly with the distance from the axis of the shaft.
1 The shearing strain is maximum on the surface of the shaft, where r = R.
Thus, we have,
Eliminating 8 from above two equations, we may express the shearing strain + at a
distance r from the axis of the shaft as
J'
Torsion
Ductile materials generally fail in shear. merefore, when subjected to torsion, a specimen
made of a ductile material breaks along a plane perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. On
the other hand, brittle materials are weaker in tension than in shear. Thus, when subjected
to torsion, a specimen made of brittle material tends to break along surfaces which are
perpendicular to the direction in which tension is maximum, i.e. along surfaces forming a
45"angle with the longitudinal axis of the specimen.
Example 12.1
Find the torque which a shaft of 25 cm diameter can safely transmit, if the shear is
not to exceed 460kg/cm2.
Solutlon
Diameter of shaft, D = 25 cm
Maximum shear stress,f, = 460kg/cm2
Let Tis the torque transmitted by the shaft.
Example 12.2
A bar of magnesium alloy 28 mm in diameter was tested on a gauge length of
25 cm in tension and in torsion. A tensile load of 5 tonnes produced an extension of
0.4mrn and a torque of 1250kg cm produced a twist of 1.5 lo.
Determine
(a) the Young's modulus,
(b) the modulus of rigidity,
(c) the bulk modulus, and
(d) the Poisson's ratio for the material under test.
Solution
Diameter of bar, D = 28 mm = 2.8cm
Area of bar, A = -
X
= 6.1575 cm2
(2.81~
4
Length of bar, 1 = 25 cm
Load on the bar, P = 5 t = 5000 kg
Extension of the bar, 61= 0.4rnm = 0.04 cm
Torque, T = 1250kg cm
Angle of twist, 0 = 1.51°= 0.02635radian
Stresses in Shafts & Sk&
and Thennal Stmses
Young's modulus for the alloy, E = 0.5075 x lo6kg/cm2.
C = 0.1965 x lo6kg/cm2
Modulus of rigidity for the alloy, C = 0.1965 x lo6 kg/cm2.
- -
1 hp = 75 kg d s e c = 4500 kg d m i n
Work done per minute = 2 M
I where, N = number of revolutions per minute, and
T = average torque in kg m.
Since there are 4500 kg m per minute in one horsepower,
Work done in kg mlmin
Power, P = hP
4500
= To watts
where, o = angular displacement in radianslsec = -
Design of Shafts
r
):2
\ 1
The principal specifications to be met in the design of transmission shaft are the
power to be transmitted and the speed of rotation of the shaft. The role of the
designer is to select the material and the dimensions of the cross-section of the
shaft, so that the maximum shearing stress allowable in the material will not be
exceeded when the shaft is transmitting the required power at the specific speed.
We know that,
Power, P = T o
The total torque transmitted T in this case will be the same as the torque transmitted by
each pottion.
Let Tl = Torque transmitted by the shaft No. 1
L, = Length of the shaft No. 1
R, = li'adius of the shaft No. 1
8, = Angle of twist in the shaft No. 1
J1= Polar moment of inertia for the shaft No. 1
f,, = Maximum shear stress in the shaft No. 1
Similarly, T2 , ,R2 ,q ,J2 and fs2 are the corresponding values for the shafi No. 2.
The total torque, T = TI = T2 (12.5)
Also, the total twist 9 = twist in portion 1( 9 , )+ twist in portion 2 (02)
i.e., 9 = g1+e2 (12.6)
Now,
Further, -T -C- 8
I
J - I
8 = - TL
JC
TLl TL,
From Eq. (12.6). we obtain, 8 = - +-
CJ, CJ2
Therefore,
!
I Jhample 123
Calculate the diameter of a solid shaft transmitting 150 kW at 25 rpm, if the
maximum shear stress in the shaft is not to exceed 70 MPa. Compare this with the
shaft delivering same power at 25000 rpm.
Solution
\ Power transmitted, P = 150 kW = 150 x lo3 watts
Number of revolutions, N = 25 rpm
L
Since, 1 Pa = 1 N/m2and 1 Mega Pascal = lo6N/m2 = N / d
Then, maximum shear stress,f, = 70 MPa = 70 ~ / m m ~
Let T be the torque transmitted in N m.
D = 160.9 rnm
If N = 25000 rpm, then p = -2 w
60
It is seen from this example that the size of the shaft is reduced very much if the
power is transmitted at high speed. That is the reason for the modem tendency to
use high speed machines, which results in considerable saving in the material cost.
Example 12.4
A steel shaft transmits 105 kW at 160 rpm If the shaft is 100 mm diameter, find the
torque on the shaft and the maximum shear stress induced. Find also the twist of the
shaft in a length of 6 m
Take C = 8 x lo4 N/mm2
Solution
P = 105 kW = 105 x lo3W
N = 160rpm
D = 100 mm
1 = 6 m = 6000 mrn
We know.
! Example 12.6
Show that for a given maximum shear stress the minimum diameter required for a
solid circular shaft to transmit P kW at N rpmcan be expressed as
What value of the maximum shear stress has been used if the constant equals 84.71,
being in millimetres?
Solutton
We know, p = -2Rw watts
60
where,
Stmrm m Shafta & S h e l when K = 84.71, we obtain,
a d Thermal St-
Example 12.7
The stepped steel shaft shown in Figure 12.9 is subjected to a torque (T) at the free i
end and a torque (2T) in the opposite direction at the junction of the two sizes. I
What is the total angle of twist at the Eree end, if maximum shear stress in the shaft
is limited to 7 0 kg/cm2 ?
Assume the modulus of rigidity to be 0.84x lo6 kg/cm2.
Toque at C = T (anticlockwise)
Torque at B = 2T (clockwise)
shear stress,f, = 700 kg/cm2
~aximum
0 = 0.06248 radian
The angle of twist due to torque of 2T at B ,
= 0.005radian
The angle of twist due to torque at B, will continue to be the angle of twist at C also.
Since the directions of the two twists are opposite to each other, therefore, the net
angle of twist at C will be
= 0.06248- 0.005
= 0.05748radian
xample 12.8
A solid shaft 6.5 m long is securely fixed at each end. A torque of 91 N m is applied
to the shaft at a section 2.5 m from one end as shown in Figure 12.11.Find the
fixing torques set up at the ends of the shaft.
Figure 1211
If the shaft is 35 mm diameter, find the maximum shear stresses the two portions.
Find also the angle of twist for the section where the torque is applied.
Take C = 8.4x lo4 ~ / r n r n ~ .
Solutlon
Free Body Diagram
Since the ends being fixed, the angle of twist in the length AC of the shaft must be
equal to the angle of twist in the length BC.
Since J and C have the same value for the two portions. Thus, we get,
S t l ~ r c e sin Sbaftq & Sheb
nnd 1 h e d Stresses
f, = 6.65 Nlmm2
Maximum shear stress in the portion CB,
Etpre 1213
SoIutim
Free Body Diggram
TR
Maximum shear stress,.h = -
J
Torsion
Maximum shear stress in AB,fs = -
TAB
JAB
RM
TBC
Maximum shear stress in BC,fs = -RBC
JBC
TCD
Maximum shear stress inCD,fs = -RcD
JCD
TDE
Maximum shear stress in DE,fs = -
JDE
RDE
-
CLOCK WISE 5 0 N.m
B C
ANTICLOCKWISE
Y
750 N.m
CLOCKWISE
750N.m
ANTICLOCKWISE
M
500 N. m 500 N m
CLOCKWISE
Angle of mist
50 lo' 1200
= 29.84 x lo4 rad (clockwise)
x ( 4 0 ) ~x 80 x 10'
32
/
A 20 KN.m 30KN.m
B
1
I
i
/
4
/ I
I 1
Figure 1215
Solution
Let TA and TBbe the reaction torques at A and B respectively (in kN m).
Free Body Diagram
Here, TA = - 20 kN m (anticlockwise)
TB = + 30 kN m (clockwise)
2OKN.m 2 0 KN.m
(4NTl i l O T K W I S E l (CLOCKWISE)
C D
3OKN,m 30 KN.m
(ANTELOCKWISE) (CLOCKWISE)
Note
If both the ends fixed, the total angle of twist between the supports is zero.
Variation of torque, surface shear stress and angle of twist along the span of the
shaft has been shown in Figure 12.17.
A
200
1
I
I
VARIATION OF TOROUE (711
I
a
130
I
I
I I I
!-
Lt,
11.7
I
11.7
I 0.0¶ 19.09
I' I I 1
I VARIATION OF SURFACE SHEAR 'STRESS (fr I
I I I I
Figure 12.17 :Variation of Torque, Surface Shear Stress and Angle of Twist
SAQ 2
A solid sl~aftmade of steel and of 2 m length is to transmit 50 kW at 150 rpm. If the
shear stress in the shaft material is 11ot to excc2d 50 MPa and maximum allowable
twist in the shaft is lo,calculate the shaft diameter.
Take C = 80 GPa.
Stresses in Shafts & She*
SAQ 3
aod Thorn4 St1~occ8 What must thc length of a 5 r r m dirtmeter alulninlum wire be so that it can be
twisted through one complete revolution w~aioutexceedirlg a shearing stress of
42 ?d/rnrn2.Take C -- 2.7 x 1o4 ~llnrn*.
SAQ 4
Find the power that can he t-xnmitted by a shaft 60 nun dianleter at 180 rpn~,if riic
permss~blsshear stress as X5 X;;!rlun-
.:$A<$ 5
" ~ I shall
C shcwr! in Figla& !2.18 T Q F ; ~ ! ~'0':) rp;lr wi& I;Q kW 15 kW taken
;it r i anif R rc$pei.:tivejy ;:~t,$ kW rtpg?!;~.:! i r r ,'C i-ii1t.i
..fi ma-<i:rlr,lrn<!)ear.s:rcx,<
~3::vclog)e!l in the sllaCt arnd thtr iizlgle crf twist (dcg,ri:i.) of tk; g c s '4 rel:ctlvc C.
is vaiid for hollow circular shaft. Here, R, and R, are the inner and outer radius of the
hollow shaft respectively. Maximum shear stress occurs at tbe outer radius whereas the
mininlum shear stress occurs at the inner radius. The distribution of shear stress in the case
of hollow circular shaft is shown in Figure 12.19.
12.4.1 Strength of a Hollow Shaft
It means the rnaxiniurn torque or power a hollow shaft can transmit from one pulley to
another.
Consider a hollow circular shaft subjected to some torque.
Now, consider an elementary ring of thichess dx at a distance x from the centre as shown
in Figure 12.20.
,ts max
We know that turning moment of this element or moment of resistance offered by the
elemental ring, dT is given as
dT = Turning force x distance of the element
R2 R2
where.,= I2rn2dr = &I?
R, R,
J = Polar moment of inertia of the hollow circular shaft
R2
,
= - X ~ X - XX ( D ~ - D ~ ~ )
D2 32
X
- -xL- ~ ( 0 : - Dl4)
160,
Replacing a Shaft
Sometimes, we are required to replace a solid shaft by a hollow one or vice-versa.
In such cases, the torque transmitted by the new shaft, should be equal to that by the
replaced shaft.
12.4.2 Torsion of Thin Tubes of Circular Section 4
If the diameter of tube is large compared to its thickness (say Dlt > 20), the shear stress I
produced due to the applied moment may be reasonably assumed to be uniform throughout
the thickness. This makes the problem statically determinate.
Consider a thin tube of length L, external diameter D, and thickness 1, subjected to torque T
as shown in Figure 12.21. Note t is very small compared with D. It is seen that the
generator AB will twist to AB' when radius OB is twisted to O H , i.e. through angle 8.
BE
:. Sheaf strain, Q = -L
Also BB' = Re
CR8
or shear stress,.fs = CQ = -
L
Free body diagram for the system is shown in Figure 12.22.
J
Polar modulus, z, = - =
rrdr x 2
- ~ D ~ I
R 4. D - 2
Torsional resistance, T = f,x Z,
Example 12.12
Find the twist per metre length of a circular hollow shaft 12 cm outer diameter and
9 cm inner diameter respectively, if h e shear stress is not to exceed 600 kglcm2.
Take C = 0.8 x lo6kg/cm2.
Solution
D l = 9 c m and D2= 12cm
Here, we know. T= f xD
(: - D:)
16D2
--
- X
= 139200 kgcm
16 x 12
Strossea in Shafts Sr Shells
;rid Thermal Stresses
"
-81 = 0.0125 radian
a
J, = -(D;-@) = ,X(~'-D?)
a
32
We know, -T - -C8
J - L
Dl4 = 419.1
:. Dl = 4.525 cm
Example 12J5
t Calculate the ratio of the torque transmitted by a hollow and a solid shaft of the
I same material, length and weight.
Solution
C, = CH(same material)
I, = lH (same length)
Ws = WH(same weight)
Let Dl = Internal diameter of the hollow shaft
D2 = External diameter of the hollow shaft
D = Diameter of the solid shaft.
Since both shafts are of the same material, maximum allowable shear stress,fs , will
be same for both.
-
W,= w, x
4
x D~ x 1, (unit weight x volume of the shaft)
Similarly,
TH
Substituting in Eq. (12.1 l),
We know,
As weight per unit length and material is same for both shafts, we get,
-
Ts---f, (for solid shaft)
Js R
-6s= - 9,
Ts TA
Angle of twist per unit torsional moment is same for both shafts.
We know that,
or
Example 12.18
A solid shaft of 20 cm diameter has the same cross-sectional area as a hollow shaft
of the same material with inside diameter of 15 cm. Find the ratio of horse powers
transtrnjtted by the two shafts at the same angular velocity.
Solution
&lid Shaft Hollow Shafi
O=20cm Dl = 15 cm
Here, it is given that A, = AH and C, = CH(due to same material)
X
A - -X(D:-D~~) = -'IFx ( D ~ ~ - I ~ ~ )
H - 4 4
Torsion
Since A, = AH,therefore we get,
Now, we know,
Power transmitted by hollow shaft - ---850 7th -
- -TH 1.7.
Power transmitted by solid shaft T, 500 7th
Example 12.19
A thin tube of length L, diameter d and.weight density w per unit volume is used to
transmit torque. The maximum permissible stress for the shaft material isf, .
Determine the torsional strength to weight ratio.
Solution
Length = L
Diameter = d, radius = r
Weight density = w per unit volume
If the unit angle of twist 8 is specified for a given torsion member and $ satisfies the
boundary condition, i.e. 0 = 0 on the boundary, then the Eq. (12.18) uniquely determines
the stress function $ (x, y). Once 8 has been determined, the stresses are given by
Eqs. (12.14) and (12.15) and the torque is given by
T = 2 1 1 $hdy (12.19)
Equations of equilibrium for the torsion member are
Furthermore, let the torsion member be subjected to a specified unit angle of the twist and
define the stress function by the relation,
where, B is constant. This stress function is the solution of the torsion problems, provided
a 2 ~a 2 ~
F (x, y) = 0 on the lateral surface of the bar and -+ - = constant. Then, the constant
ax2 ay2
B may be determined by substituting Eq. (12.20) into Eq. (12.18).
Elliptical Cross-section
Let the cross-section of a torsion member be bounded by a11 ellipse. The stress
function cp for the elliptical cross-section may be written in following form :
x2
since F (x, y) = - +
h2
'
b2
- 1 = 0 on the boundary.
S * ssea in Shafts & Shells On substituting, we obtain in terms of the geometrical parameters (h,.b), shear
aod Tbennal Stresaw modulus, C and unit angle of twist, 0 which is as follows :
With $ determined, the shear stress components for the elliptical cross-section are,
The maximum shear stress&,, occurs at the boundaty nearest the centroid of the
cross-section. Its value is
and
~ 7 ~ =bCJ~ h (torsional
~ rigidity)
h2 + h2
Equilateral Triangle Cross-sectloh Torsion
Let the boundary of a torsion member be an equilateral triangle. The stress function
.is given by the following relation :
Therefore,
Rectangular Crw-section
The indirect method used for elliptical cross-section and equilateral cross-section is
not valid for rectangular cross-section. Special methods (Boresi and Chong) are
required to obtain the torsion solution for rectangular cross-sections. Some of the
results are surnmarised here.
The maximum shear stress,&,,, and the angle of the twist, 0, are given by
where,&, ,is the maximum shear stress at the centre of the long side at the
boundary.
Y
where, k3 = k2-
kl '
Table 121 :Torsional Parameters per Rectangular Cross-sectlon
?
Other Cross-sectlon
There are many torsions members whose cross-sections are so complex that exact 1
I
analytical solutions are difficult to obtain. However, approximate solutions may be
obtained by Qandtl's membrane analogy.
12.5.2 Thin Walled Non-circular Section Shafts
In the preceding section we saw that the determination of stresses in non circular members
generally requires the use of advanced mathematical methods. In the case of thin walled
hollow non-circular shafts however, a good approximation of the distribution of stresses in
the shaft may be obtained by a single computation.
Consider a hollow cylindrical member of non-circular section subjected to a torsional
loading shown in Figure 12.26.
While the thickness t of the wall may vary within a transverse section, we shall assume
that it remains small compared to the other dimensions of the member. Let us consider a
small portion AB hounded by two transverse planes Ax apart, and by two longitudinal
planes. Since Ule portion AB is in equilibrium, the sum of the forces exerted on it is the
longitudinal x direction must st zero. The forces exerted on the small element are shearing
forces FA and F, .
,
FAmay be expressed as the product of the longitudinal shearing stressf, on the small face
at A and of the area tA . Ax of that face.
Similarly,
Torsion
On substituting Eqs. (12.22) and (12.23) in Eq. (12.21), we get,
L* ( t A h ) - ~ d ( l B h ) = 0
Of, L A ~=AL R ~ B (12.24j
Eq. (12.24) expresses that the product f, t of the longitudinal shearing stressf, and of the
wall thickness t is constant throughout the member. Denoting this product by V,
q = fs t = constant
This quantity 'q ' is referred to as shearflow in the wall of the hollow shaft.
i We shall now derive a relation between the torque T applied to a hollow member and the
shear flow q in its wall. We consider a small element of the wall section of length ds
shown in Figure 12.27 (a). The area of the element is dA = d, t and the magnitude of the
shearing force d, exerted on the element is
The moment clMo of this force about an arbitrary point o within the cavity of the member
may be obtained by multiplying d F by the perpendicular distance p from o to the line of
the action of d F [Figure 12.27 (b)].
Figure 1227
We have
dM, = p d F = p (q (1s) = q @ ds)
But the product is equal to twice the area cia of the shaded triangle. Thus we have
clM,, = q 2 (la
Integrating
I
Here. dM, represents the sum of the moments of all the elementary shearing forces
exerted in the wall section, and since this sum is equal to the torque T applied to the hollow
member.
I
.-. T = ( 1 =~ q~(2 da)
T = 2qo
where, a is the area bounded by the centre line of the wall cross-section.
The shearing stressf, at'any point of the wall may be expressed in terms of the torque T if
we substitute for q.
where, t is the wall thickness at the point considered and a the area bounded by the centre
line [Figure 12.27 (c)]. For elastic deformation the distribution of stresses across the wall
may be assumed uniform, and the above equation will yield the actual value of the
shearing stress at a given point of the wall.
The angle of twist of a thin-walled hollow shaft may be obtained by using the method of
energy. Assuming the elastic deformation, it may be shown that the angle of twist of a thin
walled shaft of length L and modulus of rigidity Cis as follows :
where the integral is computed along the centre line of the wall section.
The Prandtl Elastic-Membrane (Soap-Film) Analogy
The equation that defines the small displacement of a plane elastic membrane
subject to lateral pressures is identical in mathematical form to the stress function
equation $. Hence, the displacement function of the membrane is mathematically
equivalent to the stress function, provided that the boundary shape of the membrane
is identical to the boundary shape of the cross-section of the torsion member. We
consider the physical and mathematical procedures that lead to a complete analogy
proposed by Randl, between the membrane problem and torsion problem.
PLAN V I E W
K-: I l P F VIE*
g the (x, y) plane that has the same shape as the cross-section
Consider an o ~ n i n in
of the torsion bar to be investigated. Cover the osening with a homogeneous elastic
membrane, such as a soap film, and apply pressure.
At tbe bounday the deflection of the membrane is zero.
Figure 1229
Having the deflection surface of the membrane represented by contour lines, several
important conclusionsiegarding stress distribution in torsion can be obtained.
Consider any point B on the membrane. The deflection of the membrane along the
contour line through this point is constant. We have
The corresponding equation for the stress function Q is as follows :
This expresses that the projection of the resultant shearing stress at a point B on the
normal N to the contour line is zero and therefore we may conclude that the
shearing stress at a point B in the twisted bar is in the direction of.the tangent to the
contour line through this point. The curves drawn in the cmss-section of a twisted
bar, in such a manner that the resultant shearing stress at any point of the curve is in
the direction of the tangent to the curve, are called lines of shearlng stress. n u s ,
the contour lines of the membrane are the lines of shearing stress for the
cross-section of the twisted bar.
The magnitude of the resultant stressf, at B is obtained by projecting on the tangent
the stress components a,, and a,, . Then
f, = a, cos (N,) - ox,cos (Ny)
On substitution,
-
cln -- &
' % z = a y 9aYZ = ax9 cos (NJ = dn' cos (N,,) dn
we obtain,
Sdysina = - S d v t a n a = -Sdy- az
ax
d For small displacements, sin a - tan a.
And similarly the net vertical force due to the tension S (assumed to remain constant
for sufficiently srnall values of y) acting along edge BC is
or.
As noted above the Randtl membrane analogy is based on the equivalence of the
torsion equation given below,
a2. a2z P
and the membrane equation, A
az+aJ= - S
By comparing these two equations, we arrive at the following analogous quantities.
z = k$,e=k2ce
S
where k is a constant of proportionality.
Hence,
Assuming that the shearing stress remains constant during yielding, the stress
distribution in the elastic zone of the cross-section is represented by the membrane
as before, but in the plastic zone the stress will be given by a swface having a
constant maximum slope corresponding to the yield stress.
Example 12.20
The rectangular section torsion member shown in Figure 12.30 has width of 40 mm.
The fust 3 m length of the torsion member has a depth of 60 mm, and the remaining
1.5 m length has a depth of 30 rnm. The torsion member is made of steel for which
C = 77.5 GPa. For T,= 750 N m and T2= 400 N m, determine the ~llllximumshear
stress in the torsion member. Detennine the angle of twist of the free end. The
support at the left end prevents rotation of this cross-section but does not prevent
warping.
Figure 12.30
b 30
For the left portion of the torsion member, - = - = 1.5
h 20
h
FromTable 12.1,for- = 1.5, we get, kl = 0.231, k2 = 0.196.
h
b 20
For the right portion of the torsion member, - = - = 1.33
h 15
b
Interpolating for - = 1.33, we get, kl = 0.223, k2 = 0.178
h
The torque in the left portion of the torsion member is
T = T1+T2 = 1.15kNm
The maximum shear stress in tl~isportion of the torsion member is
Torsion
The torque in the right portion of the torsion member is equal to T2= 400 N m.
The maximum shear stress in this portion of the torsion member is
- 400,000 = 49.8 MPa
"" - 0.223 (40) (30)'
Hence, the maximum shear stress occurs in the left porti~nof the torsion member
and is equal to 5 1.9 MPa.
The angle of twist 8 is equal to the sum of the angles of twist for the left and right
portions of the torsion member.
Thus, we get,
0 = 0.0994 radian.
Example 12.21
Usingf, = 40 MPa, determine the largest torque which may be applied to each of
the brass bars and to the brass tube shown in Figure 12.31. Note that the two solid
bars have the same cross-sectional area, and that the square bar and square tube
have the same outside dimensioi~s.
Figure 1231
Solution
Bar with the Square Cross-section
For a solid bar of rectangular cross-section, the maximum stress is given by,
Thus,
7'1
40 MPa =
0.208 x (0.04)x (0.04)'
Square Tube
For a tube of thickness t, the shearing stress is given by
T
T3
Thus, 40 MPa =
2 ~ 0 . 0 0 6x 1.156 x 10"
Figure 12.32
These equations are valid for both the elastic and plastic regions of each cross-section of a
torsion member. At the fully.plastic torque, the resultant shear stress isf, =.fv at every
point in the cross-section.
Torsion
and
This equation uniquely determines the stress function Q, (x, y) for a given torsion member
for fully plastic conditions. Since the unit angle of twist does not appear in the equation,
the deformation (twist) of the torsion member is not specified at the fully plastic torque.
Eq. (12.26) is used to construct the stress function surface for the cross-section of a given
torsion member at fully plastic torque. We know that Q, = 0 on the boundary. Eq. (12.26)
indicates that the absolute value of niaximum slope of Q, everywhere in the cross-section is
a constant equal to f, ; therefore, the magnitude of Q, at a point is equal tof, times its
distance from the nearest boundary, measured along the perpendicular from the point to
the nearest boundary. The contour curves of constant Q, are perpendicular to the direction
of maximum slope and hence, are parallel to the nearest boundary.
Consider the problem of constructing the stress function Q, for a square cross-section with
sides 2a, as indicated in Figure 12.33. At a given point P, the resultant shear stress isf,
and is directed along a contour curve of constant Q,: the elevation of the stress function at
point P is equal to f, times its perpendicular distance to the nearest boundary. The stress
function Q, for the square cross-section is a pyramid of height (f, a). This condition is
so-called sand heap analogy, because sand poured on a flat plate with the same dimensions
as the cross-section of the torsion member tends to form a pyramid similar to that indicated
in Figure 12.33.
BOUNDARY @:o
CONTOUR CURVE OF
CONSTANT @
The fully plastic torque Tpfor the square cross-section may be obtained by means of
T = 2 JJ~,dx~r4v
which indicates that the torque is equal to twice the volume under the stress function.
Since the volume of a pyramid is equal to one third-of the area of the base times the height.
The fully plastic torques for a few con&n cross-sections are listed in Table 12.2 and are
compared with maximum elastic solutions for these cross-sections. Expressions for the
fully plastic torques for a number of eomnon structural sections are listed in Table 12.3.
I In the calculations of the fully plastic torque for a hollow torsion member, the method of
analysis is similar to that for elastic torsion of the hollow torsion member, since the sbess
function @ (x, y) is flat-topped (has zero slope) over the hollow region of the torsion
member. In order to simplify the analysis, only hollow torsion members of constant wall
thickness are considered. For such torsion members, the fully plastic torque, Tpis obtained
by subtraction from the fully plastic torque, T,,of a solid torsion member having the
boundary of the outer cross-section, tlic fully plastic torque, T,,of a solid torsion memhcr
having a cross-section identical to tlie hollow region.
Stresses in Shafts & SheMn Thus, for such members,
and TRenral Stresues
+: 2a -4
L
Rectangle 8 2 20 3
I--za tl TY = 7fsyba -f,3 a 1.69
T, = 3.936 f, a"
1.074fV 1.SO
b/a=2 2Cn 4fSYba2
ey = 2?Y
Ca
ka-+
--
circle R 2n 3
Ty = fv a3 7 fa ~ 1.33
9 = &Y
Ca
Example 12.22
A rectangular section torsion member has dimension of 100 mm by 200 mm and is
made of a steel for which the shear yield point is f, = 100 MPa. Detennine Tpfor
the cross-section and the ratio of T, to Ty ,where Ty is the maximum elastic torque.
Solutbn
Here, 2a = '100 mu and 2b = 200 mm
For -nh --
, 50
= 2, Ty = 3.9361,n3
(a>
(b) &,I
(c)
1 2 E2
k a - + Fa+
(e>
tl > t2
+ ---I a +'--I
Stress- in S b A & Shells Fully Plastic Torque (Tp)for various section codes (Table 12.3) are as follows :
and Thermal Strevsea
For (b) [
TP = fsy 4 2[b-$]+$[a+~)-ilt:]
For (d)
t13
For (e) a t ~ + b t ~ -3 - - t ~ t l )
12.7 SUMMARY
(1) A shaft of circular section is said to be in pure torsion when it is subjected to equal
and opposite end couples whose axes coincide with the axis of the shaft.
(2) The product of the turning force and the distance between the point of application of
the force and the axis of the shaft is known as torque, turning moment or twisting
moment.
(3) When a shaft is subjected to a torque, then
where,
q = Intensity of shear stress on a layer, at a distance r from the centre of the shaft,
fs= 'Intensity of shear stress on the outermost layer of the shaft i.e. a distance R
from the centre of Che shaft,
C = Modulus of rigidity of the shaft material,
0 = Angle (in radians) through which the cross-section of the shaft has been
twisted as a.result of the torque, and
I = Length of the shaft.
(4) Polar monlent of inertia denoted by J, is the moment of inertia of a plane area with
respect to an a.xis perpendicular to the plane of the figure i.e. moment of inertia about
Z axis. For shatt section, J is moment of inertia about the axis of the shaft.
J =
It04
-- (for solid shaft)
32
J = -
k
32 (4'- D : )
(for hollow shaft)
7e03
Thus, polar modulus for n solid shaft. 5=16
Polar modulus for a hollow shaft. Zp =
1 6D2 (D; - D: )
(6) Strength of the shaft is defined as the maximum torque or power the shaft can
transmit from one pulley to another. It is also known as resisting torque or torsional
moment of resistance.
IC Torsion
For solid shaft. T = ig fs D'
IC
For hollow shaft, T = -
1602
fs (D:- D;')
The shearing strain @ at any distance r from the axis of the shaft as
9 =
~ Z R ~ T
4 TL
and the angle of twist, 0 = -
ICn3tc
(14) For non circular cross-sections, the torque is equal to twice the volume between the
stress function and the plane of the cross-section.
T = 21 J @ d x d Y
(15) For thin walled non-circular section shafts,
T
the shear stress.& = 3and
The maximum torque then can be applied safely to the shaft is smaller of the above
two values, i.e. 222.7 x lo6 N mm.
SAQ 2
We know,
The required shaft diameter will be the larger of the above two values,
i.e. 82.55 mm.
SAQ 3
We have,
SAQ 4
P = 67.95 kW
SAQ 5
Power of the shaft, P = 45 kW = 45,000 W
Let the torque between B and C of the shaft be TBC.
Also.
We have,
.
Tm, = 1.2Tm, = 52.08 x lo6 N mm
We shall find out the diameter of the shaftboth for its strength and stiffness.
For strength,
We have,
D2 = 1 . 6 5 102mm
~ = 165mm
For stiffness,
We have,
T -
C8
J 1
Also,
Suitable diameter for the shaft is 298 mm, i.e. greater of the two values.
SAQ 8
For strength,
For stiffness,
T - C8
We have,
J 1
Thus, I get, -
16m2 .-- 32Tl
-
~ f , RC8
Torsion
We have, p = - 2-
60
We have,
D = 134.47 mm
Let D, and D, are the internal and external diameters of the hollow shaft.
4TL
Twist of the tube, 0 = -
nD3rc
Thus, we note that the stress in a given wall depends only upon its thickness.