Cell physiology

Structure
and
Function
 Introduction to the cell biology
 What is a Cell ?
 Cells : are the microscopic fundamental units of all
living things.
 Every living thing has cells: bacteria, protozoans,
fungi, plants, and animals are the main groups
(Kingdoms) of living things.
 Some organisms are made up of just one cell (e.g.
bacteria and protozoans).
 But animals, including human beings, are
multicellular.
 An adult human body is composed of about 100
trillion cells! Each cell has basic requirements to
sustain it. and the body's organ systems are largely
built around providing the many trillions of cells with
those basic needs (such as oxygen, food, and waste
removal).
 Introduction to the cell biology
 About 200 different types of specialized cells carry out a
multitude of functions that help each system contribute to the
homeostasis of the entire body.
 At the same time, all cells share key structures and functions that
support their intense activity.

 For ease of study, we divide the cell into three main parts:

1. plasma membrane
2. cytoplasm
3. nucleus
 Human Cell, Structure and
Functions:
 The cell : is the basic functional in a human meaning that
it is a self-contained and fully operational living entity.

Humans are multicellular organisms with various

different types of cells that work together to sustain life.

Other non-cellular components in the body include

water, macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids),
micronutrients (vitamins, minerals) and electrolytes.

A collection of cells that function together to perform the

same activity is known as tissue. Masses of tissue work
collectively to form an organ that performs specific
functions in the body. Despite this structural
organization, all activity boils down to the cell – a
complex unit that makes life possible.
 Parts of the Human Cell
The cell contains various structural components to
allow it to maintain life which are known as organelles.
All the organelles are suspended within a gelatinous
matrix, the cytoplasm, which is contained within the
cell membrane. One of the few cells in the human body
that lacks almost all organelles are the red blood cells .
The main organelles are as follows :
Nucleus
Cell membrane
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Mitochondria
Microfilaments and microtubules.
 Nucleus
The nucleus : is the master control of the cell. It
contains genes, collections of DNA, which
determines every aspect of human anatomy and
physiology. The DNA which is arranged into
chromosomes also contains the blueprint specific
for each type of cell which allows for replication of
the cell. Within the nucleus is an area known as
the nucleolus. It is not enclosed by a membrane
but is just an accumulation of RNA and proteins
within the nucleus. The nucleolus is the site
where the ribosomal RNA is transcribed from DNA
and assembled.
 Cell Membrane:
The cell membrane is the outer coating of the cell
and contains the cytoplasm, substances within it and
the organelle. It is a double-layered membrane
composed of proteins and lipids. The lipid molecules
on the outer and inner part (lipid bilayer) allow it to
selectively transport substances in and out of the
cell.
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membranous
structure that contains a network of tubules and
vesicles. Its structure is such that substances can
move through it and be kept in isolation from the
rest of the cell until the manufacturing processes
conducted within are completed. There are two types
of endoplasmic reticulum – rough (granular) and
smooth (a granular).
 The cytoplasm :

 consists of all the cellular contents between the

plasma membrane and the nucleus.
 This compartment has two components: cytosol
‫ العصارة الحيوية‬and organelles ‫العضيات‬.
1. Cytosol : means the fluid portion of cytoplasm.
 Contains: (water, dissolved solutes, and
suspended particles). Surrounded by cytosol are
several different types of organelles (little
organs).
 Each type of organelle has a characteristic
shape and specific functions. Examples include:
 ( the cytoskeleton , ribosomes , endoplasmic
reticulum , Golgi complex , lysosomes ,
peroxisomes , and mitochondria )
 Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus :is a stacked collection
of flat vesicles. It is closely associated with
the endoplasmic reticulum in that
substances produced in the ER are
transported as vesicles and fuses with the
Golgi apparatus. In this way, the products
from the ER are stored in the Golgi
apparatus and converted into different
substances that are necessary for the cell’s
various functions.
  Lysosomes
Lysosomes: are vesicles that break off from the Golgi
apparatus. It varies in size and function depending on
the type of cell. Lysosomes contain enzymes that help
with the digestion of nutrients in the cell and break
down any cellular debris or invading microorganisms
like bacteria.
A structure that is similar to a lysosome is
the secretory vesicle. It contains enzymes that are
not used within the cell but emptied outside of the cell,
for example the secretory vesicles of the pancreatic
lacunar cell release digestive enzymes which help
with the digestion of nutrients in the gut.
  Peroxisomes
These organelles are very similar to the
lysosomes and contain enzymes that act
together in the form of hydrogen peroxide to
neutralize substances that may be toxic to
the cell. Peroxisomes are formed directly
from the endoplasmic reticulum rather
than from the Golgi apparatus like
lysosomes.
  Mitochondria

These are the powerhouses of the cell and break down

nutrients to yield energy. Apart from producing its own
energy, it also produces a high-energy compound called ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) which can be used as a simple
energy source elsewhere. Mitochondria are composed of two
membranous layers – an outer membrane that surrounds the
structure and an inner membrane that provides the physical
sites of energy production. The inner membrane has many in
folding that form shelves where enzymes attach and oxidize
nutrients. The mitochondria also contain DNA which allows it
to replicate where and when necessary.
Mitochondria
  Microfilaments and Microtubules
Microfilaments and microtubules are rigid
protein substances that form the internal
skeleton of the cell known as the cytoskeleton.
Some of these microtubules also make up
the centrioles and mitotic spindles within the
cell which are responsible for the division of the
cytoplasm when the cell divides. The
microtubules are the central component of cilia,
small hair-like projections that protrude from the
surface of certain cells. It is also the central
component of specialized cilia like the tail of the
sperm cells which beats in a manner to allow the
cell to move in a fluid medium.
 Functions of the Human Cell
 The functions of the human cell varies based on the
type of cell and its location in the human body.
All the organelles work together to keep the cell alive
and allow it to carry out its specific function.
Sometimes these organelles are highly specialized and
can vary in (size, shape and number).
The organelles are the most basic functional units but
it cannot exist and operate without the cell as a whole.
Its functions include intake of nutrients and other
substances, processing of these compounds,
production of new substances, cell replication and
energy production. In specialized cells that need to be
motile, like sperm cells, tail-like projections allow for
cellular locomotion.
 Functions of the Human Cell

 The function of each organelle has already been discussed but is

worth considering in summary:

The cell membrane allows substances to enter and leave the

cell.
While certain substance like oxygen can easily diffuse through
the cell membrane, others have to actively transported through
the process of endocytosis. Small particles are transported by
the process of pinocytosis while larger particles are moved by
the process of phagocytosis. These functions can become highly
specialized to allow cells to perform specific activities, like the
macrophages that phagocytosis invading bacteria to neutralize
it.
Small and large substances that do not dissolve in the
cytoplasm are contained within vesicles. Lysosomes attach to
the vesicles and digest this material.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus synthesize
different substances like protein and fats as required by the cell
or designated according to its specific function. It utilizes basic
nutrient molecules that are either dissolved in the cytoplasm or
specific substances contained within vesicles .
 Type of transporting in cell membrane
 Endocytosis
Endocytosis (endo = internal, cytosis = transport mechanism) is a
general term for the various types of active transport that move
particles into a cell by enclosing them in vesicle made out of plasma
membrane.
There are variations of endocytosis, but all follow the same basic
process. First, the plasma membrane of the cell invaginates (folds
inward), forming a pocket around the target particle or particles. The
pocket then pinches off with the help of specialized proteins, leaving the
particle trapped in in a newly created vesicle or vacuole inside the cell.
Endocytosis can be further subdivided into the following categories:
phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-m
1. Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis (literally, “cell eating”) is a form of endocytosis in which
large particles, such as cells or cellular debris, are transported into the
cell. We’ve already seen one example of phagocytosis, because this is
the type of endocytosis used by the macrophage in the article opener to
engulf a pathogen.
Type of transporting in cell membrane

2- Pinocytosis:

Pinocytosis (literally, “cell drinking”) is a form of

endocytosis in which a cell takes in small amounts of
extracellular fluid. Pinocytosis occurs in many cell
types and takes place continuously, with the cell
sampling and re-sampling the surrounding fluid to
get whatever nutrients and other molecules happen
to be present. Pinocytosed material is held in small
vesicles, much smaller than the large food vacuole
produced by phagocytosis.
 Type of transporting in cell membrane

Exocytosis
Cells must take in certain molecules, such as nutrients,
but they also need to release other molecules, such as
signaling proteins and waste products, to the outside
environment.
Exocytosis (exo = external, cytosis = transport
mechanism) is a form of bulk transport in which
materials are transported from the inside to the outside
of the cell in membrane-bound vesicles that fuse with
the plasma membrane.
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