Technology in Society 65 (2021) 101584

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Technology in Society
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc

Excessive SNS use at work, technological conflicts and employee

performance: A social-cognitive-behavioral perspective
Sumera Saleem a, Yang Feng a, *, Adeel Luqman, PhD b
a
School of Management, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230051, PR China
b
Department of Commerce, Fatima Jinnah Women University, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Pervasive Social Networking Site (SNS) access has deeply penetrated workers’ daily life, inducing excessive usage
Excessive SNS Use that can lead to negative consequences. Despite the danger, few studies have examined the dark side of social
Cognitive emotional preoccupation media from the performance perspective of workers. This paper explores how excessive use of SNSs impacts work
Task conflict
performance, considering the underlying mechanisms by using the cognitive-behavioral model and social-
Work performance
cognitive theory (SCT) as the foundations of the model. We propose that excessive usage of SNSs positively
influences the cognitive emotional preoccupation and thereby leads to three types of conflicts: task conflict,
process conflict, and relationship conflict (TPR conflicts). TPR conflicts, in turn, diminish the work performance.
A sample of 386 Chinese SNS user responses were empirically tested to validate the proposed model, and our
hypotheses were confirmed except for one: the results reveal that relationship conflict has no significant cor­
relation to work performance. This study contributes to mitigating the destructive nature of social media by
identifying its drivers and consequences, considering a comprehensive classification of SNS-related conflicts in
the working environment. It also provides theoretical and important practical insights that help organizations to
improve their workers’ performance.

1. Introduction 12], and self-control failure [8,9]. We define excessive SNS use as a
problematic behavioral pattern that resembles addictive symptoms,
Social Networking Wites (SNSs) have been defined as “the websites including a low level of tolerance and arousal of conflicts in using SNS.
that allow users to construct a public profile, create a list of other users The frequent variation in the use of an SNS, such as issuing “likes” and
and friends, and view the shared information within the bounded sys­ “status updates”, can gradually trigger cues and cluster toward behavior
tem” [1]; p. 211). Recent reports indicate that SNS users have increased as cognitive and affective reactions which more likely lead to difficult
to number more than 3.6 billion [2], and users are spending approxi­ control over social media use [12,13]. A large corpus of evidence sug­
mately 144 min daily on an average of eight social networks [3]. SNS use gests thoughtful insights that SNS users have weak control over their
provides many capabilities to users, such as the sharing of ideas, usage patterns, which can interrupt their usual functioning in school,
collaboration, and social relationships in workplaces [4]. However, this offices, and family domains [14].
picture is incomplete without considering the negative side of SNS use. Despite the increased focus on SNS use and its outcomes (e.g.,
For example, it is noted that SNS use is only productive when its utility technostress), much space remains to explore other psychological and
point is optimal. Once this rational level is exceeded or excessive, behavioral dynamics such as employee work performance. Employee
negative consequences ensue [5] and influence the daily life of the users, work performance is defined as the extent to which employee effectively
thereby disturbing their psychological wellbeing [6]. Excessive use and efficiently execute their job duties and required tasks [15–17].
mimics typical addictive symptoms, but SNS usage has not been proven Previous publications provide evidence that ubiquitous connectivity
to be addictive according to the APA and WHO1 [7]. However, excessive with the SNS has induced deviant behavior which engenders produc­
SNS use is a source of negative psychological and behavioral outcomes tivity challenges for both employees and organizations (e.g., Refs. [11,
[8,9], such as exhaustion [10], depletion in cognitive functioning [11, 17]. It has been claimed that the people rate of using SNSs in the

* Corresponding author. School of Management, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230051, PR China.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Saleem), [email protected] (Y. Feng), [email protected] (A. Luqman).
1
American Psychological Association and World Health Organization.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101584
Received 16 July 2020; Received in revised form 13 January 2021; Accepted 2 April 2021
Available online 13 April 2021
0160-791X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Saleem et al. Technology in Society 65 (2021) 101584

workplace is about 60–80%, which has reduced employee productivity 2. Theoretical framework
by approximately 30–40% [18]. We agree that SNS use not only brings
positive social and psychological outcomes but also decreases employee 2.1. Cognitive-behavioral model
performance, making it important to explore how SNS use deteriorates
employee performance [11]. Cognitive-behavioral theory [22] addresses how the Internet triggers
A literature review reveals various research gaps and limitations. cognitive and behavioral processes that induce adverse outcomes in the
First, prior literature has focused mostly on positive aspects of SNS use user’s personal and professional life [23–26]. According to Caplan [27];
while ignoring negative outcomes such as social overload and techno- cognitive-behavior theory explain behavioral and maladaptive cogni­
exhaustion [11,19]. To overcome this limitation, our current study ex­ tions that result in negative outcomes in daily life due to problematic
amines an SNS adverse outcome: the decline in employee performance. internet usage (PIU) [27]. For example, PIU includes behavioral and
Second, previous studies focused on the underlying mechanisms, such as cognitive components, and the model explains the key causal process
information overload and social overload [11], or life and privacy in­ associated with PIU rather than just characterizing the behavioral
vasion [8,9]. However, technology-related conflicts such as task conflict, addiction [27] that further affects the personal and professional life
process conflict, and relationship conflict (hereafter referred to as negatively [23].
TPR-conflicts) have never been studied from the perspective of excessive In the current context, we adopt a cognitive behavior model [22] that
SNS use. Organizations are in dire need of information and effective identifies excessive SNS usage and CEP in the distal and proximal
strategies to mitigate the effect of excessive SNS use on employee per­ context. In the current study, our emphasis is on the excessive use of
formance. Therefore, the current study is timely and relevant since it SNSs instead of the addictive level of PIU. Previous studies do not
helps policymakers decide how to reduce technology-related conflicts in explain how excessive usage of SNS is associated with work performance
the workplace. Third, prior literature has mainly addressed problematic and social wellbeing and why there are problems due to over-usage [28].
internet uses or technology addiction and has explored its nature, di­ Therefore, the nature of cognitive theory can describe preliminary
mensions, and measurements [20]. However, theory-driven cognitive concepts that explain the development and continuation of excessive use
and behavioral interconnects have been underexplored, especially the of SNS. The current study aims for a better understanding of how
adverse consequences of excessive, ubiquitous, SNS connectivity. The excessive use of SNS induces TPR-conflicts and thereby performance.
current study addresses this gap by examining the mediating role of
cognitive emotional preoccupation (hereafter referred as “CEP”) utiliz­ 2.1.1. Distal and proximal cause
ing the cognitive-behavioral model and social cognitive theory (SCT), a In the etiological chain, the necessary cause must be present and
popular theoretical lens, to better explore the proposed associations. must have occurred for the symptoms to occur. In contrast, it is not
The current study addresses these open research gaps and considers required for the symptoms to occur when a necessary cause is present
the following research questions (RQs). RQ1: How does excessive SNS and must have occurred. A distal contributory cause increases the
use induce task conflict, process conflict, and relationship conflict for occurrence of the symptoms, but it cannot be termed as either a neces­
users? RQ2: How does excessive SNS use induce CEP and thereby result sary or sufficient cause. A sufficient cause represents those factors whose
in different conflicts (namely, task conflict, process conflict, and rela­ presence and occurrence guarantees the symptoms will occur. For
tionship conflict)? RQ3: How do task conflict, process conflict, and example, those causes which lie at the end of the etiological chain of a
relationship conflict influence the SNS user’s work performance? The set of symptoms are known as proximal sufficient, whereas other causes
study proposes a research model based on SCT [21], refined by using that lie at the beginning of the chain are termed as distal (See Fig. 1)
cognitive behavior theory [22]. Such a theoretical framework enables us [29].
to analyze the antecedents, i.e., the necessary and sufficient causes of Distal causes can be somewhat removed but are significant for the
negative consequences. For the antecedents, excessive use of SNS and development of symptoms. The present study streamlines the cognitive
CEP are recognized as rootcause of TPR conflicts, which thereby decline behavior model because in that model, SNS use experience is considered
the employee performance. Thus, the combination of cognitive and a distal contributory cause for the development of negative conse­
behavioral factors provides a sequential process of adverse outcomes, quences [22]. Besides that, the distal contributory cause describes the
which act as a snapshot of the development process of problematic as­ conditional-response experience of new software, apps, and situational
pects of an SNS. Poor work performance results from the workers’ cues of individuals towards SNS use in the cognitive-behavioral model.
cognitive failure and excessive SNS usage, so we should identify which All these features emphasize the individual’s role in the inappropriate
of the three types of conflict lead to these outcomes. use of SNS and support the development and maintenance of other
This study’s theoretical implications and practical contributions lie relevant symptoms. Moreover, this model supports that individual
in the following aspects. Firstly this research enriches the emerging body cognition is the main cause of abnormal behavior [25].
of knowledge by examining and enhancing knowledge about the adverse Therefore, maladaptive cognition is considered as the most impor­
consequences of excessive use of SNSs among workers and providing tant component or proximal sufficient cause. Maladaptive cognitions
theoretical and empirical support to counter the influence of excessive have two further types: cognitive distortions about self and cognitive
SNS usage in the workplace. Secondly, this paper differentiates three key distortions about the world. Thoughts about the self-consist of
dimensions of conflict to capture the dark side of excessive SNS use constantly thinking about problems related to SNS use, whereas
rather than utilizing a single strain. We explore TPR-conflicts to describe thoughts about the world include too much SNS dependence and
the underlying mechanisms, instead of characterizing the general generalizing specific trends to global events. In other words, maladap­
negative impact on performance. From the point of view of practical tive cognitions generates behavioral and affective symptoms [26,30].
implications, this study may alert managers of workplaces using infor­
mation technology about the outcomes of irrational use of SNSs. The 2.1.1.1. Excessive SNS use as distal cause. Excessive SNS use accurately
results provide in-depth understanding and empirical evidence for the predicts the distal cause as it refers to the degree of explaining the
managers to establish proper policies and for the users to control their problematic nature of SNS use. Previous research described how expo­
behavior and avoid negative consequences. sure to SNS (e.g., Facebook) leads towards arousal, particularly among
the socially anxious [31]. Alarmingly, the daily use of SNS for more than
2 h is strongly correlated with the frequency of psychological distress
[32]. Research has also revealed that heavy engagement with SNS is
associated with more behavioral and psychological abnormalities [5,

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Fig. 1. Proposed research model.

33]. The above discussion provides concrete grounds to revisit the environment (e.g., poor work performance).
problematic aspect of SNS use in the context of a personal and working We underpinned SCT in our model by considering the excessive SNS
environment. Hence, we propose excessive SNS use as a distal cause in use as behavior, the CEP as person, and finally the environment which
our model. For example, existing research (e.g. Ref. [19], suggests that induces TPR-conflicts and performance issues. Moreover, to keep the
excessive SNS use has a significant effect on behavioral change (e.g., study parsimonious, we only focus on the nonreciprocal interplay
problematic behavior); likewise, we assume that excessive use is a among the SCT factors. For example, current interplay describes poor
necessary but not sufficient cause in the development of negative out­ work performance as an environmental response to behavioral and
comes such as TPR conflicts. personal elements.

2.1.1.2. Cognitive emotional preoccupation as a proximal cause. Proximal 3. Hypothesis development

causes emphasize constructs that directly affect the behavioral outcome.
For this purpose, this study considers the CEP as the proximal cause We use the cognitive-behavioral model and SCT to formulate a
leads to directly contributing to the negative consequences. CEP is fol­ research model for measuring how excessive SNS use (as a distal cause)
lowed by excessive SNS use, and that preoccupation is considered to be a induces CEP (the proximal cause). We then examine the impact of both
significant direct contributor to map SNS-based psychological abnor­ excessive SNS use and CEP on the three types of TPR conflicts, and
malities. CEP refers to a state in which an individual feels a strong urge thereby on employee work performance. Fig. 1 shows the basic research
to engage in the environment [34], an immersive phenomenon that model, illustrating how the excessive use of SNSs indirectly influences
reflects persistent thoughts about the behavior [35]. In the SNS context, the work performance of employees through task conflict, process con­
CEP acts as a catalyst to provoke negative outcomes [36]. Thus this flict, and relationship conflict.
preoccupation can be proposed as a proximal sufficient cause while
mapping excessive the SNS user’s conflicting behavior.
In this study, we consider excessive SNS use as necessary but not 3.1. Excessive SNS use and cognitive preoccupation
sufficient cause to experience adverse psychological and behavioral
outcomes. It is a key aspect that induces maladaptive cognitions (i.e., Excessive SNS use is always present when individuals using social
CEP). We borrow this assumption from SCT, which states that “learning media experience negative outcomes, but some excessive SNS use does
occurs in the social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of not result in negative outcomes, beacause it does not fulfill the suffi­
person, environment, and behavior” [21]. The triadic relationship of ciency condition. Caplan [37] defined excessive use as “the use of SNSs
SCT also describes how the social environment of a person induces longer than the planned time period” [37]. For example, if an individual
certain behaviors that influence the individual’s emotions and internal is working as a web manager or designer, they will get advantages in
states. Specifically, we utilize SCT within the cognitive-behavioral terms of bonuses, and work-related promotions, if they spend more time
model to explain the adverse consequences of excessive SNS use. SCT on SNSs. Thus, excessive SNS use is not problematic in this case. In other
explains how people’s experiences and environmental factors influence words, it is only problematic when it is associated with deleterious
their behavioral patterns and suggests intervention strategies to mitigate outcomes [38]. The extant research suggests that negative outcomes
adverse consequences. SCT factors, such as person, environment, and depend upon the method of use and the individual’s experience with
behavior, interact with each other with reciprocal causality [21]. For different applications [24,39].
example, according to SCT, when SNS users react to their environment CEP is defined as the obsession with and persistent thoughts about
(e.g., through social relations with colleagues and supervisor), their behavior such as SNS use [27,37,40]. It is sometimes an important
behavior (e.g., excessive SNS use in inappropriate situations) affects outcome of excessive SNS use in the studies related to pathological use
both the people (e.g., deficient emotional resource) and their (e.g., Ref. [41]; however, SNS use is not challenging in its nature [42]
but rather in the activities provided by it [43,44]. The literature

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indicates that SNS use turns into problematic behavior in terms of use, users have a low level of understanding of their work task, which
inappropriate use [33], and thereby, a critical variation in the workplace results in problems managing different types of coordination activities
occurs. Such behavioral tendencies associated with cognitive and and wastes their time in arguments about who will perform which type
emotional reactions affect the long-term memory of the users by grad­ of duty [12]. Moreover, when individuals use the SNSs more than their
ually forming a cluster that is called CEP [34]. SCT describes the human time and ability allow, it creates a cognitive burden. Such an increased
functioning in terms of behavioral, personal, and environmental factors, level of cognitive preoccupation leads to technology fatigue in the users
proposing that behavioral and personal factors can affect the environ­ [57,58]; this fatigue creates disagreements about performing their
mental factors [21]. Hence, we argue that excessive SNS use induces a duties according to the workplace’s timelines and expectations. Conse­
mental preoccupation: a strong desire to stay engaged in that behavior. quently, these discrepancies lead to process conflict. Therefore, we hy­
The range of features involved in excessive use can vary broadly, pothesize as follows:
including frequent irrelevant notifications, friend requests, social de­
H2b. Excessive SNS use is positively associated with process conflict.
mands, and extraneous information [5,28]. According to cognitive load
theory, different types of information can be processed in the human H3b. Cognitive emotional preoccupation with SNSs is positively
mind with limited capacity only [45]. In other words, an impulse creates associated with process conflict.
an individual’s desire to engage with SNS users, and the user may be
unable to resist, which may lead to problematic behavior. Thus, cogni­ 3.2.3. Relationship conflict
tive preoccupation (i.e., the irresistible situation) acts as a proximal Relationship conflict is conflict arising from ignoring or interrupting
sufficient cause, and negative outcomes arise from cognitive and and negative emotional interaction among colleagues [59]. Increased
behavioral factors, as argued by Davis, [22]. Hence, based on the above SNS use raises concerns about compromising the social atmosphere of
argument and theory, we can hypothesize that excessive SNS use leads the workplace, which has a further unintended impact. Such extreme
to CEP symptoms. participation of individuals and the use of these sites increases due to the
pleasurable nature of social media [60,61]. According to researchers,
H1. Excessive SNS use is positively associated with cognitive
users must bear some cost for finding this immediate and cheap grati­
emotional preoccupation.
fication without their effort [62]. The cost of this instant pleasure is the
displacement of time that would otherwise have been utilized for family
3.2. Negative consequences bonding in the workplace. By neglecting these relationships, such
excessive users spend more time using mobile apps and interacting with
Based on SCT, we discuss negative outcomes such as TPR conflicts as online friends. This shortcut to companionship can increase the conflict
outcomes of excessive SNS use and CEP. In general, conflict refers to a level. Moreover, such people might perceive SNS as the only way of
condition where the goals of one employee mismatch the goals of other satisfaction, with no other substitutes, and ultimately they over-rely on
employees [46] or abrasion between activities of the SNS and other this source of gratification [63]. To satisfy this irresistible and strong
people [20,47,48]. The conflict is related to all situations which tend to craving and maintain an enjoyable experience, users even bear irrational
examine the performance of an individual, such as innovation and behavior [64]. Such emotional preoccupation induces SNS users to
learning [49]. For a better understanding of this clue, this research de­ isolate themselves from social interaction, depriving themselves of
scribes three types of conflict: TPR-conflicts. spending time nurturing their relationships, such as with family and
friends for gatherings, chatting, and outings during vacations [65].
3.2.1. Task conflict Consequently, this type of behavior may exacerbate relationship con­
Task conflict refers to opposing opinions and divergent perceptions flict. Based on this rationale, the following hypotheses are presented:
of workers toward the job-related task [50,51]. Prior studies endorsed
H2c. Excessive SNS use is positively associated with relationship
that excessive engagement with SNS induces a perception of overload,
conflict.
which triggers frequent disagreement among working groups due to
cognitive depletion [52,53]. It is also noted that the online tendency of H3c. Cognitive emotional preoccupation with SNSs is positively
excessive users with SNS penetration in everyday life is more than an associated with relationship conflict.
hour per day [54], and recently this tendency has increased to more than
144 min per day. If the situation suits them, users thoroughly follow 3.3. Poor work performance
their behavioral pattern and completely neglect cognitive deliberation.
Such users with their behavioral patterns (i.e., low self-control, divided Work performance refers to work-related activities expected from an
attention, and getting is used to SNSs) act as cognitive misers. In this individual and how well these activities, tasks, roles, and responsibilities
way, these associative clusters reduce cognitive efforts, resulting in are performed or executed [66]. It is usually evaluated based on goals
neglect of the job tasks at hand. Research has reported that distraction and objectives associated with those responsibilities, tasks, and pro­
from the SNS takes place every 10 min, and it takes at least 30 min to fessions. Although optimal usage of SNS can produce a positive impact
refocus on the job task [55]. Because of this emotional preoccupation, and assist in increasing the performance level, SNS usage behavior that
SNS users lack time and energy for thinking clearly about performing exceeds the rational level can induce negative results [67]. Previous
their tasks. In short, they want to indulge their self-enthusiasm at the studies discuss many negative outcomes of the problematic use of SNSs
cost of performing their tasks, which may result in conflicts. Accord­ [68], and research related to a reduction in performance level is prev­
ingly, we posit that: alent. Therefore, in the current study, our focus to measure performance
from the perspective of work is rational. A few studies have suggested
H2a. Excessive SNS use is positively associated with task conflict.
that task conflict creates awareness in the individuals that how they can
H3a. Cognitive emotional preoccupation with SNSs is positively handle the job [69], and awareness of the issues and different opinions
associated with task conflict. are helpful to become more creative [70]. However, the open nature of
SNSs may enhance the conflict among employees, which can extend to
3.2.2. Process conflict the workplace [71], and SNS misuse can reduce productivity [72].
Process conflict refers to a clash of interests and is defined as Hence, the performance depends on several discrete behaviors that
disagreement among the workers regarding their work responsibilities emerge after some time.
and resource allocation, as well as wastage of an individual’s efforts due We argue that negative outcomes attributed to excessive SNS use
to the time required to resolve such issues [56]. Due to excessive SNS may hurt work performance during working hours. Thus, depending on

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their social network size, SNS users receive numerous communication validated scales. To fit the framework of this study, appropriate
requests and messages [73]. This communication can distract the em­ amendments were done. Table 1 lists the measurement items used in this
ployees by leading them to check status updates, photos, posts, and survey, along with their sources. For measuring the items, a seven-point
notifications on the SNS, which limits their cognitive functioning. For Likert Scale with options ranging from (1) “strongly disagree” to (7)
instance, relationship conflict induces distorted thoughts of nervousness “strongly agree” was used.
and unhappiness, which prevent the users from concentrating and
accomplishing the task at hand [69,74]. When the task conflict in­ 3.3.4. Excessive SNS use
tensifies, users focus on multiple lines of thinking and cannot achieve Participants evaluated their excessive use of SNSs using the three-
their collective goals [75]. Thus a high level of task conflict may reduce item scale of Caplan and High [37] and Zheng & Lee [19]. A sample
the employee’s creativity [76]. Moreover, process conflicts may incur item was, “I think the amount of time I spend using SNSs applications is
negative attitudes and a high level of animosity [77,78] and detract from excessive.”
productive outcomes [56]. Even though SNSs can be used for
business-related purposes, their overuse can outweigh the positive 3.3.5. Cognitive emotional preoccupation
impact. Overuse also influences mental preoccupation [37]; it was CEP was assessed using eight items from the Turel and Qahri-Saremi
proved by Nucleus research that employees who use Facebook in the [17] scale. A sample item was, “Do you find yourself unable to stop
workplace reduce their productivity by 7.5% [79]. Based on these facts, thinking about using mobile SNS applications?”
we propose that task conflicts, process conflicts, and relationship con­
flicts mentally weaken the individuals and reduce their work perfor­ 3.3.6. Task conflict
mance. Hence: SNS users ranked their task conflicts using the Pelled et al. [70]
three-item scale. A sample item was, “You frequently have disagree­
H4. Task conflict is negatively associated with work performance.
ments within your workgroup about the task of the project you are
H5. Process conflict is negatively associated with work performance. working on.”
H6. Relationship conflict is negatively associated with work
performance.

3.3.1. Research methodology Table 1

We collected data for the proposed research model using an online Measurement items.
survey. Participants were active SNS members, selected through a spe­ Variables Adapted construct items
cial recruiting process for research projects. SNS use is increasing rapidly
Excessive SNS Use ESU1 I think the amount of time I spend using SNSs
in China, and the number of SNS users has reached around 674 million, applications is excessive.
making China’s SNS community the world’s biggest market (www.stati ESU2 I spend an unusually large amount of time using SNS
stica.com). In this section, the measurements utilized, data collection applications.
ESU3 I spend more time using mobile SNS applications than
process, and representative sample are explained.
most other people.
Cognitive CEP1 Do you find yourself unable to stop thinking about
3.3.2. Sample and data collection Emotional using mobile SNS applications?
We administered the online survey in China and used the back- Preoccupation CEP2 Is it hard to distract yourself from thinking about
translation method (Brislin, 1989). Firstly, a pilot study was arranged mobile SNS applications?
CEP3 Do thoughts about using mobile SNS applications
to eliminate the ambiguity in the questionnaire. For this purpose, 20
intrude into your daily activities?
working professionals were invited to participate. The objective of this CEP4 Do you feel lost if you were unable to use mobile SNS
research, to analyze the dark side of excessive SNS use on work per­ applications?
formance, was mentioned on the cover sheet of this survey to give a clear CEP5 Do you think obsessively about using mobile SNS
applications when you not using them?
picture of this study. The questionnaire distributed to the representative
CEP6 When you feel anxious, you crave to use mobile SNS
participants also contained questions related to background informa­ applications?
tion: age, gender, and their number of SNS friends. Moreover, there were CEP7 When you feel lonely, you feel an urge to use mobile
questions related to user experience to know the using tendency of SNS applications?
participants in the employing organization. The targeted respondents of CEP8 Do you ever feel so nervous that you really need to use
mobile SNS applications?
this survey were employees, and their feedback was used to refine the
Task Conflict TC1 There is much conflict of ideas in your work group.
wording of the items in the work context. To improve the response rate, TC2 You frequently have disagreements within your work
the only participants who were considered valid were those who re­ group about the task of the project you are working
ported SNS use in the working environment. Owing to the sensitivity of on.
the personal information, respondents were also assured that their data TC3 People in your work group often have conflicting
opinions about the project you are working on.
would be kept secret. To encourage participation and explore the Process Conflict PC1 How often are there disagreements about who should
appropriate responses to SNS use, we conducted a second follow-up do what in your work group?
round. Overall, the online questionnaire was distributed to 450 partic­ PC2 How much conflict is there in your group about work
ipants, from whom we obtained 412 responses. We used 386 valid re­ responsibilities?
PC3 How often do you disagree about resource allocation
sponses as a final sample and eliminated the remaining 26
in your work group?
questionnaires of employees who did not completely fill in the infor­ Relationship RC1 There is much relationship tension in your work
mation. Responses of those participants who never used SNSs were also Conflict group.
discarded. To test for nonresponse bias, we compared the questionnaires RC2 People often get angry while working in your group.
that were returned early with those returned late. There was no signif­ RC3 There is much emotional conflict in your work group.
Work WP1 I always complete the duties specified in my job
icant difference between the groups, ruling out a significant impact of Performance description.
nonresponse bias in the sample. WP2 I always meet all the formal performance
requirements of my job.
3.3.3. Measurement WP3 I always fulfill all responsibilities required by my job.
WP4 I often fail to perform essential duties (R)
The constructs utilized in this research were adapted from previously

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3.3.7. Process conflict Table 3

Respondents assessed process conflict with the Shah and Jehn [80] Item loadings and cross-loadings.
three-item scale. A sample item was, “How often are there disagree­ 1 2 3 4 5 6
ments about who should do what in your workgroup?”
Cognitive emotional CEP1 .921 -.032 .028 .118 .063 .096
Preoccupation CEP2 .886 -.041 -.013 .095 .098 .096
3.3.8. Relationship conflict CEP3 .876 -.024 .080 .057 .095 .161
Relationship conflict items were adapted from Pelled et al. [70]. we CEP4 .873 -.041 .115 .069 .118 .079
used three-item scale. A sample item was, “There is much relationship CEP5 .864 -.024 .078 .046 .114 .172
CEP6 .851 -.016 .100 .069 .126 .125
tension in your workgroup.” CEP7 .843 -.034 .127 .055 .111 .165
CEP8 .805 .053 .001 .014 .098 .199
3.3.9. Work performance Work Performance PER1 -.008 .828 -.067 -.132 -.058 .004
SNS users graded their level of work performance using the Janssen PER2 .002 .817 -.080 -.122 -.050 -.007
PER3 .020 .821 -.116 -.119 -.045 -.058
and Van Yperen [81] four-item scale. A sample item was, “I always meet
PER4 -.099 .806 -.085 -.143 -.090 -.141
all the formal performance requirements of my job.” Task Conflict TC1 .119 -.111 .831 .128 .155 .095
Table 2 illustrates the demographic details of the 386 respondents. TC2 .100 -.117 .825 .141 .147 .063
The largest age group of participants was the group of age 31–40 years TC3 .106 -.128 .814 .155 .173 .068
(36.8%).”. The male and female respondents in the final sample Process Conflict PC1 .109 -.183 .148 .820 .153 .080
PC2 .122 -.181 .139 .819 .138 .086
comprised 51.3% and 48.7%, respectively. As for the experience of those PC3 .116 -.187 .150 .808 .140 .083
participants, those who had used SNSs for more than four years Relationship RC1 .214 -.073 .184 .121 .718 .106
comprised 57.3% of the total respondents, whereas only 2.3% of par­ Conflict RC2 .195 -.079 .155 .162 .711 .109
ticipants had used SNS for less than two years. Among the respondents, RC3 .184 -.102 .162 .158 .704 .106
Excessive Use of EU1 .269 -.071 .077 .105 .112 .817
40.2% had more than 300 friends, and only 3.9% had less than 100
SNS EU2 .267 -.089 .077 .092 .103 .814
friends. EU3 .281 -.052 .083 .057 .102 .808

All items factor loading are significant at p < 0.001 level.

4. Data analysis
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
4.1. Measurement model
a. Rotation converged in 6 iterations.

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed using AMOS and

(range 0.754–0.960) are considered suitable because these are greater
SPSS to assess the validity of the measures used in the study. This
than the 0.5 and 0.7 acceptable values, respectively. Therefore, these
analysis also prepares the data for factor relationship analysis by
findings indicated the validity of our instrument’s measures.
examining the accuracy of item matching. Table 3 shows the CFA out­
Next, we assessed the discriminant validity that shows the construct
comes, which indicate that items for the overall fit of the anticipated
under consideration has a low correlation with the other constructs. We
model loaded strongly on their relevant factors because all loading
compared the square root of the AVE of each factor with relevant inter-
values fall between 0.704 and 0.921, meeting the required cut-off
construct correlations to demonstrate this validity [84]. The results in
values. Besides this, all values are above the threshold level, indi­
Table 5 reveal that the square root of AVE is greater than the
cating the unidimensional structure of the model and the absence of any
off-diagonal correlation between each construct and all other related
cross-loading problem.
constructs, thereby establishing the acceptable discriminant validity of
We evaluated the convergent validity by checking the scores of
all scales used in this research.
Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability (CR), and average variance
We tested the structural model using the data obtained from the
extracted (AVE) of each factor. Initially, we assessed the convergent
validated scales. SPSS is used to calculate the overall fit indices. The
validity by utilizing the method presented by Fornell & Larcker, [82].
results are within the common threshold criteria. Its RMSEA value is
The results are presented in Table 4, which shows that the loading values
0.054, which is less than the cut-off value of 0.10. The chi-square to the
of all items on their respective construct are greater than 0.7. Next, we
degree of freedom ratio (CMIN/DF) is 2.215; this score is also within the
tested the values of Cronbach’s alpha, CR, and AVE for checking the
suggested range. Its NFI value is 0.953, IFI score is 0.983, and CFI value
reliability and validity [83]. The Cronbach’s alpha values, ranging from
is 0.983, all of which are meet the acceptable standard of 0.90. Thus, the
0.81 to 0.92 for each construct, were all greater than the 0.7 desired
results met the conditions of the goodness-of-fit model, indicating that
cut-off value. Also, the AVE scores (range 0.506–0.749) and CR values
the hypothesized six-factor model is a valid fit model.
To evaluate the common method bias, we performed Harman’s sin­
gle factor test [85]. The principal component analysis was conducted on
Table 2
the multi-item constructs, and it produced six components. If the single
Demographics of respondents.
latent factor accounts for greater than 50% variance, then it is prob­
Category Frequency lematic. The results indicate that the prime component explains only
Percentage (%) 24.45% of the variance. None of the latent factors dominate the expla­
Gender Male 198 51.3 nation of the variance because their values are not higher than 0.50.
Female 188 48.7 Another hazard of the common method bias consists of high correlation
Age (Years) Less than and equal to 20 10 2.6 among constructs, i.e., r > 0.9 [86]. Table 5 shows that a high correla­
21 to 30 138 35.8 tion is not detected in the inter-construct correlation matrix. Thus,
31 to 40 142 36.8
Over 40 96 24.9
common method bias is unlikely to be a concern in this case.
SNS Experience Less than and equal to 2 year 9 2.3
2–4 156 40.4
More than 4 221 57.3 4.2. Structural model
No. of Friends Less than and equal to 100 15 3.9
101–200 74 19.2 Data collected from validated scales are used to test the structural
201–300 142 36.8 model. The results indicate that the overall fit indices fall within the
More than 300 155 40.2
suggested values. Thus, these are acceptable for the proposed model. Its

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S. Saleem et al. Technology in Society 65 (2021) 101584

Table 4
Factor loading and reliabilities.
Variables name Items Factor Loading Cronbach’s Alpha Composite Reliability Average Variance extracted

Cognitive emotional preoccupation CEP1 .921 .91 0.960 0.749

CEP2 .886
CEP3 .876
CEP4 .873
CEP5 .864
CEP6 .851
CEP7 .843
CEP8 .805
Work Performance PER1 .828 .88 0.890 0.699
PER2 .817
PER3 .821
PER4 .806
Task Conflict TC1 .831 .92 0.863 0.678
TC2 .825
TC3 .814
Process Conflict PC1 .820 .86 0.856 0.665
PC2 .819
PC3 .808
Relationship Conflict RC1 .718 .81 0.754 0.506
RC2 .711
RC3 .704
Excessive Use of SNS EU1 .817 .90 0.854 0.661
EU2 .814
EU3 .808

Note: All factor loadings are significant at the p < 0.001 level. CR= Composite reliability, AVE = Average variance extracted.

Table 5
Correlations matrix.
Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Excessive SNS Use 3.99 1.14 .813

2. Cognitive Emotional Preoccupation 4.95 1.31 .446** .865
3. Task Conflict 3.49 1.27 .228** .221** .823
4. Relationship Conflict 3.98 1.50 .298** .350** .377** .711
5. Process Conflict 3.62 1.25 .239** .232** .348** .360** .815
6. Work Performance 4.44 1.94 -.160** -.081 -.256** -.200** -.355** .836

**p < 0.01, *p<.05 (2 & 1-tailed respectively)

Note: Bold diagonal elements are the square root of the average variance extracted of each construct; Pearson correlations are shown below the diagonal.

Fig. 2. Research model test.

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S. Saleem et al. Technology in Society 65 (2021) 101584

Chi-square/df value is 1.77 and RMSEA is 0.061. Moreover, the NFI is work performance problems.
0.961, IFI is 974, GFI is 0.914, and CFI is 0.983. Based on the acceptable This study also finds that a high degree of SNS usage stimulates CEP,
model fit, we calculated the coefficients of the path diagram. in the form of a strong predictor. As a contributing feature of negative
consequences, SNS overuse was found to be a necessary but not suffi­
cient condition of SNS addiction. Thus, increased use from capability
4.3. Hypothesis testing
does not automatically turn into the addiction of SNSs [22,87]. In this
research, SNS stressors (i.e., excessive SNS use and CEP) positively
Structural equational modeling was conducted by using the Amos
impact outcomes attributed to the usage of SNS applications, outcomes
system to test the hypotheses. The path diagram is shown in Fig. 2. The
such as task conflict, process conflict, and relationship conflict. These
results confirm that, except for one hypothesis, all calculated path co­
contradict the findings of previous studies concluding that social media
efficients are significant. The findings show that the association between
use in the working environment might have an affirmative impact which
excessive SNS use and CEP is positive (H1:β = 0.565, p < 0.001), thereby
can enhance work performance [15], and excessive usage does not al­
supporting the H1 hypothesis. Excessive SNS usage has a significant
ways lead to adverse consequences [19]. Moreover, there is also a pos­
positive influence on task conflict (H2a:β =0.143, p < 0.01), process
itive aspect of hedonic use which can increase productivity, and creative
conflict (H2b: β = 0.147, p < 0.01), and relationship conflict (H2c:β =
work performance may also be enhanced [88].
0.298, p < 0.001). Thus, H2a, H2b, and H2c are accepted. Next, we
However, our results support the published studies on excessive
checked the impact of CEP and three kinds of destructive outcomes. The
usage with its negative outcomes, studies which state that people
findings reveal that CEP has a significant positive correlation with task
exhausted due to excessive usage of social media do not have enough
conflict (H3a: β = 0.183, p < 0.01), process conflict (H3b: β = 0.194, p
time, energy, and emotional resources to fulfill their work requirements,
< 0.01), and relationship conflict (H3c:β = 0.246, p < 0.001). Therefore,
which results in a reduction of work performance [10,89]. Similarly,
H3a, H3b, and H3c are accepted. Finally, excessive SNS use induces task
excessive use of social media for amusement can produce work conflict
conflict, process conflict, and relationship conflict as tested in relation to
that negatively affects the performance [90]. Regular involvement in
work performance. According to our expectation, these two kinds of
using SNSs is inconsistent with the basic objectives of any employee,
adverse outcomes have a negative influence on work performance: task
such as attaining higher work performance, and this situation is
conflict (H4: β = − 0.204, p < 0.01) and process conflict (H5: β =
considered inappropriate. The proximal sufficient cause of problematic
− 0.480, p < 0.001). These results fully support hypotheses H4 and H5.
usage of SNSs is CEP. A high level of such preoccupation may confirm
Turning to our H6 hypothesis, relationship conflict (β = − 0.039, p >
the occurrence of symptoms of SNS addiction, resulting in personal and
0.05) has only an insignificant impact on work performance, so H6 is not
social issues.
supported. The model analysis reveals that 24.2% of the variance is
Moreover, increased use of SNSs may not immediately affect work
associated with CEP,19.7% in T-conflict, 21.7% in P-conflict, 15.6% in
performance. Excessive SNS use for a long period leads to personal and
R-conflict, and 37% of the variance is related to work performance (i.e.,
social problems. The findings of this study indicate that negative out­
the dependent variable). There is no impact of any control variable on
comes, such as task conflict and process conflict, have a destructive
the work performance. Therefore, our hypothesized model in this study
impact on work performance. These findings support recent research on
is acceptable.
SNSs and work performance describing how SNS addiction reduces work
To examine the mediation effect of task conflict, process conflict, and
performance by increasing task distraction [91]. The negative associa­
relationship conflict on the relationships between excessive SNS usage,
tion between CEP and work performance may also be explained as a
CEP, and work performance, we performed a bootstrapping test with
result of SNS stimuli producing a cluster in the mind of the SNS user
5000 bootstrap samples. The results, shown in Table 6, demonstrate that
through frequent SNS use; the behavioral trends are linked with the
the relationships between excessive use of SNSs and work performance
response of this cluster. For instance, newsfeed, status, notification,
and between CEP and work performance are fully mediated by task
tagging, and sharing of pictures by friends, relatives, and colleagues and
conflict and process conflict. In contrast, the relationship conflict failed
response to friend requests results in reactivation of this bunch. Such
to mediate the relationship between excessive SNS use and CEP with
stimulant cues and reactivation of the cluster enhances the response rate
work performance.
of social requests, posts, and messages, thereby increasing the craving
for SNS use that requires proper time, energy, and emotional invest­
5. Discussion ment. Thus preoccupation or lack of emotional and behavioral stability
due to SNS use results in personal and social conflicts [19]. Conse­
We encapsulate the framework of SCT and investigate how excessive quently, these conflicts affect the cognitive capability of the users, which
SNS usage stimulates CEP and influences three dimensions of strain (task in turn reduces performance [16].
conflict, process conflict, and relationship conflict), which in turn in­ Surprisingly, the correlation between relationship conflict and work
fluence work performance. The outcomes empirically confirmed our performance is not significant. Thus, our findings do not significantly
hypothesized relationships except for one hypothesis (H6). The results support H6. The basic reason for this situation is that this study focuses
reveal that participants who use SNSs excessively are likely to suffer

Table 6
Mediating effects.
Independent variables Mediators Dependent variable Indirect effect (Standard Error) Bootstrapping results

Lower Upper

Bias-corrected confidence interval

Excessive SNS Use Task Conflict Work performance -.051 (.028)*** -.105 -.013 Supported
Process Conflict -.115 (.027)** -.182 -.067 Supported
Relationship Conflict -.016 (.039)ns -.074 .033 Not Supported
Cognitive Emotional Preoccupation Task Conflict Work performance -.046 (.028)** -.091 -.014 Supported
Process Conflict -.101 (.027)** -.165 -.054 Supported
Relationship Conflict -.027 (.039)ns -.091 .025 Not
Supported

Note: Bootstrapping method for mediation. Significant at:*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

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S. Saleem et al. Technology in Society 65 (2021) 101584

on SNSs. In daily life, relationship conflict may be due to the complaints users may employ methods such as late reply, centralized response, and
of friends and family members for continuously neglecting them due to logging out of such networking sites to mitigate the pressure induced by
frequent social connections. It may also depend on obsessions involving excessive usage. If the people are doing jobs in positions where excessive
SNSs during their sleeping time, vacations, or even during family SNS use is a requirement of the post, and they feel disturbed by frequent
gatherings, which do not occur in the workplace setting of our study. communication, they can adopt alternatives such as voice calls, video
However, such obsession may be facilitated by completing their work calls, and offline communications, or a combination of all these
efficiently, timely responses to their co-workers, and searching for new depending on the nature of contacts. The alternate methods may make it
ways to enhance their working capabilities, which may mean their work feasible to complete their tasks while curbing excessive reliance on SNS
performance is not reduced at all. Precisely, this study’s findings indi­ sites.
cate that three dimensions of conflict (task, process, and relationship) Thirdly, managers of companies could consider strategies to regulate
contribute to the reduction in work performance levels due to overuse of the behavior of employees. For instance, they can set time limits and
SNS applications. develop policies, according to the culture of the organization, concern­
ing how, when, and which SNSs may be utilized in the workplace. Such
5.1. Theoretical implications strategies can be enforced by giving devices owned by the organization
to the employees, a practice that allows easy handling and monitoring
The current study provides three major theoretical implications. by the firm. In the case of students, universities and parents may set
First, prior literature has mostly emphasized the positive aspects of so­ specific time periods and enforce further restrictions so the students
cial media, such as social capital, innovative behavior, and agile per­ spend their time in healthy activities and in enhancing real-world
formance (Cai et al., 2018; [88]. In comparison, the current study networks.
provides interesting insights into the dark side of SNSs. This study adds Finally, to prevent the harmful impact of inappropriate use of SNSs in
to the ongoing debate about whether SNS use is beneficial or harmful for terms of work conflicts, penalties may be mposed to make the SNS usage
employees, and it investigates an innovative underlying mechanism. cost the employee more [94], and seminars may be conducted to create
Second, the present study extends the prior limited theoretical un­ awareness among users. In the work scenario of our study, companies
derstanding of SNSs that results from the scarcity of theory-driven ap­ cannot forbid the use of SNSs in the workplace, but such measures can
proaches. This study develops a theoretical model based on cognitive- help to confirm that excessive usage does not hamper the performance of
behavior theory and SCT to explain these SNS phenomena. The previ­ the employees and intervene in case of an undesirable extent of use.
ous research tends to focus on one or two of Bandura’s reciprocal factors Reducing the usage of SNSs even to a small extent can assist in increasing
[92]. In contrast, we look at the interplay of triadic factors—behavior, the performance level. SNS providers develop attractive features to in­
people, and environment—and offer a comprehensive understanding. crease each member’s urge to use the SNS, thereby promoting their
For example, we examined how the user’s SNS usage behavior predicts business, but for the sake of maintaining their users in the face of three
their inclination towards negative outcomes. major types of conflicts, they should provide the users with filter
Third, our study extends the previous literature that inadequately mechanisms to receive specific information, most relevant requests, and
describes the drivers and consequences of the negative effects of tech­ contents. They can also introduce optional functions for eliminating
nology [89]; such effects are almost overlooked in prior research on SNS unnecessary communication and facilitating smooth transition proced­
use [68]. In particular, this research empirically investigates the dark ures, such as advanced information about frequent changes and updates
side of SNSs and highlights the maladaptive cognitions that cause for decreasing the impact of habitual SNS use.
adverse impacts in the form of TPR conflicts. This study differentiates
three key dimensions of conflict to capture the dark side of excessive SNS 5.3. Limitations and future research
use rather than utilizing a single strain. We explore TPR conflicts to
describe the underlying mechanism, instead of just the general negative As with empirical study, ours has certain limitations that should be
impact on performance. The proximal cause of SNS-related strain should acknowledged for future research. Our participants rely on generalized
not be neglected, given that the strain is a combination of behavioral and circumstances that may have generated excessive SNS use for each
cognitive aspects of SNS users and significantly influences productivity. respondent, which puts into question the specific conditions of this
problem. Future efforts should categorize those experiencing this phe­
5.2. Practical implications nomenon, studying the effect in environments such as colleges as well as
workplaces. Moreover, the use of a cross-sectional analysis may deteri­
This research offers useful insights for improving the work perfor­ orate the support for our hypothesized causal relationship. Note,
mance of SNS users and providers. The findings of this research suggest though, that the justification of our hypotheses depends on solid the­
that excessive SNS use may not be enough to stimulate symptoms of ories, and our analysis of the results did not show any multicollinearity
technological addiction, but the major negative impact of excessive concerns. We will still recommend for future exploration the use of
usage of SNSs should be reflected in practical life. Since an individual’s longitudinal experiments to expose the causality dilemma and to
excessive SNS use is revealed to be noteworthy in affecting work per­ enhance the robustness of our results by finding the direction of effects
formance indirectly through high CEP and strain, some rehabilitation between tested variables. This study assessed only three strain factors in
therapies should be planned to control the impact of this attitude of the context of conflicts. For future studies, other appropriate factors
excessive usage. related to strain may be incorporated in the existing empirical model.
Firstly, users who spend excessive time using SNSs should try to The current study investigated the impact of generalized SNSs without
regulate their own behavior to avoid unexpected consequences. For reflecting the differences between features of specific SNSs. Another
instance, they can focus on face-to-face interaction instead of mean­ possible direction is to examine the relationship to discover whether the
ingless communication with unnecessary online friends. Unfortunately, impact of excessive SNS use differs based on the specific type and fea­
many users may not have the self-control to manage their SNS usage tures of the SNS. In the context of these differences, certain other
behavior and alleviate their reliance on SNSs. By using tactics such as by remedial measures may be adopted to refine our results and to eliminate
reducing social relationships to control time and frequency usage and this gap. Finally, this study focused on the consequences of excessive
developing offline relationships, the negative impact may be avoided SNS use on work performance within the same country, China, and the
[93]. same cultural background. Even though our results identified useful
Secondly, during working hours or important events such as gath­ insights, cross-cultural differences deserve attention since they can
erings, where distraction leads to severely difficult situations, the SNS heavily influence the usage habits of participants. Therefore, further

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S. Saleem et al. Technology in Society 65 (2021) 101584

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