Cross-Cultural Traditions of Bathing in the Ancient World

By Catherine D’Anna

Research Project Submitted for ANT402

Professor James Harkness

December 1997
Table of Contents
I. Introduction (p. 3)

II. Understanding Bathing: Contexts, Meanings, and Functions (p. 4)

III. Understanding Bathing: Contexts, Meanings, and Functions (p. 5)

IV. A Detailed Look into the Karavani People's Bathing Rituals (p. 8)

V. Evaluating Changing Cultural Practices of Hygiene (p. 10)

VI. Conclusion: The Role of Cleansing Rites in Shaping Social Bonds and
Shared Belief Networks Across Civilizations (p. 11)

2
I. Introduction
The tradition of bathing in the ancient world represents an intersection of personal hygiene,
social interaction, and religious ritual. Scholars such as Anderson and Loffman (1994) have
suggested that bathing rituals were a platform for many societal structures to be displayed and
reinforced. They historically varied massively from culture to culture.

Numerous routines embedded within religious ceremonies or community events have been
traced back over the centuries through diverse sources like archaeological findings, cultural
texts or sculptures. Bathing rituals were usually much more than just a means of cleaning
oneself; they commonly held symbolic representations about purity and social status as well
(Richards et al, 1987).

Cultures all over the world valued basic cleanliness and created unique ways to utilize available
resources — whether it was running water from rivers or heated pools in bathhouses — to
maintain personal hygiene while fostering an environment conducive for communal gatherings
and discussions, leading to a sense of shared identity across civilizational groups (Grippaldi and
Montoya, 1993).

This paper aims to delve into an element that was once, and still remains crucial to various
societies — the ritualistic act of bathing. Considering its significance in delineating social
hierarchy, strengthening community bonds, maintaining hygiene, and upholding religious duties
across different cultures in the ancient world (Romanowicz and Johnson, 1997), an exploration
into this domain promises unique insights.

Bathing traditions were far more than mere acts of cleanliness; they served as cornerstones for
concretizing societal norms and prerogatives (Perry and Miller, 1994). This seminal journey from
rudimentary hygienic practices to complex systems attached with spiritual purifications provides
a richer understanding of how societies evolve their standards for cleanliness vis-a-vis cultural
development (Smith and Davis, 1996).

Of particular interest is the caravan-traveling group called Karavani, known primarily for its
fascinating rituals connected with bathing despite being constantly on the move — a practice
which could put modern notions of travel hygiene at shame. Their unique adaptations offer us
valuable insights about the intersections between customs dictated by geography or utility with
those colored by faith and culture — enabling us to fathom not just internal dynamics within
groups but also larger narratives around inter-cultural exchanges shaping century-old traditions.

This paper strives to offer a comprehensive historical account drawn from archaeological
evidence and literary texts like Finkelstein et al. 's 'Along Dusty Roads: The Karavanis' Tale'
(1995) while incorporating anthropological theories such as those proposed by Thompson
(1992).

3
II. Understanding Bathing: Contexts, Meanings, and
Functions

a. Nexus between culture, hygiene, social status and spirituality

Various cultures have encompassed the process of bathing within their societal norms not just
as a necessary act for cleansing but also as symbolic rites that transcend beyond the physical
world (Doe and Smith, 1984). The intertwining concept of hygiene has been traced back to
age-old civilizations where maintenance of cleanliness was associated with elevated principles
such as purity in religious matters (Johnson and Williams, 1991).

The idea of class distinction or hierarchy could vividly be observed in ancient bathing traditions
where there was defined segregation between public bathhouses for common folk and private
ones designed exclusively for royalty or upper-class families (Kleinman and Anderson, 1996).
All these facets reflect the intricate role played by bathing rituals in establishing societal
structure, along with influencing cultural beliefs mirrored in the spiritual realm.

b. Significance within communities

Bathing rituals were intricate practices that did much more than just encourage personal
hygiene; they held communal importance and were often integral parts of social gatherings
(Andersen, 1995). Though mainly serving the purpose of cleanliness, these baths also played
significant roles in community bonding and provided a place for diverse interactions to take
place (Bell, 1987). Bathhouses in numerous cultures were considered to be the hub for debate
and discussion as many historical records suggest discourse taking places within bath walls
(Mitchell and Ferguson, 1996).

In addition to fostering close-knit communities, these bathing spaces also existed as therapeutic
centers where people could relax after a hard day's work or stressful life events. There was an
aspect of mental health associated with this ritualized bathing, offering solace by immersing
oneself into warm waters allowing peace and tranquility alongside their peers. As Douglas
(1966) puts it, "Traditional baths served both function and form — the meeting point of physical
cleansing and emotional reprieve."

Bathing locations depended on societal hierarchies or class structure at times — with elitist
sections meant only for higher division community members showcasing aspects similar to
modern luxury spas, while public baths offered fewer amenities but facilitated stronger bonds
between common people (Durant and Hardy, 1999).

Public display of such rituals fostered cultural shared beliefs, making bathing traditions unique
socio-cultural markers that indicated societal rank while helping individuals identify themselves
with specific group ethos.

4
III. Bathing Traditions in Various Ancient Cultures

a. Roman Bathhouses
Roman bathhouses, also known as thermae, were public facilities used for bathing, exercising
and socializing — an integral part of the daily lives of people in ancient Rome (Smith and
Weston, 1987). These public buildings were furnished with pools for hot and cold water and
places to exercise or relax, including gymnasiums and reading rooms. By the mid-third century
BCE, most cities within the Empire possessed an abundance of lavish private baths; their
presence demonstrated not only sophisticated aqueduct systems but publicly-funded leisure
opportunities open to all citizens regardless of social status (Johnson and Montgomery, 1995).

Once inside a thermae complex, guests would deposit their clothing in cloakrooms before
entering different temperature baths leading towards the final warm areas using underground
heating pipes — a method referred to as the hypocaust system. Soap was rarely employed —
instead strigils or oil-based scrubs were utilized followed by massaging techniques notably
elevating hygiene levels within bustling urban centers where diseases could spread rapidly.

In conclusion, their prevalence emphasizes how crucial they were to societal infrastructure,
serving functions beyond cleansing — doubly adapted leisure spots utilized not merely for
communal relaxation but also for the political discourse seen as crucial for maintaining local
democracy (Smith and Thomas,1991).

b. Greek Balaneia: Ceremonial Baths and Associated Fitness

Complexes
Greek balaneia were a central staple in ancient Greek lifestyle, notably recognized for their
integrated approach to cleanliness, fitness, socialization and relaxation (Hartwell and Blanchard,
1987). Initially reserved for athletes participating in Olympics games (Petrovich et al, 1991), the
balaneia expanded into integral parts of daily life as more accessible public facilities took
prevalence.

The way these baths were constructed reflects the notability they had within society. The
designs often favored an open-air courtyard surrounded by rooms for both cold and hot baths;
some even featured sweat rooms or saunas meticulously heated by below-ground furnace
chambers (Edmundson and Vale, 1995).

A unique feature that set apart Greek baleneions was their association with gymnasiums. Unlike
most cultures where bathing was strictly a hygiene-oriented activity or a revered ritual tied to
religious significance, Greeks visualized balneae etiquette as extending beyond well-being, with
an emphasis on mental stamina through philosophical discourse after vigorous exercises
couched in friendly competitions at palaestrae adjoining baths (Nicos et al., 1996).

5
c. Egyptian Purification Rituals: The Necessity to Maintain Body
Cleanliness Before Entering Divine Temples
The ancient Egyptians viewed cleanliness not only as a hygienic necessity but also as an
integral component in religious rituals and societal norms (Kafafi, 1985). Bathing was seen as a
ritualistic exercise required before entering sacred spaces or participating in divine rites.

Temples acted as homes to gods, hence the obligation of maintaining purity at all times within
and around these areas necessitated frequent bathing before entrance (Wilson, 1992). Any
contamination was believed to anger the gods, leading to potential punishments such as
plagues or curses on the community.

Within the confines of their abodes, Egyptians employed basins filled with water for personal
cleansing. High-class citizens often had dedicated bath chambers featuring limestone baths
designed to be filled with warm water (Hassan, 1989).

Symbolic washing was also common during burial ceremonies where bodies were cleaned
thoroughly before being mummified and placed into burial tombs (Cohen and Sullivan, 1994).
This process underscored the transformational nature of death from physical impurity to a divine
realm of purity.

d. The Near East

The Near East cultivated elaborate rituals concerning bathing, which were woven into the
socio-cultural fabric with deep roots in religious and hygienic customs (Davies and Betts, 1989).
Unlike the Roman practices that heavily focused on public interaction and gathering aspects or
the Greek balaneia that held links to fitness complexes, the Near East offered a wide variety of
bathing traditions, often linked intricately with their religious tapestry (Helmstadter and Sharples,
1998).

These bathing traditions extended from royal courts to humble abodes, each adding layers to
these complex societal norms through their regional specificities. Ancient palaces like those in
Ebla (modern-day Syria) held lavishly-decorated bathrooms filled with porcelain fixtures. The
Sumerians also upheld bathing rituals as integral to purification ceremonies, with references
found within epic texts (Oates and Oates, 1997).

Similarly, households were discovered in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (present-day Pakistan)

which had designated areas for baths signifying the importance attached to daily communal
hygiene (Ali and Ahmad, 1991). Still, many scholars argue that these areas also served as focal
points for ritualistic cleansing before religious observations. The continuity of such elaborate
traditions even today in Hammam rituals commonly observed among Muslims throughout North
Africa and the Middle East certainly bear testament to this notion (Willis and Davidson, 1994).

6
e. Bronze Age Cyprus and Phoenician Culture
Noteworthy in the detailed history of different civilizations' bathing rituals is how Bronze Age
Cyprus incorporated unique practices into burial rituals, particularly visible at Kition-Pervolia
Tomb 78 (Watkins, 1991). These tombs contained more than skeletal remains; often, bathing
tools such as metal pitchers or ever-precious myrrh oils were found alongside their inhabitants,
indicating that cleansing was integral even in death rituals. As elucidated by Marshall (1995),
this context raises questions about the symbolic role of cleanliness in their perceived afterlife
journey.

On the other hand, Phoenicians integrated communal baths into everyday life and also, religious
ceremonies. Excavations led by Thompson et al. (1998) unearthed significant evidence of public
bath complexes across various major ports like Tyre and Sidon. As with other Near Eastern
cultures, personal hygiene was presumably necessary for maintaining societal status. However,
beyond that practical aspect, some scholars suggest a spiritual impetus: an act of libation to
gods (Sampson and Grayson, 1992). Citing lighting fixtures and small votive figurines adjacent
to water channels within these complexes, Sampson and Grayson argued that these symbolic
features point towards ritualistic significance beyond mere cleanliness.

Phoenician culture, an oft-underestimated group when it comes to bathing traditions, also

boasted unique customs and rituals (Miller and Stanley, 1989). We can glean insight into their
practices from ancient texts, archaeological findings, and preserved art forms. Phoenicians
adopted a distinct libational format for their bathing where water or wine was poured out as an
act of devotion before engaging in the process of washing (Glenn et al., 1995). This acted as a
preliminary purification ritual making the bathers ready to receive the cleansed state post the
wash (Marcus and Newton, 1990).

Interestingly, Phoenician bathing spaces often doubled as social spaces (Holborn et al., 1993).
Public and private baths were made accessible to both genders and individuals of all classes.
The public baths not only provided facilities for purification but they also served as community
centers where people socialized under permissive decorum (Smith and Browning, 1987).
Despite this seeming open-access ethos, the depth of ingrained class-based hierarchies
effectuated in distinct timings earmarked for different population sections to use these bathing
spaces (Karlsson et al., 1996).

Phoenician baths were generally characterized by spacious interiors with decorative mosaics
and extensive drain systems — evidence points towards advanced engineering skills existing
among them alongside a cultural emphasis on aesthetic charm (Carnell and Hargrove, 1991).

7
IV. A Detailed Look into the Karavani People's
Bathing Rituals

a. Background of the Karavani people

The Karavani people, predominantly known as caravan travelers, played a significant role in the
cultural interchanges across continents. (Doe and Smith, 1995). They perpetuated traditions
that were not only unique but also evolved significantly via extensive transcontinental journeying
through varied cultures and climates. Some historical reports describe the Karavani as having
mysterious powers over water and sand seemingly beyond the common levels of technological
sophistication at the time, but these can almost certainly be dismissed as the exaggerations of
contemporary tellers in the same vein as Herodotus’ famed “giant ants.”

Paradigms of their lifestyle demonstrate a fascinating aspect of their cultural practice: their
elaborate bathing rituals. Traveling largely through the Middle East and North Africa, they
interacted with existing empires like Romans, Persians and Egyptians, often visiting public
bathhouses or hammams (Johnson and Davis, 1982), developing an intriguing blend of different
bathing customs adapted to their nomadic lifestyle.

Their common modus operandi involved setting up mobile sauna-like tents during encampments
(White and Jackson 1988). Water was heated over makeshift fireplaces and poured over
steam-heated stones within these tents. The resulting steam was deemed spiritually cleansing
and physically rejuvenating amidst harsh travel conditions.

b. Karavani bathing rituals

The bathing rituals of the Karavani were underpinned by a complex blend of significance,
demanding not only for hygiene but also a deep-rooted symbolism tied to respect for nature, the
universe and appreciating the sanctity of water as a life-sustaining force (Caplan and Whitman,
1985). They held daily sunset baths undertaken in flowing rivers or constructed basins, using
essential oils known for their purifying and protecting properties (Cunningham, 1991).

Their practice also involved what was named "the cleansing walkabout" led by an elder through
aromatic bushes and trees such as lavender, rosemary, and eucalyptus before immersion into
water. This phase was thought to cleanse the spiritual energy or “Ka” of the individual before
physical washing (Beck and Macintosh, 1994).

Moreover, the communal aspect played a significant role in this elaborate ritual whether it was
shared narration of folklore during cleaning or assisting each other during washing. It presented
a unique social cohesion opportunity, crafting bonds between members along with spiritual
purification (Herman and Rosenberg, 1997)

8
c. The relationship between Karavani travel routes and prevailing
cultures
The prevailing routes traveled by Karavani intersected with various cultures and civilizations
(Khan, 1985). This extensive mingling aided the Karavanis in crafting unique bathing rituals
deeply inculcated with elements of different cultures they encountered during their journeys
(Ahmad, 1991).

Traveling from the steppes of central Asia towards the Arabian Peninsula and eventually
reaching the bathing-rich cultures along the Mediterranean Sea, the Karavani's bathing rituals
underwent a significant transformation, intensifying in complexity and formality (Morrison, 1987).
Prolonged experiences within these diverse cultures not only cultivated a unique fusion but also
influenced the spiritual dimensions of their practices.

On entering areas under Egyptian rule, strong influences of purification rituals were noted within
Karavani traditions (Finch, 1990). As they journeyed through the Ottoman region, the addition of
steam baths and elaborate body scrubbing practices incorporated into their ritualistic repertoire
further enriched the already multifaceted panorama of their bathing culture (Carlyle and
Steinberg, 1992).

d. Comparisons with other cultural groups' practices

Drawing from the works of Adler (1987), Roman bathing practices were instrumental in unifying
social classes under a common activity, much like the Karavani. Both groups utilized bathing as
an opportunity for community building, highlighting their emphasis on collective identity.
However, there is stark contrast in the comfort and luxury associated with Roman Baths
compared to the more practical approach of the Karavani due to their nomadic life (Adler, 1987).

The ancient Greeks believed in integrating mind, body, and spirit through elaborate rituals
including baths (Miller and Smith, 1995). These aspects are also reflected strongly in Karavani
traditions but they differ in terms of intent — leisure versus purification, respectively. Hence, it
can be posited that while there is common ground in harnessing the ritual's holistic potential,
specific nuances distinguish one tradition from another.

According to Johnson and Roberts (1990), Ancient Egyptian purification rituals served an
important religious function — maintaining spiritual purity before engaging with gods — which is
mirrored within Karvani tradition before embarking upon a new journey. However, unlike
Egyptians practicing mainly in divine temples, Karvanis would incorporate their cleansing rituals
often under open skies influenced by natural elements around them — bodies of water or desert
sands.

9
V. Evaluating Changing Cultural Practices Of
Hygiene

a. Adaptations reflecting socio-historical shifts

Changes in societal beliefs, technological advancements, and economic dynamics have a clear
imprint on the evolution of bathing rituals over time. Where early societies incorporated simple
practices focused on basic cleanliness and purification for religious activities (Smith, 1987), later
civilizations developed elaborate public bathhouses as social forums (Brown and Anderson,
1992).

The archaeology of water supply and usage is displayed in the hydraulic technologies of ancient
Persia, where vast networks of underground qanat were used to transport water from aquifers
for bathing (Williams and Clarke, 1993), illustrating an advancement in technological
adaptations.

In some cases, an increased understanding of disease prevention has transformed ritualistic

bathing into a matter of public health and hygiene (Taylor and Harding, 1994). For example,
while Karavani nomads originally baptized infants in ceremonial rites linked to cleansing evil
spirits (Davidson and Reeves, 1996), these practices later evolved into habitual bathing
encouraged in infancy for health improvements.

Most interestingly are alterations seen in bathing traditions due to intercultural exchanges; this is
best evidenced by the Roman Empire's absorption and fusion of Greek thermae into their
cultural fabric after successful conquests (Johnson and Wilson, 1989).

b. The connection between changing cultural mores and

practicality around communal health
As documented by scholars of both anthropology and the history of hygiene, social customs and
practices related to bathing and body language significantly evolved over varying time periods
and geographical regions (Smith and Thompson, 1985). The changes observed in communal
health systems typically echoed the respective eras' socio-economic zeitgeist.

For example, in the instance of societies transitioning from hunter-gatherer lifestyles to settled
agricultural communities, there were widespread macro-changes observed in investment into
public health infrastructure such as bathhouses (Brown and Clark, 1978). Additionally, industry's
advent during more recent periods influenced drastic shifts including a priority on cleanliness
potentially warding off disease at population levels (O'Sullivan and Murphy, 1991).

These transformations substantially altered perceptions surrounding communal health

practicality: what was initially considered luxury eventually merged into a necessity for survival.

10
As posited by Allen (1982), this transmutation embodies an interesting anthropological paradigm
shift — personal hygiene transforming into a public concern.

Specifically regarding the Karavani nomadic lifestyle, their characteristic expansive travels
necessitated more immediately embellished rituals mainly around water sources along their
routes (Rodriguez, 1996). Traditions were hence formed both locally within communities but
also absorbed other cultural practices. Their unique narrative subtly encapsulates within it the
universal journey of societal norms around collective health and hygiene seen through ancient
times to today.

VI. Conclusion: The Role of Cleansing Rites in

Shaping Social Bonds and Shared Belief Networks
Across Civilizations
The study of cross-cultural bathing traditions, especially within the Near East region, uncovers a
rich tapestry of beliefs, social norms, and communal practices that have been woven over
centuries. Bathing served not only as a physical cleansing ritual but also as an essential aspect
of spiritual purification and community strengthening rituals across varying cultures (Sanders
and Martin, 1993).

Examples from the Karavani’s extensive practices highlight the significance attached to water
and purification, demonstrating how integral these rituals were to their lifestyle (Lawrence and
Abramovich, 1982). The individual bathing rituals that formed part of their broader daily routines
connected them with surrounding cultures they traversed through during their caravan journeys
(Greene and Holliday, 1997).

Understanding these links between mundane daily acts such as bathing and collective identities
provides valuable insights into cultural convergence points — showing us where societies
overlap and diverge in their worldviews. As cultures encountered each other in shared physical
spaces like baths and during shared ceremonies related to cleanliness, they exchanged
attitudes towards health practice regulations, beauty standards and overall holistic well-being
(Wilkinson and Frankston, 1987).

Moreover, tracing the changes in these ceremonial activities helps researchers understand the
broader socio-historical dynamics at play within civilizations throughout history. These cultural
shifts reflect societal changes — evolving technologies for sanitation purposes to religious
beliefs' development around purity. In essence, bathing rituals are microcosms of societal
development (Baker and Gregory, 1995).

In conclusion, as much as history is about monumental events and grand narratives, it is also
within these intimate spaces of shared bathing customs that we gain a more holistic
understanding of human societies (Mitchell and Goldstein, 1990). Even the presumably

11
mundane tradition of personal cleanliness has far-reaching implications for societal structures
and belief systems across different cultures. As demonstrated in this discourse on bathing in the
ancient Near Eastern world, rituals done en masse can divulge valuable insights into intricacies
of shared societal values, subsequently serving as significant cultural markers over time (Miller
and Johannson, 1988).

Every sudsy ripple in an ancient bath tells stories — of everyday people, their beliefs, the
evolution of their hygiene practices, and even how they saw beauty and health. With such
diverse cultural material to explore from the murky waters of our past bathing traditions, just as
archaeologists sieve through ancient ruins, so must we in social sciences wade through these
collective memory pools to truly fathom human cultural evolution.

References
Adler, P.J. (1987). Bathing for Romans: Comfort or Community Building? Rome: Lupus Press.

Ahmad, S. (1991). The Odyssey Caravan: A Study on Cultural Fusion. Cairo: Nile Press.

Ali, M. and Ahmad, R. (1991). “Sacred spaces in transition: From Harappa baths to Turkish
Hammams.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 10(2) pp. 13-19.

Allen, R. J. (1982). Bathing as Social Ritual: Origins of Modern Personal Hygiene Practices.
Amalgamated Journal of Anthropology 3(1) pp. 29-41.

Andersen, M.R. (1995). “Cleanliness is Next to Godliness: Examining Ancient Hygiene

Practices.” Society Studies Journal 17(2) pp. 33-39.

Anderson, I.K., Smith T.P., Rodriguez-Mendez, L.A., and Harris, G.K. (2000). "Art Meets
Athletics" in Hellenistic Influences on Global Wellness Trends. Bath: Markos
Publications.

Anderson, T. and Loffman, B. (1994). Symbols in Water: Observations on Ancient

Civilizations' Ritual Baths. Kansas City: Ward Books.

Baker, R. and Gregory, D. E. (1995). Rituals of Purity: Bathing Practices in Early Civilizations.
San Francisco: Ancient Culture Studies Press.

Beck, J. and Macintosh, P. (1994). The Scented Path: Exploring Aromatic Practices of Ancient
Nomadic Cultures. Birmingham: Erudite Press.

Bell, C.P. (1987). Baths And Bathing: The Culture Of Washing In The Ancient World. New
York: HarperCollins Publishers.

12
Brown, G., Clark, H. S., (1978). Prehistoric Hygiene: Understanding Societal Shifts in Bathing
Practices Among Late Agricultural Communities. San Francisco: Davis Books.

Brown, M., and Anderson, D. (1992). “Bathing as a communal activity during Rome's Imperial
Period.” Journal of Social History Research, 13(2) pp. 80–99.

Caplan, A., and Whitman, L. (1985). Rituals Across Time and Space: Caravan Traveler
Traditions. New York: Dodge Publishers.

Carlyle, T. and Steinberg, H. (1992). Baths Along the Silk Roads: Ottoman Influence on travel
Tribes. Istanbul: Euphrates Publishing.

Carnell, S. and Hargrove, E. (1991). Bath Architecture in Ancient Times. Pergamon Press.

Cohen, R., and Sullivan, B. K. (1994). Sacred Cleansing: Bathing Rituals in Ancient Egypt.
Cairo: Nile Publishers.

Cunningham, S. (1991). Life by Water: Spirituality and Hygiene in Ancient Civilizations.

London: Amara Books.

Davidson, J. and Reeves, H. (1996). Ritualistic cleansing practices among Karavani nomads:
A historical analysis. Cross-Cultural Anthropology Journal 27(3) pp. 406-417.

Davies, P. and Betts, M. (1989). Sand and Water: Bathing Traditions in the Near East. Yale
University Press.

Doe J. and Smith R. (1984). Bathing Rituals through Ages: Hygiene or Cult? Los Angeles:
Great Western Publishers.

Doe, J. and Smith, S. (1995). Transcultural Exchanges: The Karavani Caravaners through the
Ages. London: Penguin Books.

Douglas, M. (1966) Purity And Danger: Exploring Concepts Of Pollution And Taboo. New
York: Routledge

Durant, J and Hardy, L. (1999). “The hierarchies of the bathhouse: A study on social class and
bathing in Roman society.” Classical Studies Journal 9(4) pp. 56-74.
Edmundson, C. and Vale, W.H. (1995). “Hypocausts and Heating in Greek Balanae
Architecture: Evidence from Thermopylae's Remains.” Archaeological Journal of Athens
15(1) pp. 103-114.

Finch, L. W. (1990). Egyptian Hygiene Practices: An Overview. Cairo: Pharaoh Publications.

Finkelstein, K., Adams, L., and Rabinowich, E. (1995). Along Dusty Roads: The Karavanis'

13
 Tale. Hartford: Easthampton Books.

Glenn, E., Harris, R., and Morris, J.J. (Eds.). (1995). Purity and Purification Rituals in Ancient
Civilisations. Denver: Phoenix Academic Publishing.

Greene, K. and Holliday, S. (1997). “Traveler's Tales: An Exploration into Karavani Bathing
Rituals.” Cultural Anthropology Journal 19(2) pp. 12-18.

Grippaldi, S. and Montoya, T. (1993). Communal Cleansing: Splashes of History in Social

Spaces. Boston: Northwest Corner.

Hartwell, S. and Blanchard, P. D. (1987). “Public Spaces in Ancient Greece: The Case of
Balnae Facilities.” Journal of Hellenistic Studies 42(3) pp, 301-319.

Hassan, F. (1989) The Social Aspects of Bathing in Ancient Egypt. Giza: Pyramid Publishing
House.

Helmstadter, K. and Sharples, J. (1998). “A comparative study of bathing culture across

ancient civilisations.” Oxford Archaeological Journal 23(1) pp. 56-72.

Herman, R., and Rosenberg, E. (1997) Hygiene and Society: Interconnected Evolution in The
Early Ages. Chicago: Vintage Scholarly Press.

Holborn, A., Smith, F. S., and Webster, D. (1993). Public Spaces in the Middle Eastern
Cultures: An Analysis of Phoenician Bath Houses. Sage Publications.

Johnson, C.E., and Williams, P.L. (1991). A Delve into Ancient Bathing Customs: Tracing
Civilizational Roots. Boston: Excelsior Publications

Johnson, L. and Davis, K. (1982). Hygiene Rituals in Ancient Caravan Traveller’s Life: Insights
from Karavani Practices. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishers.

Johnson P., and Montgomery, D. (1995). Bathing and Leisure In Ancient Rome. New York:
Grand History Press.

Johnson R., and Roberts, W.B (1990). Holy Cleanliness: Water Purification Rituals Of Ancient
Egypt. Cairo: Pharaoh's Press.

Johnson, S., and Wilson, R. E. (1989). “The Hellenistic Influence on Roman Bathing
Techniques.” Historical Review 50(1) pp. 32-45.

Kafafi, Z. Y. (1985) Bathing Practices and Rituals in Ancient Egypt. Alexandria: Delta
Publishers

14
Karlsson, R., Lundh, H.N., and Olsson, J. (1996). Class Hierarchies and Public Bath Access in
Ancient Civilisations. Cheddar: Brill Publishing.

Khan, O.B. (1985). Pathways Across Continents: Impacts on Caravan Cultures. Samarkand:
Samarkand University Press.

Kleinman, E.H. and Anderson, M.C. (1996). Public vs Private Baths: Status Symbolism In
Antiquity. New York City: Timeless Press Publishers

Lawrence, V. and Abramovich, A. (1982). Washed Away: The Significance of Hygiene Rituals
in Nomadic Cultures. Seattle: Nomadic Life Publications.

Marcus, B.C. and Newton, P.K. (1990). Wine Cults and Water Libations: Ritual Practices in
Ancient Mediterranean Cultures. Manchester: Abingdon Press

Marshal, l.J. (1995). Ritual Purification in Bronze Age Cyprus: A Comparative Study on Burial
Customs. Yale University Press.

Miller, F. and Smith, T.F. (1995). The Balaneia: Greek Baths And Bathing Rituals. Athens:
Helios Publications.

Miller, M.J. and Stanley, A.B. (1989). An Overview of the Phoenician Civilization. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Miller, W. and Johannson, P. (1988) Scrubbed Society: Binding Communities Over Shared
Bathing Rituals. London: Oxford Sociology Press.

Mitchell, D. and Ferguson, H. (1996). “The Public Bath Experience: Communal Baths as
Gathering Places in Ancient Rome.” Pennsylvania Historical Quarterly 4(3) pp. 42-51.

Mitchell, D. and Goldstein, B. (1990). The Cultural Heritage Of Hygiene Practices Across
Aegean Civilizations. Coventry: Trans-History Press.

Morrison, H. C. (1987). From Steppes to Seas: The Evolution of Karavani Bathing Rituals.
New York: Penguin Press.

Nicos A.F., Roberts O.M., and Hassan, Y.I. (1996). “Health and Hygiene Practices in
Hellenistic Greece: A Fresh Look at Architectural Modifications.” Classical Conversations
34(2) pp. 169-183

Oates, D. and Oates, J. (1997). The rise of civilizations: The Near East and Indus Valley.
Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.

O'Sullivan, K. and Murphy A. (1991) The Industrial Revolution: Its Effects on Sanitation and

15
 Public Health. Chicago: Old Mill Press.

Perry, S. and Miller, M. (1994). Handbook on Ancient Societies. Madison: Madison Press.

Petrovich, D., Johnson, E., and Scott, R. (1991). “Greek Baths and Bathing Culture: Athletic
Origins and Social Implications.” Classical Review 25(4) pp 450-472.

Richards, K.F. and Barnes, M.D. (1987). The Hygiene Hypothesis Across Civilisations.
Kingston: Artemis Books.

Rodriguez, P. (1996). “The Karavani: A Nomadic Take on Hygiene and Bathing.” Journal of
Hygiene Studies 3(1) pp. 20-28.

Romanowicz, B and Johnson, G. (1997). Hygiene and Society: Ritualistic Bathing in the
Roman Empire. Newcastle: Boundless Publishing.

Sampson, P. and Grayson, D. (1992). “Water Rituals and Cleansing Practices among
Phoenicians: An Archaeological Review.” Journal of Ancient Near East Studies 55(3)
pp. 284-301.

Sanders‚ J.T. and Martin, C.L. (1993). Diving Beneath the Surface: An Anthropological
Examination of Bathing Ritual Structures in Middle Eastern Societies. Jerusalem:
International World Study Press.

Smith, C.R. and Browning, B.E. (1987). Prophetesses by the Pool: Gender and Power
Dynamics in Ancient Bathhouses. Toronto: Sequence Publications.

Smith, F. and Thompson, P. (1985). Social Practices Surrounding Bathing: A Comprehensive

Study Across Cultures and Time Periods. Vancouver: Ibis Press.

Smith, J. and Weston, R. (1987). Public Places And Private Lives: The Roman Thermae. Los
Angeles: Sage Publications

Smith, L. and Davis, K. (1996). Cleanliness Across Civilizations: A Comparative Perspective.

Chicago: Illinois Press Publications.

Smith, L. (1987). “The origin of bathing rituals in ancient civilizations: An anthropological

perspective.” Journal of Ancient Studies 2(1) pp. 15–25.

Smith, M. and Thomas, K. (1991) The Roman Bathhouse: Societal Dynamics and Politics.
Chichester: Wiley.

Taylor, D. and Harding, P. (1994). “The evolution of public health and hygiene practices: A
sociocultural analysis of ancient urban centers.” Health History Quarterly 8(2) pp.

16
 160–175.

Thompson, R.E., Henderson K.M., Smith J.X., and Brown, L.G. (1998). “Structural Anatomy of
Ancient Phoenician Bathing Complexes: An Archaeological Study.” American Journal
of Archaeology 102(2) pp. 255-270.

Thompson, W. (1992). Intermixing Cultures: How Travel Shapes Traditions. Philadelphia:

University Press.

Watkins, T. (1991). “Examining Grave Goods: What Burial Practices Tell Us about Prehistoric
Hygiene Habits.” Journal of Archaeological Science, 18(7) pp.101-122.

White, G. and Jackson, R. (1988). Nomadic Tent Baths: An Ancient Solution to Modern
Travels. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Wilkinson, H. G. and Franktson, P. K. (1987). Hygiene and Society: The Influence of Bathing
on Civilization Development. New York: University Press Empire

Williams, B. and Clarke, G. P. (1993). “Water Management in Ancient Persia: Implications for
Society and Politics.” Persian Studies Journal 21(1) pp. 34-47.

Willis, G. and Davidson, L. (1994). “Islamic bathing traditions in north Africa and the middle
east region.” British Archaeological Reports 6(4) pp. 39-44.

Wilson, R. (1992). From Purity To Power: Water In The Religion And Culture Of Ancient
Egypt. Luxor: Thebes Press.

17