Unit-4

Number Theory
Division
When one integer is divided by a second non-zero integer, the quotient may or may not
be an integer. As for example, 12/3=4 is an integer where as 11/4=2.75 is not integer.
This leads to definition 1.
Definition 1
If a & b are integers with a≠0.We can say that a divides b if there is an integer c such that
b=ac (or if b/a is an integer).When a divides b, we say that a is a factor or divisor of b &
that b is a multiple of a. The notation a/b denotes that a divides b. We write a ∤ b does not
divide when a does not divide b.
Example 1
Determine whether 3/7 & whether 3/12.
Solution: We say that 3∤7, because 7/3 is not an integer. On the other hand, 3/12 because
12/3=4.
The division Algorithm
Theorem 2 The division Algorithm
The division algorithm states that for any integer a and any positive integer d, there exists
unique integers q and r with 0<=r<d such that a = dq + r.
Definition 2
A/to division algorithm, d is called the divisor, q is called the quotient & r is called the
remainder.
q=a div d, r=a mod d.
Example 3
What are the quotient & remainder when 101 is divided by 11?
Solution:
101=11.9+2
The quotient when 101 is divided by 11 is 9=101 div 11 & the remainder is 2=101 mod
11.
Example 4
What are the quotient & remainder when -11 is divided by 3?
Solution: We have
-11=3(-4)+1
The quotient when -11 is divided by 3 is -4=-11 div 3 & the remainder is 1=-11 mod 3.
-11=3(-3)-2.
Because r=-2 does not satisfy 0<=r<3.
Modular Arithmetic
Modular arithmetic is the branch of arithmetic mathematics related with the “mod”
functionality. Basically, modular arithmetic is related with computation of “mod” of
expressions. Expressions may have digits and computational symbols of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division or any other.
Modulo Arithmetic m
Definition 3
If a & b are integers & m is a positive integer, then a is congruent to b modulo m if m
divides a-b.
a ≡ b (mod m) is indicate that a is congruent to b modulo m. We say that a ≡ b (mod m)
is a congruence & that m is its modulus (plural moduli). If a &b are not congruent modulo
m, we write a ≠ b (mod m).
Theorem 3
Let a & b be integers & let m be a positive integer. Then, a ≡ b (mod m) if & only if a mod
m=b mod m.
Solution:
(do itself)
Example 5
Determine whether 17 is congruent to 5 modulo 6 & whether 24 & 14 are congruent
modulo 6.
Solution: 6 divides 17-5=12.We see that 17≡5 (mod 6)
24-14=10 is not divisible by 6.
24≠ 14 (mod 6).
Theorem 5
Let m be a positive integer. If a ≡ b( mod m) & c ≡ d (mod m),then a+c=b+d (mod m)
& ac=bd (mod m).
Proof:
a ≡ b (mod m) c≡d (mod m),by theorem 4 there are integers s & t with b=a+sm & d=c+tm.
Hence, b+d=(a+sm)+(c+tm)
=(a+c)+m(s+t)
& bd=(a+sm)(c+tm)=ac+m(at+cs+stm)
Hence,
a+c=b+d( mod m) & ac ≡ bd(mod m)
Example 6
7 ≡ 2 (mod 5) & 11≡1 (mod 5), it follows that theorem 5 that 18=7+11≡2+1=3 (mod 5) &
that 77=7.11≡2.1=2 (mod 5).
Primes & Greatest Common Division
Primes
Positive integers that have exactly two different positive integer factors are called primes.
Definition 1
An integer p greater than 1 is called prime if the only positive factors of p are 1 & p. A
positive integer that is greater than 1 & is not prime is called composite.
Theorem 1
The fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
Every integer greater than 1 can be written uniquely as a prime or as the product of two
or more primes, where the prime factors are written in order of non-decreasing size. As
for example,
Example 2
The prime factorizations of 100,641,999 & 1024 are given by
100=2.2.5.5=22.52
641=641
999=3.3.3.37=33.37
1024=2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2=210
Trial division
It is important to show that a given integer is prime. It follows that an integer is prime if it
is not divisible by any prime less than or equal to its square root. This leads to the brute-
force algorithm known as trial division.
Example 3
Show that 101 is prime.
Solution:
The only primes not exceeding √101 are 2, 3, 5 & 7.Because 101 is not divisible by 2, 3,
5 or 7.It follows that 101 is prime.
Example 4
Find the prime factorization of 7007.
Solution:
First perform divisions of 7007 by successive prime, beginning with 2.None of the primes
2, 3 & divides 7007.However, 7 divides 7007, with 7007/7=1001.Next, divide 1001 by
successive primes, beginning with 7.7 also divides 1001 because 1001/7=143.Continue
by dividing 143 by successive primes, beginning with 7.Although 7 does not divide 143 &
143/11=13. 13 is prime, the procedure is completed.
7007=7.1001=7.7.143=7.7.11.13
The prime factorization of 7007 is 7.7.11.13=72.11.13 Ans.
Greatest Common Divisors (GCD) & Least Common Multiples (LCM)
GCD
The largest integer that divides both of two integers is called the greatest common divisor
of these integers.
Definition 2
Let a & b be integers, not both zero. The largest integer d such that d/a & d/b is called the
greatest common divisor of a & b. The greatest common divisor a & b is denoted by gcd
(a,b).
Example 10
What is the greatest common divisor of 24 & 36?
Solution:
GCD of 24 & 36 are 1, 2,3,4,6 & 12.Hence, GCD (24, 36) =12.
Example 11
What is the greatest common divisor of 17 & 22?
Solution: The integers 17 & 22 have no positive common divisors other than 1, so that
gcd (17, 22) = 1(Definition 3).
Definition 3
The integers a & b are relatively prime if their greatest common divisor is 1.
Example 12
By example 11, it follows that the integers 17 & 22 are relatively prime, because gcd (17,
22) =1(Definition 4)
Definition 4
The integers a1, a2,.…….,an are pair wise relatively prime if gcd (ai, aj)=1 whenever
1<=i<j<=n.
Example 13
Determine whether the integers 10, 27 & 21 are pairwise relatively prime & whether the
integers 10, 19 & 24 are pair wise relatively prime.
Solution: gcd(10, 17) = 1, gcd(10,21)=1.We conclude that 10,17 & 21 are pair wise
relatively prime.
gcd(10,24)=2>1.We see that 10,19 & 24 are not pair wise relatively prime.
Example 14
Prime factorization of 120 & 500 are 120=23.3.5 & 500=22.53, the greatest common divisor
is
gcd(120,500)=2min(3,2)3min(1,0)5min(1,3)
= 22.30.51=20
Prime factorizations can be also used to find the least common multiple of two integers.
LCM
Definition 5
The least common multiple of the positive integers a & b is the smallest positive integer
that is divisible by both a & b. It is denoted by LCM (a,b).
lcm(a,b)=P1max(a1,b1) P2max(a2,b2) Pnmax(an,bn).
Example 15
What is the least common multiple of 23 35 72 & 24 33
Lcm (23 35 72 24 33)= 2max(3,4)3max(5,3)7max(2,0)
=24 35 72
Theorem 5
Let a & b be positive integers. Then, ab=gcd(a,b).lcm(a,b).
The Euclidean Algorithm
Efficient method of finding the greatest common divisor called the Euclidean Algorithm.
It is named after the ancient Greek Mathematician Euclid.
# Find gcd (91,287)
287=91.3+14
Any divisor of 91 & 287 must also be a divisor of 287-91.3=14.Also, any divisor of 91 &
14 must be a divisor of 287=91.3+14.
Gcd of 91 & 287 is the same as gcd of 91 & 14.
Next, divide 91 by 14 to obtain 91=14.6+7.
Any common divisor of 91 & 14 also gcd(14,7)=7,gcd(287,91)=gcd(91,14)=gcd(14,7) =7.
Example 16
Find the GCD of 414 & 662 using the Euclidean Algorithm.
Solution:
662=414.1+248
414=248.1+66
248=166.1+82
166=82.2+2
82=2.41
Hence, GCD (414,662) =2, because 2 is the last non-zero remainder.
We can summarize in tabular form.
j rj rj+1 qj+1 rj+2
0 662 414 1 248
1 414 248 1 166
2 248 166 1 82
3 166 82 2 2
4 82 2 41 0

The Euclidean Algorithm

Procedure gcd (a,b: positive integers)
x:=a
y:=b
while y ≠ 0
r:=x mod y
x:=y
y:=r
return x{gcd(a,b) is x}
Example 17
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Example 18
Page 287
Gcd as linear combinations
Gcd of two integers a & b can be expressed in the forms
sa+tb where s & t are integers.
Gcd(a,b) can be expressed as a linear combination with integer coefficients of a & b. As
for example,gcd(6,14)=2 & 2=(-2).6+1.14(Theorem 6)
Theorem 6 BEZOUT’S THEOREM
If a & b are positive integers, then there exist integers s & t such that gcd(a,b)=sa+tb.
Applications of Number Theory
Theorem 1
If a & m are relatively prime integers & m>1,then an inverse of a modulo m exists.This
inverse is unique modulo m.
Proof:
By Theorem 6,gcd(a,m)=1,there are integers s & t such that
sa+tm=1
sa+tm≡1(mod m)
sa≡1(mod m)
s is an inverse of a modulo m.
Example 2
Find the inverse of 101 modulo 4620.
4620=45.101+75
101=1.75+26
75=2.26+23
26=1.23+3
23=7.3+2
3=1.2+1
2=2.1
Gcd(101,4620)=1

Matrix

Section Summary

 Definition of a Matrix

 Matrix Arithmetic

 Transposes and Powers of Arithmetic

 Zero-One matrices

Matrices

 Matrices are useful discrete structures that can be used in many ways. For
example, they are used to:

 Describe certain types of functions known as linear transformations.

 Express which vertices of a graph are connected by edges.

 In later chapters, we will see matrices used to build models of:

 Transportation systems.

 Communication networks.

 Algorithms based on matrix models will be presented in later chapters.

 Here we cover the aspect of matrix arithmetic that will be needed later.

Matrix
Definition: A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. A
matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m × n matrix.

 The plural of matrix is matrices.

 A matrix with the same number of rows as columns is called square.
 Two matrices are equal if they have the same number of rows and
the same number of columns and the corresponding entries in every
position are equal.
 3 × 2 matrix

Notation

 Let m and n be positive integers and let

 The ith row of A is the 1 n matrix [ai1, ai2,…,ain]. The jth

 The (i,j)th element or entry of A is the element aij. We can use A = [aij ] to
denote the matrix with its (i,j)th element equal to aij.

Matrix Arithmetic: Addition

Definition: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be m nmatrices. The sum of A and B,

denoted by A + B, is the m× n matrix that has aij + bij as its (i,j)th element.
In other words, A + B = [aij + bij]. Example:

Note that matrices of different sizes cannot be added.

Matrix Multiplication

Definition: Let A be an n× k matrix and B be a k× n matrix. The product of A

and B, denoted by AB, is the
m× n matrix that has its (i,j)thelement equal to the sum of
the products of the corresponding elments from the ith row of A and the
jth column of B. In other words, if AB = [cij] then cij = ai b1j + ai b j + … +
akjbj
Example:

The product of two matrices is undefined when the number of columns in the
first matrix is not the same as the number of rows in the second.
Illustration of Matrix Multiplication

A B


Matrix Multiplication is not Commutative
 Example: Let

Does AB
= BA?
Solution:

AB BA
Identity Matrix and Powers of Matrices

Definition: The identity matrix of order n is the m n matrix In = [δij], where δij = 1 if i =
j and δij = 0 if i j.

AIn =
ImA = A when A is an m n
matrix

Powers of square matrices can be

defined. When A is an n × n matrix, we have: A0 = In Ar = AAA∙∙∙A

r times

Transposes of Matrices

Definition: Let A = [aij] be an m n matrix. The transposeof A, denoted by A

,is the n m matrix
obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A.

If A = [bij], then bij = aji for i =1,2,…,n

and j = 1,2, ... m.

Transposes of Matrices

Definition: A square matrix A is called symmetric if A At. Thus A = [aij]

is symmetric if aij = aji for i and j with 1≤ i≤ nand 1≤ j≤ n.

Square matrices do not change when their rows and columns are
interchanged.

Zero- One Matrices

Definition: A matrix all of whose entries are either 0 or 1 is called a zero-

one matrix.

Algorithms operating on discrete structures represented by zero-one

matrices are based on Boolean arithmetic defined by the following
Boolean operations:
Zero- One Matrices

Definition: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be an m×n zero-one matrices.

 The join of A and B is the zero-one matrix with (i,j) th entry aij ∨
bij. The join of A and B is denoted by A B.

 The meet of of A and B is the zero-one matrix with (i,j)th entry

aij ∧ bij. The meet of A and B is denoted by A B.
Joins and Meets of Zero- One Matrices

Example: Find the join and meet of the zero-one matrices

Solution: The join of A and B is

The meet of A and B is

Boolean Product of Zero- One Matrices

Definition: Let A = [aij] be an m k zero-one matrix and B = [bij] be a k

n zero-one matrix. The

Boolean product of A and B, denoted by A B, is the m n zero-

one matrix with (i,j)th entry cij = (ai1 ∧ b1j) (ai2 ∧ b2j) ∨ … ∨ (aik ∧ bkj).

Example: Find the Boolean product of A and B, where

Boolean Product of Zero- One Matrices

Solution: The Boolean product A B is given by

Boolean Powers of Zero- One Matrices

Definition: Let A be a square zero-one matrix and let r be a positive integer.

The rth Boolean power of A is the Boolean product of r factors of A,
denoted by A[r] . Hence,

We define A[r] to be In.

(The Boolean product is well defined because the

Boolean product of matrices is associative.)
Boolean Powers of Zero- One Matrices

Example: Let

Find An for all positive integers n.

Solution
: