Types of Communication Theories

Communication theories come from research and thought that define how information is
conveyed and received between two parties. These theories apply to verbal and written
communication between people as well as mass and broadcast communications. Some
researchers apply the concepts to communication between animals and across computer
networks. Dozens of communication theories exist, but most fall into several broader categories.

Models of Communication
 The simplest communication theories describe how information is sent and received.
These model the differences, for example, between a conversation among two individuals
and the exchange of ideas in a six-person staff meeting, and what affects those
exchanges. Five Forms of Communication theory lists different communication models,
while Relational Dialectics explores how the conflicting desire for autonomy and
connection affects interpersonal communication.

Theories of Effective Communication

 In efforts to improve the quality of communication, some researchers develop theories
about what makes communication effective. These theories explore what goes right when
ideas pass between two parties, and how to repeat that success more easily and reliably.
Examples include Cutlip and Center's seven Cs of communication, which holds that
attention to clarity, credibility, content, context, continuity, capability and channels
improves the quality and effectiveness of communication. The Narrative Paradigm theory
holds that humans pay more attention to stories than to data or logic, so communicating
with a narrative structure is often more effective and convincing.

Theories of Ineffective Communication

 Other researchers work to identify what goes wrong with communication in order to
avoid those pitfalls when developing communication strategies. These look at situational,
cultural and cognitive reasons why communication might fail, or break down, between
groups. The Groupthink theory explores why cohesive groups rarely consider or
communicate all options when solving problems. Cognitive Dissonance Theory states
that communication breakdowns often happen because people don't like -- and will act to
ignore or avoid -- information incompatible with their opinions and beliefs.

Structural Theories
 Structural theories of communication investigate the components of communication, both
to understand meta-communication and how to improve the effectiveness of those
components. Cultural Approach to Organization explores how cultures organize
 communication around shared symbols, experiences and archetypes. Muted Group
Theory defines how communication is different for minorities in a society than for the
majority in the same culture using the same language.

Economic and Political Theories

 Some communication theories focus on how to apply communication toward achieving
specific economic or political goals. Rhetoric theories are the most basic of these,
exploring how a speaker can persuade an audience. More advanced theories -- such as
Uses and Gratifications -- investigate specific applications of communication to business
and government, and many of these theories have to do with the effects and application of
television and other media on our lives. Cultivation Analysis is one such theory; it
explores how people gain knowledge through curated mass media rather than through
direct experience or research.

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Communication Theories
Actor-Network Theory (ANT)
Actor-Network Theory suggests that human and non-human factors are equally influential in the
success of technological innovation and scientific knowledge-creation. The theory looks at how
networks are formed and how these networks contribute to these successes. It suggests that no
one person or thing is solely responsible for these advancements. Therefore, both an actor and a
network are responsible for achieving these outcomes.

Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST)

Groups and organizations create rules and resources which are defined as structures. These
structures form social systems which develop a life of their own. The quality of the structure
affects decision making, and decisions also affect the structure.

Agenda Setting Theory

Agenda Setting Theory states that mass media organizations determine what the general
population considers newsworthy by deciding how much attention a news story receives. The
term salience transfer is commonly used and refers to the ability of the media to transfer their
agendas onto the public.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitive Dissonance is the psychological conflict that results from holding two contradictory or
incompatible beliefs or attitudes. For example, one can like a person, but disapprove of their
habits. The theory suggests that a person looks for balance in their beliefs. Therefore, in order to
reduce dissonance, one will avoid hearing opposing viewpoints or change their beliefs to match
their actions.

Communication Accommodation Theory

Communication Accommodation Theory describes when people accommodate or adjust their
communication styles to others. These changes in verbal and nonverbal styles are done through
two ways: divergence and convergence. Divergence is used to highlight group identity through
touting the differences of the group they identify with. Divergence is often used by groups with
strong ethnic or racial pride. Convergence is used more often by powerless individuals for social
approval and focuses on matching the communication styles of the person with whom they are
speaking to.

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Confirmation Bias
Confirmation Bias is a theory which explains why people view the world selectively. It states
that people continue to view the world selectively by choosing information and media which
reinforces their beliefs.

Constructivism
People who are more cognitively complex will be more successful communicators because they
possess the ability to create customized and sophisticated messages that pursue multiple
communication goals.

Cultivation Theory
Cultivation Theory argues media shapes a persons sense of reality. Because many acquire
information through mediated sources rather than direct experience, their world view becomes
influenced by these sources. For example, Cultivation Theory suggests that people who would be
defined as heavy television viewers see the world as more violent that it actually is.

Cultural Studies
Cultural Studies theorists suggest that mass media represents ideologies of the dominant class in
a society. They believe that media is influenced by profit, since corporations run the media.
Cultural Studies theorists are curious about the effect of power on culture.

Dramatism
Dramatism states that life is drama. Therefore, one can understand a speaker’s motive through
the dramatistic pentad of act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose. The greatest motive of rhetoric
is to purge guilt, and there can only be persuasion if the audience identifies with the speaker.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

The Elaboration Likelihood Model looks at how attitudes are formed and changed. It suggest
there are two routes of persuasion. The central route is where attitudes are changed through a
logical thought process. This route requires more attention, but is also allows for the major
change. The peripheral route uses surface characteristics, such as speaker’s credibility, to judge
the message. This route creates smaller shifts in attitude.
Face Negotiation Theory
Face Negotiation Theory highlights conflict style differences between collectivist and
individualistic cultures. Collectivist cultures place value on the group and therefore adopt a
conflict style of avoiding or integrating to give others mutual face. Individualistic cultures place
value on the individual and in an attempt to protect self-face, they adopt a dominating conflict
style.

Framing
“Frames” are defined as the way in which we interpret media presented to us, and that these
frames function as a way to organize social meanings. Since the media decides what we view
and how we view it, they also influence the way in which we interpret information. In a sense,
they tell us what to think about, and how to think about it.

Genderlect
Genderlect theory sees masculine and feminine communication styles as two different cultural
dialects — neither of which is more superior than the other. Genderlect states that these forms of
communication are simply different in their focus: masculine discourse is based on building
status and independence, while feminine conversation is used as a way to build rapport and
connection.

Groupthink
Groupthink is when groups make faulty decisions because they fail to critically analyzing their
options and weigh alternatives. This typically occurs in highly cohesive groups who are more
concerned with maintaining group unity than finding the best option.

Hypodermic Needle Theory

The Hypodermic Needle Theory, also known as the ‘magic bullet’ theory, says the media has a
powerful and direct effect on audiences by ‘injecting’ them with messages. The Hypodermic
Needle Theory no longer carries the respect it once did since its accuracy was found to be
questionable.

Muted Group Theory

Muted Group Theory states that because language is man-made women remain reduced and
excluded. Because words and norms have been created by men, women are disadvantaged in
public. As women become less muted and more vocal, the dominant position of males in society
will diminish.

The Narrative Paradigm

The Narrative Paradigm suggests that we as a people are storytelling animals. It states that
instead of using traditional logic, we are more open to judging the credibility of a speaker
through narrative logic, which analyzes if their stories are well put together (coherence) and
sound true (fidelity). Narrative logic allows those who are not educated in oratory and persuasion
to make judgments; therefore, allowing for a more democratic system.

Priming
Priming refers to the ability of the media to control the interpretation of new information by
feeding the public prior information. This prior context set frames of reference within the
audience members, which ultimately effects their judgments. For example, the media has primed
us as to what constitutes a credible person.

Proxemics
Proxemic theory looks at how different cultures develop and define space. On an unconscious
level people internalize three types of space: 1) intimate space: our personal “bubble” for friends
and intimates relationships; 2) social and consultative spaces: the space for routine social
interactions with acquaintances and strangers; 3) public space: the space where impersonal and
anonymous interactions occur. Each culture creates their own distances for what they feel is
appropriate.

Social Exchange Theory

Social Exchange Theory posits an ‘economic’ exchange for in interpersonal relationships.
Meaning, the relationships is enhanced by satisfying each others self-interest. In this theory, self-
interest is not regarded as a bad thing, but rather as a concept that builds the relationship.

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory argues that people learn from each other through observing, imitating,
and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory
explains how human behavior can be shaped by continuous reciprocal interaction between
cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences.

Social Penetration Theory

Social Penetration Theory looks at how superficial relationships evolve to intimate relationships.
The theory states it is a gradual evolution due primarily to self-disclosure between parties. But,
while this self-disclosure can be effective in creating intimate relationships, it can also leave one
or more persons vulnerable.

Spiral of Silence
The Spiral of Silence theory states that people are less likely to express their opinions if they are
the minority. This is because they fear they will be isolated by the majority and suffer social
rejection.

Standpoint Theory
Standpoint Theory claims that each person is seated in a different rank among the social
hierarchy. Because of this, each person views the social climate from a different vantage point,
which only provides a small look at the social whole. But the theory also claims that those who
are lower on the social ladder tend to have a greater understanding of the social whole, rather
than those higher up.

Symbolic Interactionism Theory

Symbolic Interaction Theory suggests that the concept of self is created by three principles: 1)
Meaning: that we act towards and things according to the meanings we apply to them. 2)
Language: that we negotiate meaning through symbols. 3) Thought: that thought modifies our
interpretations. Symbolic interactionism implies that without communication there would be no
self concept.

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

Theory of Planned Behavior is the same as Theory of Reasoned Action in that it says personal
attitudinal judgments and social-normative considerations influence a person’s intentions to
perform a behavior, but TPB adds a third element: perceived behavioral control. This element
being the perception of how easy or difficult it is to perform the behavior.

Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)

Theory of Reasoned Action looks at how behaviors can be influenced by influencing a person’s
intentions. TRA states that two main factors tell a person whether or not to perform a behavior:
1) personal attitudinal judgments: the evaluation of the action; and, 2) social-normative
considerations: what one believes others think they should do.

Uncertainty Reduction Theory

Uncertainty Reduction Theory states that when strangers meet, their primary goal is to reduce
levels of uncertainty. Uncertainty meaning, being unsure of how to behave (or how the other
person will behave), and unsure of what to think of the other person. For example, if they like the
person or do not like the person. According to this theory, they will use communication to reduce
this uncertainty.

Uses and Gratifications Theory

The Uses and Gratifications Theory assumes audiences actively seek out media to satisfy
individual needs. With this assumption, the Uses and Gratifications Theory looks to answer three
questions: what do people do with the media, what are their underlying motives for using said
media, and what are the pros and cons of this individual media use.